Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
The contents of this Issue do not necessarily reflect the policies or the views of the co-sponsors or their affiliates
The integration of modern ICTs into the teaching/learning process has great potential to enhance learning. In
addition, ICTs, although expensive, may be the best investment to make acceptable levels of learning
affordable for all students anywhere.
Brain research is beginning to shed light on fundamental questions about human learning. This article
highlights recent research on the brain and its implications for education, learning and technology.
This article reviews the effectiveness of technology-based instruction in terms of instructional effectiveness,
time savings, cost reduction, individualization, and student attitudes.
As technology becomes more and more ubiquitous and affordable, e-learning carries the greatest potential to
train masses in the developing world in anything and everything; e-learning can and will revolutionize learning
in the Southern Hemisphere.
Modeling software that is sufficiently flexible and requires students to interact or construct their own models
can engage students in authentic scientific inquiry and reasoning.
The Critical Thinking Curriculum Model utilizes a multidisciplinary approach that integrates computer
technology with effective learning and teaching practices and provides students and teachers with a process
and an opportunity to address current real world issues.
Teachers need and want a large, rich, easily accessible knowledge base for teaching that includes vivid
images of alternative teaching practices represented in lesson videos.
This article summarizes a report on the West Virginia Basic Skills/Computer program. This program marks
the first time that a long-term statewide learning technology program has been assessed for effectiveness.
Earth Odyssey is a field ecology outreach program in which students explore the biological diversity of their
environment. The goal of this program is to use technology to promote critical thinking through the natural
sciences.
The Intergeneration Program and the New Technologies is a program where young students tutor the older
generation at computer and Internet skills while at the same time learning from them a chapter of their
personal history.
The Pew Foundation has been funding a coordinated effort to see if universities can increase the
effectiveness of their large introductory courses while reducing the instructional costs. Three rounds of
grants have been awarded, with ten colleges and universities receiving awards in each round. Final reports
are in from the first round. What do the results indicate?
This article summarizes the results of a study that examined how well the "best" English language
science education software measures up to the national standards for teaching of science as specified
by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
This article summarizes three research papers published in the past two years on the use of interactive
television for distance higher education. Two of the papers look at consumer satisfaction from the students'
and the faculty's perspective; the third, assesses course effectiveness.
This article is based on research carried out during the realization and implementation of two international
web-based projects for secondary schools in The Netherlands and Zimbabwe and describes the factors that
lead to success as well as pitfalls.
This article investigates the introduction of a new methodology to evaluate participants in distance education
graduate courses in engineering at the University of Campinas, Brazil.
There are a number of educational, economic and societal goals that are more likely to be accomplished with
the use of technology in the teaching and learning process. Such goals are unlikely to be achieved without
ensuring a broad range of conditions that enhance the likelihood of technology use, including the integration
of technology in the curriculum, and even into examinations.
This article discusses "RGBing," a method of integrating technology into a writing course. It is easy to do and
promotes effective thinking and writing.
68 Digital Education: The Use of Digital Cameras to Enhance the Learning Experience
Staff
Digital cameras offer teachers unlimited opportunities to engage students and to incorporate technology into
their curriculum. This article describes digital cameras, how they work, what to consider when purchasing
one, and ways to integrate their use into classroom teaching.
70 WorthWhileWebs
Joseph M. Baltrus, University at Albany, State University of New York
WorthWhileWebs focuses on Web sites that are dedicated to technologies and learning and how they affect
the attainment of learning at the various cognitive levels including problem-solving, creativity, critical thinking
synthesis, analysis, and application.
WiFi technology, also known as Wireless Fidelity, can bring Internet access to a far greater number of
people than current wireless technology, and at a fraction of the cost. This article discusses WiFi technology
in detail and its implications for education and the community.
This article describes ways by which developing countries and policy makers can reform education to equip
people to deal with the new challenges of a global knowledge-based economy.
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Brain Research,
Learning,
and Technology
By Laurence Wolff
Inter-American Development Bank
Advances in Brain Research Figure 2 shows the regions in the brain involved in language
processing and other tasks.
The human brain is perhaps the most complex entity in the
universe. The basic unit of information processing in the Implications for Education and Learning
brain is the neuron, a cell capable of accumulating and
transmitting electrical activity. There are approximately 100 Brain research is beginning to shed light on fundamental, as
billion neurons in a human brain, each of which may be well as, applied questions about human learning. While it is
connected to thousands of others. If mental states are still too early, eventually neuroscientists, educators, and
produced by patterns of neural activity, then “knowledge,” cognitive psychologists will develop a common language,
defined as whatever drives cognitive flow from one mental and a new multidisciplinary science will be born. Aware of
state to another, must be coded in the neural connections, or the importance of this process, the OECD recently
synapses. Figure 1 provides a schematic of the synapses on commissioned a series of meetings and a monograph on the
neuron. subject (OECD, Understanding the Brain). The experts
convened for these meetings predict that critical
The last decade has seen enormous strides in research on neuroscience concepts such as plasticity and periodicity will
how the brain works. Especially through magnetic resonance eventually find a place in education theory and practice.
imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and Plasticity confirms that brains continue to develop, learn and
other tools, researchers can now identify how different parts change until advanced senility or death intervenes.
of the brain are involved in different mental processes. Periodicity refers to sensitive periods or windows of
The ethical issue underlying the approaches outlined above The Dana Foundation (www.dana.org) provides an on-line
lies in the fact that they will be available only to those who monthly magazine (Brain Work) on new findings in brain
can afford them and may further exacerbate social and research written for the lay reader. The International Brain
economic inequalities. But neuroscience faces a broader Research Organization (www.ibro.org) is an association
ethical issue: it could eventually rob mankind of the sense of dedicated to communication among brain researchers around
what makes us uniquely human, including the concept of free the world. It provides a variety of programs, workshops and
will. A conference on neuro-ethics (Dana Foundation, Brain publications. The National Institute for Mental Health
Work, May-June 2002) has examined these issues. (NIMH) (www.nimh.nih.gov) provides information from the
Conference participants argued that it would eventually be Federal agency that conducts and supports research on
possible to understand how people make decisions in mental illnesses. The National Institute of Neurological
ambiguous situations. It will also eventually be possible to Disorders and Stroke (www.ninds.nih.gov) conducts research
develop a simple test that could identify lesions in the brain, on disorders of the brain and nervous system. BrainNet
which lead towards criminal inclinations. The result will be (www.brainnet.org) is an alliance of associations that also
that the range of deviant behavior based on neurotic impulses seeks to distribute information on brain disorders. A special
that could be considered as exculpatory will expand, which issue of Scientific American (The Hidden Mind, Spring
could require rethinking the criminal justice system. 2002), provides both an overview of recent research and
Nevertheless, most experts believe that the complexity of the speculation on where the research will lead, and a recent
brain is so great that the notion of free will or personal publication by the OECD (Understanding the Brain)
responsibility will surely remain. Reductionist research will summarizes the results of a conference on the brain and
have to be linked with other disciplines, transcending the learning.
natural sciences, social science, and humanities, and
Bibliography
Chalmers, David, “The Puzzle of Conscious Experience,” The Hidden Mind, Scientific American, Spring 2002.
Gazzaniga, Michael, "The Split Brain Revisited," The Hidden Mind, Scientific American, Spring 2002.
Hickock, Gregory, et. al., "Sign Language in the Brain," The Hidden Mind, Scientific American, Spring 2002.
Kimura, Doreen, “Sex Differences in the Brain," The Hidden Mind, Scientific American, Spring 2002.
OECD, Understanding the Brain, Towards a New Learning Science, OECD, 2002, Paris.
Wolff, Rebecca, "Synaptic Pruning," unpublished paper, Washington, DC., March 2002.
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e-Learning
The New Frontier in The Developing World
Introduction
At its most basic level, e-learning involves the use of some
form of electronic media to enhance the learning process.
Countries across the globe are at different stages of integrat- Sometimes confused with distance learning (a broader deliv-
ing information and communications technologies (ICTs) ery medium that would include text-based learning and
into everyday practice, including teaching and learning. courses conducted via written correspondence), courses are
While the debate over the true value-added of e-learning ver- delivered via “e-learning” when technology is used to bridge
sus face-to-face delivery of training content still rages, we all both an instructional and a geographical gap, often in concert
seem to agree that there is a tremendous opportunity for with face-to-face communication.2
technology to revolutionize learning, just as it did for busi-
ness. In this article, we will not attempt to compare e- On the content side (and for the purpose of this article), the
learning with other content delivery mechanisms. Rather, we British National Grid for Learning’s (NGfL) definition of e-
will focus our discussion on the educational potential of e- learning is sufficient: ‘a range of activities, from effective
learning, with a particular emphasis on the seemingly endless use of digital resources and learning technologies in the
opportunities associated with the use of e-learning in the de- classroom, through to a personal learning experience enabled
veloping world. We will elaborate on what we believe are through individual access at home or elsewhere. Combined
the caveats for any e-learning initiative to attain its expected with established learning experiences, it can provide indi-
objectives, and convey the possibilities for application of e- viduals with new and exciting opportunities to realize their
learning in the difficult context of the developing world. academic and creative potential at their own pace.”3 Thus, e-
learning is essentially the facilitation of teaching and learning
e-Learning - a shady concept? via the use of some electronic medium.
1
Source: The Wall Street Journal, March, 2001.
2
Another confusing term around the subject of e-learning is concerned with online or Internet-based learning -basically the
porting of a learning program on a web-based text and graphical medium with varying degrees of sophistication.
3
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/ictfutures
4
SRI International: World Links for Development: Accomplishments and Challenges – Monitoring and Evaluation Annual
Report 1999-2000 - http://world-links.org/english/html/sri.html
Building Homes of Our Own was designed from the ground For more information: http://www.homesofourown.org/
up to create an educational experience for the middle school
classroom that would also deliver the level of quality kids are
accustomed to in a game environment. Using ICTs for Networking Youth
Organizations
It provides a simulation of the entire home building
experience – from choosing a lot to selling the home to a
qualified buyer. As students work within a fixed budget to
design and build a home, they solve real-life problems, make An Internet portal for youth organizations, projects and
important decisions, and use time and money management volunteers providing youth related information, facilitating
skills—all in a fun, environment that reinforces math, exchange of volunteers in Eastern Europe and strengthening
science, social studies and language arts lessons. Just as in networking is now being developed by Eastlinks, a regional
real life, student “builders” can fail. They can “go bust” network of voluntary service organizations in Central and
before the house is complete if they don’t plan expenses Eastern Europe based in Warsaw, Poland, with UNESCO's
properly, or they can end up building a house no one wants support.
to buy if they don’t do proper research.
The portal that is supported by UNESCO within its
Building Homes of Our Own is free to educators through the INFOYOUTH program is expected to be online in May
web site www.HomesOfOurOwn.org. 2003.
Chicago-headquartered interactive developer Media Options Eastlinks, created in 1997, is a network of independent
created this unique program for the National Association of NGOs which are active in the field of youth voluntary
Home Builders (NAHB) in response to growing educator service. Youth voluntary service includes promotion of the
interest in technology-based teaching tools and increasing civil society, emergency and humanitarian aid, social aid,
curricular emphasis on reality-based learning experiences. rehabilitation, disaster preparedness and conflict prevention.
"The challenge within education today is that many states A new report from UNICEF provides the first "big picture"
and local school districts create their own curriculum and comparison of the performance of schools in the world's rich
teaching certification standards," explained Jim Bowler, vice industrialized nations. UNICEF's Innocenti Research Centre
president of marketing for Classroom Connect. "Our goal is has produced a new international league table by combining
to provide an easy-to-use portal environment where data from five separate tests covering reading literacy, math
educators can access the right information - either specific to and science. The tests were drawn from the Programme for
their district or more general - that would help them do their International Student Assessment (PISA) and Third in
jobs better and stay as current as possible with new teaching International Maths and Science Study (TIMSS).
techniques and certification requirements. ATG Portal allows
us to make that goal a reality." At the heart of the study is the issue of inequality in learning.
The report proposes an original view of educational
The state of Arizona launched its Arizona School Services performance - it presents an alternative league table that
through Educational Technology (ASSET) Education Portal ranks countries by the size of the gap that exists between low
in April and the company is currently in discussion with achievers and average students.
other states and large school districts nationwide to
implement similar offerings. In all cases, district officials are The report concludes that nowhere is there room for
searching for ways to make professional development easier complacency. Even in the best performing country, Finland,
for its teachers to participate in anytime, anywhere learning, low achieving 8th graders are approximately 3.5 years behind
while maintaining, or even lowering, costs. the average Finish 8th graders in math. Non-native children
are found to be particularly disadvantaged with poor
"Online learning is fast becoming the preferred method for performance in some countries more than three times higher
all types of professional development - and portals are the among children of immigrant families than among other
preferred way to access these programs," said Matt Price, children. As well, the data show no simple relationship
vice president, Portals at ATG. "Classroom Connect is a between national expenditures per pupil and success, nor is
perfect example of how ATG Portal can be deployed to there an obvious relationship between the average number of
create a robust, scalable and personalized online learning pupils per teacher and the national test results. A strong
environment." relationship does exist, however, between educational
achievement and the occupation, education and economic
ATG® (Art Technology Group, Inc.) is a leading developer status of the children's parents.
of online CRM applications that deliver an integrated,
personalized experience for customers, partners and The report argues that it is unacceptable that the social and
employees: the frontline of every business. Customers economic status into which a child happens to be born should
around the globe rely on ATG for the frontline applications influence his/her chances of success in school. Although it
that help build and manage mutually beneficial relationships. concludes that schools are proving more effective at
Deployed on the industry's most popular application servers, combating existing social inequality in some countries than
ATG's application suites for e-commerce, portals, and in others, the report also highlights the fact that educational
relationship management are ideal for integrated e-business disadvantage becomes established very early in life.
initiatives across the enterprise.
UNICEF therefore proposes that attempts to mitigate
Today, ATG has delivered e-business solutions to blue-chip educational disadvantage need to begin through good quality
companies worldwide including Aetna Services, Inc., early childhood care and education.
Alcatel, American Airlines, Barclays Global Investors, Best
Buy, BMG Direct, Eastman Kodak, Ford Motor Credit, Source and for more information: http://www.unicef-
HSBC, J.Crew, Sun Microsystems, Walgreen Company, and icdc.org/
WellsFargo. The company is headquartered in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, with additional locations throughout North
Boris Berenfeld, Dan Damelin, Amy Pallant, Barbara Tinker, Robert Tinker, and Qian Xie
The Molecular Workbench Team, Concord Consortium
http://workbench.concord.org
boris@concord.org
Model building is a fundamental part of science. Many scientists labor long hours adding small but important details to a
model. The excitement of science reaches a peak when new data confirms a proposed model, or forces the modification of
fundamental parts of a model. The image of Watson and Crick assembling the skeleton on the outside and pair bases inside the
DNA helix comes to mind, with their subsequent delight as parts of the model finally fit together.
Highly maneuverable computer-based models give students the opportunity to participate in exciting discoveries of their own.
The kinds of models used in research, however, rarely are found in education. In this article, we will consider the adaptation of
research-grade models for the classroom, and the importance of the accompanying instruction that allows students access to
and experimentation with models. Finally, we will present some research findings obtained in schools in which the use of our
dynamic molecular models was tested.
Why do scientists need models? Why does science education need com com-
The goal of one category of computational modeling in re- puter models?
search is to build a comprehensive model of a process or In our classrooms today, students rarely build and use even
phenomenon that mirrors reality so precisely that it has both physical models. When they do use models at all, they serve
explanatory and predictive value. Models of weather, plate largely to illustrate rather than expand upon the content on
tectonics, and the growth of a coral reef or cell are in this which students are working. They rarely work as a vehicle
category. for prediction and discovery. This is a waste.
In other cases, scientists build models that purposely strip out Models make for good education. Models can sup-
details so that the remaining, simplified components more plement hands-on experiments, and can do so economically.
clearly reveal the fundamental mechanism. Sometimes sim- In addition, their abstract nature furthers student learning of
plification is essential just to produce a model that can be new orders of analysis. Providing students with access to
computed. good models will assure that students have opportunities to
abstract essential principles, to explore relationships among
Models range from scale models, such as a model car, or a parts, and to experiment by manipulating variables.
ball and stick model of a molecule, to the purely mathemati-
cal. Most models are incomplete, growing as the scope of Today an emphasis on model-based reasoning fits in with the
experimental data expands, as in the case of modern models current view of science education. It appears that modeling
of carcinogenesis. Most theory can be represented by a software that is sufficiently flexible and requires students to
model, which has the power both to explain phenomena and interact or construct their own models can engage students in
to predict the impact of variations in values and relation- authentic scientific inquiry and reasoning. (Tinker, 2001,1
ships. Gobert and Clement 1994,2 1999,3 Sabelli, 1994,4 Linn &
Muilenberg, 19965). Interactive models can address core
Today Crick and Watson might well have created their ideas in a visually engaging way that makes them more ac-
model on a computer instead of constructing their beautiful cessible to students with vastly different learning styles.
DNA model from machined parts. Computer models have Research is showing that, as students are able not only to run
greatly improved the ease of trying new molecular configu- the models but also change key variables, they are more
rations, or exploring various forces applied to the structures. likely to remember and transfer their learning to new situa-
Investigators can easily ask "what if" questions such as: tions.
What if we change pressure? Increase the temperature?
Change elasticity? Change the angle of attachment, polarity, Computer power increases. During the last decade,
or distance between chemical groups? What if we try this the power of machines for student computing has increased
compound instead of that? almost a hundred-fold. Sometimes the question is asked:
Why do schools need power machines? While there is no
need for extremely powerful and fast machines to browse the
B. Pedagogica Our model can also be programmed for Case Example: States of Matter
use in middle and high school classrooms with the assistance Students completed a molecular dynamic activity in which
of a script, Pedagogica. Pedagogica is a scripted control they observed various macroscopic phenomena typical of the
environment developed to overlay models (Horwitz & three phases of matter, and then compared these properties to
Christie, 19996). A Pedagogica script can define a user inter- the microscopic properties depicted in the molecular model.
(See Fig. 3) By directly correlating observable macro scale
1
Tinker, R (2001) Molecular Dynamic Hypermodels; Supporting Student Inquiry across the Sciences. Gordon Conference; Science Educa-
tion and Visualization; International Mt. Holyoke College, So. Hadley, MA [Accepted for publication in the International Journal for Science
Teaching.]
2
Gobert, J. and Clement, J. (1994) Promoting causal model construction in science through student-generated diagrams. Presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Research Association, April 4-8 (New Orleans, LA).
3
Gobert, J. and Clement, J. (1999) The effects of student-generated diagrams on conceptual understanding of causal and dynamic knowledge
in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(1), 39-53.
4
Sabelli, N. (1994). On using technology for understanding science. Interactive Learning Environments, 4(3), 195-198.
5
Linn, M. C., & Muilenburg, L. (1996). Creating lifelong science learners: What models form a firm foundation? Educational Researcher,
25(5), 18-24.
6
Horwitz, P. and Christie, M. (1999). Hypermodels: Embedding Curriculum and Assessment in Computer-Based Manipula-
tives, Journal of Education, 181(2), pp. 123.
Introduction Selected topics deal with issues that are global in nature and
are naturally controversial. It would be easy to deliver con-
The Critical Thinking Curriculum Model (CTCM) uses a tent from a singular perspective, but as the intent of the
multidisciplinary approach that integrates computer technol- model is to foster critical thinking, it is best to refrain from
ogy with effective learning and teaching practices. The such traditional content delivery methods. The intent is for
CTCM approach provides students and teachers with a proc- students to investigate the issues through research, both
ess and an opportunity to address current real-world issues. through traditional resource materials and through the Inter-
The model is designed to be flexible, an example for teachers net. The teacher wants students to ask probing questions, to
to follow as they develop integrated curriculum focusing on differentiate between differing perspectives while consider-
their own critical issues. ing the impact that political, economic, and social decisions
have on the world, not just a nation. By doing so, students
A CTCM based curriculum involves teams of teachers and gain a better understanding of the position that our national
students in a constructive approach to critical thought and leaders take within the world community.
on-line research. CTCM curriculum features open-ended and
collaborative activities to arrive at solutions for current real- The Critical Thinking Curriculum Model allows for a deeper
world concerns delivered through a collaborative, distance search into a topic, whether it is terrorism, the future of
learning process. The program design features a student con- "things nuclear," volcanoes in the universe, or macro-
ference as the culminating activity of the program. invertebrate analysis in local streams and rivers. The teacher
guides students in developing questions for further investi-
As implemented in the Critical Issues Forum (CIF), an edu- gation, recommending resource sites, and probing student
cational program administered by Los Alamos National understanding of a given topic. (Wasley, 1991) The teacher
Laboratory (LANL), the CTCM embraces the political, so- becomes a colleague, as students give direction to the re-
cial/cultural, economic, and scientific realms in the context search. (Duffy et al. 1986) Collaboration, whether it be in
of a current global issue. Through the use of a CTCM-based person or through telecommunications, is vital to motivating
curriculum, students realize the importance of their schooling students and providing relevance to their classroom activi-
by applying their efforts to an endeavor that ultimately will ties.
affect their future.
CTCM based curriculum is designed to provide a collabora-
The CTCM - A Model for Curriculum tive research experience where teams of students gather di-
verse information about a current real world issue and begin
The Critical Thinking Curriculum Model consists of four
equal and important organizational components that form the to make sense of it. To ensure that research teams have a
backbone of the model. (See Figure 1 – CTCM Design) The conceptually correct understanding of the content, the cur-
four parts of the model are the educational components, the riculum is designed to include a series of thought provoking
technology components, the assessment components and the task assignments that foster a multidisciplinary study of the
community components. The model can be utilized with a topic (Brophy, 1988). The tasks are designed from a Con-
great number of topics, but hinges on the preparation and structivist approach, building knowledge from previous and
willingness of the instructor to modify the traditional role of discovered information. Students are expected to find defini-
content delivery. tions, names for acronyms, and meanings of statements or
actions. They are expected to organize, evaluate, synthesize,
and develop understanding of the material they are discov-
References
Apple, M.W. (1993). Official Knowledge, New York: Routledge.
Bossert, S. (1989). Cooperative Activities in the Classroom, Review of Research in Education, Vol. 15, pp. 225-250.
Brophy, J. (1988). Research on Teacher Effects: Uses and Abuses, Elementary School Journal, Volume 88, Number 1, pp. 3-22.
Bruner, J. (1962). The Process of Education, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Dewey, J. (1970). The Child and the Curriculum, Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Duffy, G., Roehler, L., Meloth, M. and Vavrus, L. (1986). Conceptualizing Instructional Explanation, Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol-
ume 2, Number 1, pp. 1-18.
Harasim, L. (1993). Global Networks: Computer and International Communication. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Herman, J. Osmundson, E., and Pascal, J. (October,1996). Los Alamos National Laboratory Critical Issues Forum Final Evaluation Report,
Center for the Study of Evaluation, UCLA Graduate School of Education.
Hoehn, R. G. (1990). Encouraging Your Students to Think, Science Activities, Volume 27, Number 2, pp. 8-11.
Hoffman, J. ed. By J. Zutell and S. McCormick (1990). The Myth of Teaching, Literacy Theory and Research: Analysis from Multiple Para-
digms, National Reading Conference, pp. 1-12.
Levin, J. A. (1986). Flexibility in Joint Problem Solving, Interactive Technology Laboratory Final Report, University of California San Di-
ego.
Livingston, J. B. (1992). The Science Activity Evaluation Form, Science Activities, Volume 29, Number 3, pp. 14-16.
Rutherford, J. and A. Ahlgren (1990). Science For All Americans, New York: Oxford University Press.
Shepard, L. A. (April,1989). Why We Need Better Assessments, Educational Leadership, pp. 4-9.
Wasley, P. A. (May,1991). From Quarterback to Coach, From Actor to Director, Educational Leadership, pp. 35-40.
Wiggins, G. (1989, April). Teaching to the (Authentic) Test, Educational Leadership, pp. 41-47.
Images of Alternative Practices U.S. follow a fairly standard script no matter what part of the
country they were recorded. For the first time these teachers
Practitioners face rising expectations. Not only must they realized how much they take for granted about how to teach,
teach to new standards, they must learn to teach in ways and that the American style of teaching is a choice, not an
most have never seen or imagined. In response, teachers are inevitability.
now asking for and getting new kinds of professional devel-
opment opportunities. Those with the most appeal are long- The reaction of teachers to the TIMSS videos is a reminder
term, involve active learning, and are coherently related to of reactions to the commercial introduction of video tape
ongoing school activities (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, recorders. Thirty-five years ago, there was a surge of opti-
& Yoon, 2001). mism that the then new video tape technology would move
teaching from a profession that described its practices in
However, even new forms of professional development fall words to one that demonstrated them with vivid images
short when teachers have no access to images of alternative (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). Today, video technology does
practice. For example, many are now required to teach play a role in some teacher preparation and development, but
mathematical problem-solving, scientific inquiry, critical the potential of this technology has never been fully realized.
thinking, and other high-level student competencies thought Many teachers tell us that having a lesson videotaped and
essential to the nation’s future. Unfortunately, because such reviewed with a coach or colleague was among the most
teaching has not been common in the United States, there are memorable professional development experiences they ever
few opportunities to see it in action. To learn the new and had. Sadly, most say it was a single opportunity, or occurred
complex teaching practices many are now expected to use, long ago when they were in college. Even more surprising is
teachers need and want to see lessons being taught, with stu- the number of teachers who tell us how seldom they get to
dents like those they teach, in classrooms like their own. observe lessons of any kind as part of their professional
Reading about or hearing someone describe teaching for work, and that this has been true since the beginning of their
“problem-solving” or “scientific inquiry” is a poor substitute careers.
for seeing it reasonably well implemented.
Not surprisingly, we are frequently asked for access to the
Seeing is Realizing lesson videos that were collected by the TIMSS studies. The
term most often used is “demonstration lessons.” Teachers
want to see examples of how teachers in other cultures teach
Teacher response to seeing alternative approaches was strik-
mathematics and science. They want to see more than just
ing when we began reporting the results of an international
“stars” whose virtuosity is as unquestioned as it is uncom-
study of teaching in different countries. The TIMSS (Third
mon. They want to see multiple examples of ways to teach
International Mathematics and Science Study) Video Study
concepts and skills, demonstrations of the lessons they are
compared teaching in 3 countries (see TechKnowLogia, No-
increasingly being asked to teach, linked to the curricula for
vember/December 2000) and the TIMSS-R (Third Interna-
which they are responsible.
tional Mathematics and Science Study-Repeat)Video Study,
conducted by LessonLab, included 7 countries (Stigler &
Hiebert, 1999; Stigler, et al., 2000). Teachers who saw ex- Digital Library
amples of teaching in other countries were astonished that
familiar subject matter was taught in very different ways. Teachers need and want a large, rich, easily accessible
They realized, just as the TIMSS results indicated, that there knowledge base for teaching that includes vivid images of
is not nearly as much variation among American teachers as alternatives represented in lesson videos. This is the purpose
was commonly believed. In fact, mathematics lessons in the of a new effort in which we at LessonLab are involved, the
building of digital libraries in which to accumulate and share
New Grounds
References
Garet, M.S., Porter, A.C., Desimone, L., Birman, B.F., & Yoon, K.S. (2001). What makes professional development effective?
Results from a National Sample of Teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 4, 915-945.
Hiebert, J., Gallimore, R., and Stigler, J.W. (2002). A Knowledge Base for the Teaching Profession: What Would It Look Like,
and How Can We Get One? Educational Researcher, 31, 5, 3-15.
Stigler, J. W., Gallimore, R. and Hiebert, J. (2000). Using video surveys to compare classrooms and teaching across cultures:
Examples and lessons from the TIMSS video studies. Educational Psychologist, 35, 2, 87-100.
Stigler, J. W., Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the class-
room. New York: Free Press.
Tharp, R. G. & Gallimore, R. (1989). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, & schooling in social context. Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press.
Yinger, R. (1999). The role of standards in teaching and teacher education. In G. Griffin (Ed.), The education of teachers:
Ninety-eighth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (pp. 85-113). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Over the past 100 years, medicine has changed greatly – not because
smarter people became doctors, but because medicine found a way to accu
accu-
mulate and share knowledge and to update and improve it over time. If we
begin now and take advantage of the new technologies, perhaps in a genera
genera-
tion the same can be true of teaching.
Soledad MacKinnon
Inter-American Development Bank
Putting hardware in a room without training teachers or oth- dor provide assistance to schools in developing plans for
erwise supporting the integration of technology into the implementation of systems and services.
classroom is not enough for the advancement of learning and
teaching. It is the collective effect of the several variables County and school plans take into consideration the technol-
that compose the model that make a difference. West Vir- ogy already in place at the schools and the curriculum needs
ginia’s Basic Skills/Computer Education (BS/CE) program of the schools. Existing technology is integrated where it is
marks the first time that a long-term statewide learning tech- compatible and cost-effective to do so. Legacy technology
nology program has been assessed for its effectiveness. The coexists with new technology as long as it reasonably can do
program aimed at using the computer as a tool for improving so. Counties and schools are responsible for determining the
basic skills and for providing comprehensive teacher training hardware, software, and services to be procured from the
in using computers in the classroom. The effective use of contract for each school based upon a plan approved by the
learning technology has led directly to significant gains in WVDE.
math, reading, and language arts skills in West Virginia.
However, educators and policymakers need to interpret re- The program consists of three basic components.
sults cautiously.
(1) Software that focuses on the State’s basic
This article is based on the report The West Virginia Story: skills goals in reading, language arts, and
Achievement Gains From a Statewide Comprehensive In- mathematics. The project provides computers for
structional Technology Program commissioned by the both classroom and lab use with instructional software
Milken Exchange on Education Technology to Professor D. aligned to instructional goals and objectives. The tech-
Mann from Teachers College at Columbia University, Pro- nology is delivered as a turnkey solution that is stan-
fessor C. Shakeshaft from Hofstra University, and a team of dardized across the state.
education researchers.
(2) Enough computers in the schools so that all
students will be able to have easy and regular
Description of the Program access to the basic skills software. Funds for the
BS/CE program are currently allocated to counties on a
The Basic Skills/Computer Education (BS/CE) program was net enrollment basis. Since 1990, West Virginia's BS/CE
authorized in 1989-90 and, beginning with the kindergarten has placed more than 29,000 computers in K-6 class-
class of 1990-91. Schools installed hardware and software, rooms. Each year and beginning with kindergarten, at a
and teacher training began. cost of about $ 7 million per year, the State of West Vir-
ginia provided every elementary school with enough
A solid planning effort was vital to the success of this pro- equipment so that each classroom serving the grade co-
gram. The creation and approval of county and school tech- hort of children targeted that year might have three or
nology plans, based on input from School Technology four computers, a printer and a school-wide, networked
Teams, is the first requirement for a county’s eligibility to file server. Schools could choose to deploy the comput-
spend project funds. The West Virginia Department of Edu- ers in labs and centers or distribute them directly to
cation (WVDE) Office of Technology and the contract ven- classrooms. As the 1990-91 kindergarten class went up
References
Mann, D., Shakeshaft, C., Becker, J., & Kottkamp, R. (2002). West Virginia story: Achievement gains from a statewide com-
prehensive instructional technology program. http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME155.pdf
Mann, D. & Shakeshaft, C. (2002). In God we trust: All others bring data.
http://www.interactiveinc.org/Publications/InGodWeTrust052302.pdf
“Look at him! He’s carrying a nut in his mouth!” One of the and similarities in birds to get an idea of the number of spe-
students is gesturing wildly above his head. I look over just cies, rather than identifying the bird by name. If children
in time to catch an acorn woodpecker flashing by, an acorn cannot identify a bird, he or she is encouraged to describe the
tucked securely in its beak. Another 10 year old boy raises bird’s size, shape, color and behavior on the data sheet.
his binoculars one second too late to see the boldly patterned
bird. “Don’t worry,” I tell him. “I know which tree he’s go- After observing birds,
ing to. I’ll show you in a minute.” This exchange takes place students collect inver-
while hiking in Griffith Park in Los Angeles, an oasis of tebrates in the school-
green in the middle of concrete sprawl. Fourth grade stu- yard. Even on play-
dents from McKinley Avenue Elementary School are partici- grounds that seem to
pating in Earth Odyssey, bird watching and seeing all urban consist solely of con-
wildlife in a whole new way. crete, there are bushes
or a garden in which
Earth Odyssey is a field ecology outreach program, devel- we can search for tiny
oped by the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County creatures. Students
and supported by the American Honda Corporation, in which working in cooperative
students explore the biological diversity of their environ- groups place spiders,
ment. By documenting the bird, invertebrate and plant ladybugs, aphids, and
populations in two different habitats, students begin to un- the occasional honeybee into plastic collecting vials and rec-
derstand the importance of scientific research in protecting ord the invertebrate’s exact location. A visitor to the school-
and preserving natural spaces. Earth Odyssey maintains a yard would see groups of children swinging nets through
web site, www.earth-odyssey.org, at which teachers and stu- grassy areas, shaking bushes to dislodge spiders, and scoop-
dents not only enter their own information, but also analyze ing up fistfuls of earth to find pillbugs and earwigs. They
information collected by other students from other schools in reluctantly return to the classroom to complete scientific il-
Los Angeles. Students realize that they are part of a citywide lustrations of the invertebrates. Having students collect the
program and that the sharing of information is an integral insects and spiders is the easy part; getting them to think
part of science. deeply about the role of invertebrates in natural systems is
more challenging. This is accomplished through drawing
and observing live invertebrates and consulting the Internet
In the Schoolyard and in the Field and field guides to learn more about them. Every schoolyard
In the first step of this month long program, a museum in- is different: some have well-watered gardens, while others
structor visits a classroom to teach students how to collect are home only to those invertebrates which can survive in the
and record information on living things. The instructor also driest of conditions. After the visit, the invertebrates are re-
gives the students the password and school code they will leased back into the area where they were collected.
need to access the Earth Odyssey web site (any visitor can
register as a guest to view the data, but to add or change data A week or two after the students have conducted their
requires a password.) The rest of the visit is spent in the schoolyard investigations, they join museum instructors on a
schoolyard, pointing at a western gull circling overhead or field trip to Griffith Park, the largest park in the city of Los
house sparrows pecking under the lunch tables. Each student Angeles and home to many native animal and plant species.
receives a field notebook containing data sheets on which The goals of this field trip are to collect a set of biodiversity
they write their own observations of bird species and their data from a second location, but also to expose students to
behavior. In schoolyards in Los Angeles, we have observed the nature found in open spaces. Museum instructors lead
as many as twelve different kinds of birds, illustrating that both directed activities, such as observing and identifying
many bird species have been able to adapt to the rigors of birds and invertebrates, but also open-ended activities such
urban existence. Because identifying birds by children is an as an interpretive nature hike. They capitalize on those
inexact science, (“eagles” are often reported flying over the "teachable moments" in which they see a western fence liz-
school) we concentrate our efforts on noticing differences ard darting into a burrow or some seed-filled “scat” on the
From the Ice Age to The technological revolution, so it seems, has passed over
the older members in our society, and mainly the Third
High-Tech Agers.
I belong to the “Ice Age” gen- Whereas the older members seem to be living in a “waste
eration. When I was a child, land” as far as technology is concerned, the young ones seem
there was no refrigerator in our to be born holding the “mouse cord” in their hand. They
home. We had an icebox. We speak “high-tech” as their mother tongue and their natural
used to carry ice blocks in a environment is a technological one.
Utah cloth, up to the third floor where we lived. My genera-
tion did not grow up with such developed technologies as
today’s youngsters. A telephone was a rare thing and a tele- The Intergeneration Program
phone conversation- a happening.
and the New Technolo
Technologies
Even when I grew up, a telephone line was hard to get. One
In this situation, the meeting between the two polaric groups
had to wait for years to get one. When we were Bar Mitzvah
- the young ones, the speakers of “High- Tech” and the much
or Bat Mitzvah, we usually got a watch. My four-year-old
older ones for whom the world of computer and the Internet
grandchild has a few watches. Only those who were rich, in
is an unknown land and the language of this land is foreign
those days, could afford a transistor radio. I got one the other
and difficult - is most appropriate. In this meeting, between
day buying a 4-liter Coca-Cola bottle.
the young and the old, it is the young ones who teach the
language of the new country - the land of technology - to the
I watched television for the first time when I arrived in the
old ones.
USA; I was twenty-five, then. Until now, I do not know how
to program a VCR and I became acquainted with a PC only
For the last 5 years, I have been implementing a program I
ten years ago.
initiated and started called The Intergeneration Program and
the New Technologies. In this program, young students,
The tremendous technological changes that flooded our lives
grades 5-9, tutor seniors at computer and Internet skills and
in the last fifty or sixty years are very quick and significant.
learn from their older students a chapter in the latter’s per-
When a new technology and especially one that has to do
sonal history. Together they write a digital version of the
with communications is created and becomes wide spread, it
story; they scan
brings about changes in tools, in ways of thinking, in social
pictures, albums,
processes and in social structures. The “invasion” of comput-
ers into our lives opens new possibilities and gives room for
documents; they An African proverb
social mobility.
search for informa-
tion on the net as says that when an
Computer usage and mastery is mainly in the hands of the
well as in other old person dies an
sources and soon
young generation, whose status in society has undergone
much change with the introduction of the new technologies.
will upload these entire library is set
stories to a desig-
nated site, on the on fire.
Internet.
Gregg B. Jackson
Associate Professor of Education Policy
The George Washington University
Many have argued that technology can be a tool for raising “readiness” for success. Institutional readiness was deter-
educational achievement. Several have argued that technol- mined by the following eight criteria:
ogy can cut educational costs. Only a few visionaries have
seriously suggested that it can do both. 1. Institution must really want to increase achievement and
reduce cost;
The Pew Foundation has been funding a coordinated effort to
see if universities can increase the effectiveness of their large 2. It should be committed to using technology strategically,
introductory courses and reduce the instructional costs. rather than just making it available to all faculty;
Three rounds of grants have been awarded, with ten colleges
and universities receiving awards in each round. Final re- 3. It must have made computing part of the campus culture;
ports are now in from the first round. What do the results
indicate?1 4. It needs a mature information technology infrastructure;
Why Aim for Both? 5. It should have a substantial number of faculty who al-
ready have some experience integrating computer-based
instruction into existing courses;
The Pew Foundation became convinced that increasing
achievement while simultaneously lowering costs was criti- 6. It should be committed to learner-centered education;
cal to sustained change. Most public colleges and universi-
ties in the United State have been under pressure to expand 7. It must be preparing students to use technology in edu-
enrollments, improve the quality of education at the under- cation; and
graduate level, and to do so with level and sometimes de-
clining budgets. Similar pressures exist in many European 8. It must be prepared to forge partnerships among the fac-
countries and in developing countries. In addition, the Foun- ulty, IT staff, and administrators for the planning and
dation observed that many innovations in higher education execution of the course redesign.
that require higher operating costs than traditional instruction
are not retained for long. The Foundation decided to target its support for large intro-
ductory classes such as English, Mathematics, Psychology,
What Was Pew’s Strategy? Sociology, Biology, Chemistry, and Statistics. Those
courses generally have the largest enrollments; they tend to
The Pew Foundation began the effort by synthesizing what have a standardized curriculum; the learning outcomes tend
was already known about improving instruction and about to be more easily delineated; they provide a foundation for
education technology utilization. students’ subsequent study; and there is often dissatisfaction
among the faculty with how well students do in these
The Foundation decided to select applicant universities that courses. Other course readiness criteria included the fol-
not only had promising ideas for improving instructional lowing:
productivity, but also had institutional and target course
1
This article is based on several sources posted on the “Pew Grant Program in Course Redesign” web site at
http://www.center.rpi.edu/PewGrant.html, including a substantial paper by Carol A. Twigg titled “Improving learning & re-
ducing costs: Redesigning large-enrollment courses.” Further details on the first ten completed demonstrations and the twenty
still under way are available at the site.
2
Russell, T. L. (1999). The no significant difference phenomena. Montgomery, AL: IDECC.
Low ratings were earned by the four other pedagogical crite- The results of this study strongly suggest that prior means of
ria: “attending to prerequisite knowledge and skills,” “pro- identifying good science education software have been in-
moting student thinking about phenomena,” “assessing prog- adequate. Five of the CD-ROMs analyzed in this study were
ress,” and “enhancing the learning environment.” Scores for drawn from a small number that have been highly recom-
all ten software packages indicate that none strove to help mended, and the other five were drawn from among best
teachers or students identify prerequisite knowledge and sellers. Despite that, all had serious shortcomings in content
skills needed by students to learn the content being ad- coverage and pedagogy.
dressed. Likewise, there was little scope for students to re-
fine their understanding and interpretation—to do some Education planners and administrators could make big mis-
thinking and wondering about the science content with which takes in purchasing software if they rely on traditional re-
they just dealt. There was also very little assessment (or views and market popularity. They would be much better
none, in some CD-ROMs) to test and gauge whether the stu- served having some organization scrutinizing the software
dents achieved the benchmark ideas. There was a severe lack using procedures similar to those used in this study (Shri-
of appropriate and adequate problems and exercises, either at vastava, 2002). If their curriculum guides align well with the
the end of the lesson or embedded within the lesson. AAAS Benchmarks, the procedures could be used without
modification. If their curriculum guides do not align well
Usability with the Benchmarks, then the procedures should be modi-
fied to address the priority content of the guides. A univer-
sity group, an NGO, or a private contractor might conduct
The CD-ROMs were relatively problem-free in installation the reviews. Once prepared, the reviews could be shared
and running. The CD-ROMs rated “satisfactory” to “high” widely with parents, libraries, and others who make inde-
on interface and on creativity, reflecting the technological pendent decisions about software purchases.
advances that have made software much more user-friendly
and imaginative in the use of color and animation. They fol- Policy makers may also wish to consider spurring software
lowed a logical and sequential format. Most of the CD- developers to produce better science education software.
ROMs, however, did not allow students to save their work or That could be done in several ways. If a country or state
to modify parameters for individual needs. were to publicize that future purchases of software would be
based on a rigorous review of the content and pedagogy, and
if they provided the developers with the evaluation criteria,
IMPLICATIONS the software is likely to improve. National organizations
might bring together software developers, science educators,
Use of computers in schools and homes has become com-
scientists, and policy makers for an exchange of ideas and to
monplace in many industrialized countries and several de-
forge common understandings, much as has been done some
veloping countries have made large investments in comput-
in the past with textbook publishers (AAAS, 2002).
ers for public schools. Many educational professionals have
believed that multimedia software would play a large part in
educational reform (Galbreath, 1992; Jost & Schneberger,
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1999). Professional Development in Panama. 2061Today. 9(1). p.6.
[Electronic Version] Retrieved November 2002 from from http://www.project2061.org/newsletter/archive.htm.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2002). Policymakers join curriculum designers and publishers at May
15-17 conference hosted by AAAS’s Project 2061. Retrieved July 2002 from
http://www.project2061.org/newsinfo/press/rl020508.htm.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (n.d.). About Project 2061. Retrieved November 2002 from
http://www.project2061.org/about/default.htm.
Childress, M., Lee, G., Sherman, G. (1999). Reviewing software as a means of enhancing instruction. Information Technology
in Childhood Education. pp. 255-61.
Fennimore, T. (1997, August). Study shows that educational software doesn’t make the grade. Eurekalert News. Retrieved
from http://www.eurekalert.org/releases/ software-grade.html
Galbreath, J. (1992). The educational buzzword of the 1990’s: Multimedia, or is it hypermedia or interactive multimedia, or…?
Educational Technology. 32(4), pp. 15-19.
Jost K.L. & Schneberger, S.L. ( 1994). Educational technology adoption and Implementation. Learning from information sys-
tems research. Canadian Journal of Educational Communication. 23 (3), 213-230.
Harris, J. (Ed.). (1998). SSRP: Software for problem solving and inquiry in grades K-4 (Ohio SchoolNet. ENC Focus. Report
No. ENC/SSRP-97-001). Columbus, OH: Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Educa-
tion. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED413182)
Nelson, G. (1998). Science literacy for all: An achievable goal? Optics and Photonic News, 9(9), 42.
Shrivastava, A. (2002). Evaluation of science instructional software.[Doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University,
(2002). To be available through Dissertation Abstracts International in spring 2003.]
1
Abha Shrivastava recently completed her doctoral studies in Education Policy at The George Washington University. She
can be reached at abha@gwu.edu
Distance education has used two-way interactive television (ITV) for at least two decades and research in this area is growing.
ITV associates the analog technology of traditional television with the power of network connectivity. Analog signals are con-
verted to digital and stored in highly compressed format before being sent to an ITV-enabled setting that includes the TV
monitor, interactive keypad, and the set-top box with required software. Signals are sent to the user via satellite, broadband,
wireless systems or even regular telephone lines.1 This article summarizes three research papers published in the past two
years on the use of ITV for distance higher education. Two of the papers look at consumer satisfaction from the student’s and
the faculty’s perspectives; the third paper assesses course effectiveness.
The effect of interactive television courses on student Faculty perceptions of interactive television instruc-
satisfaction (Jan/Feb 2002) by Lorraine P. Ander- tion (Nov/Dec 2001) by Robert Seay, Holly R.
son, Steven R. Banks and Paul A. Leary. Journal of Rudolph, and Don H. Chamberlain. Journal of
Education for Business, 77 (3): 164-168. Education for Business, 77 (2): 99-105.
Focus: To assess differences in course satisfaction between Focus: To examine instructors’ attitudes regarding ITV as a
students attending traditional on-campus classes and those means of delivering instruction, including their teaching ex-
being instructed through distance learning using ITV. perience and their perceptions about students and faculty
performance.
Methods: Review of student satisfaction surveys regarding
business courses provided by a North-American university
Methods: Survey of faculty members in a rural U.S. uni-
between autumn 1997 and summer 1999. The review in- versity who had taught at least one distance education course
cluded surveys from 3,282 students. Of these, 2,812 had via ITV from autumn 1990 through summer 1997. The sur-
received traditional (face-to-face) instruction, 315 attended vey was sent to 65 instructors for a response rate of 85%.
ITV-mediated classes at a host site (on-campus) and 155 Approximately half of the participants had a doctoral or
attended ITV classes at a remote site (off-campus). The comparable degree. The “typical” instructor had on average
authors report that the groups did not differ demographically. 17 years of experience as full time instructor and had taught
Student satisfaction was analyzed using the Purdue Rating via ITV for three semesters. The survey included 22 ques-
Scale, an instrument with established validity and reliability. tions regarding perceptions of faculty preparation and per-
formance as ITV instructors, student preparation and per-
formance, classroom participation and interaction, and deliv-
Findings: Statistical analyses showed that the off-campus ery/instruction issues.
students had satisfaction levels significantly lower than the
other two groups, with students in traditional classrooms
showing the highest levels of satisfaction with their courses.
Findings: Of the 55 instructors who responded to the sur-
Differences were significant with 99% certainty level. De- vey
spite the fact that the same instructors taught the traditional
and the ITV classes, low satisfaction ratings from ITV off- • 78% preferred to teach a traditional course rather than an
campus students were given to both the delivery system and ITV-mediated class and 47% strongly opposed teaching
the quality of instructor. via ITV when a traditional course was an option
• 2/3 believed that students prefer a traditional course (this ♦ lack of interaction
response was significantly higher among business in-
structors and those with only one semester of ITV expe- Conclusions:
rience)
The three studies above were randomly selected in a search
• 58% believed that ITV significantly restricts student of journals regarding technology and education. As it hap-
classroom participation but a similar proportion indi- pens with most educational research, the studies have limita-
cated that they were changing their teaching style to in- tions related to sample size, lack of randomization, and the
corporate more group work and presentation to increase inherent difficulty of matching groups that are different from
ITV students' engagement (business instructors were less the onset. Not surprisingly, the articles reflect what is fre-
likely to use these strategies) quently found in the literature, and that is lower levels of
consumer satisfaction when distance education is compared
A comparison study of live instruction versus inter- to traditional education, but similar levels of achievement.
active television for teaching MSW students critical These findings raise some issues about research and distance
thinking skills (Jul 2000) by Marie T. Hielk. Re- education that are worthy of exploring.
search on Social Work Practice, 10 (4): 400-416.
First, the factors influencing a student’s choice to enroll in a
distance education course, rather than the more traditional
Focus: To compare the acquisition of critical thinking skills face-to-face course may be an important variable that is
between social work students enrolled in graduate-level tra- rarely mentioned in research. Although students in the ITV-
ditional (face-to-face) classes and those enrolled in ITV- mediated and the face-to-face groups may have similar char-
mediated distance education classes. acteristics regarding gender, age, ethnicity, and socio-
economic status, they may significantly differ as a group in
Methods: Critical thinking in this study is defined as “the factors such as motivation or perspective about learning. For
process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. Critical instance, it is known that distant education attracts students
thinking, so defined, is the cognitive engine which drives who work full time, in contrast to traditional on-campus edu-
problem-solving and decision-making.”2 The initial sample cation where full time students predominate. This factor will
for the study included 73 students in a social work master’s certainly influence students’ demands regarding instruction
program. The students were enrolled in one graduate social and, therefore, their perceptions on course quality. All three
policy course in a large, public university in the autumn se- papers assume (as most research on distance education does)
mester of 1997. Critical thinking was measured with the that the two groups are the same and comparisons are made
California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST). Sixty-two based on this assumption. Researchers may need to expand
students completed the pre and post-tests. Of these, 38 were the concept of demographics when dealing with technology-
distance education students and 24 received their instruction mediated classes to describe better their populations.
in traditional, face-to-face classes. To ensure that the two
groups were matched in their critical thinking skills, the
1
A detailed but easy-to-understand explanation of ITV can be found at http://www.itvdictionary.com/itv.html
2
Definition based in Facione, P.A. & Facione, N.C. (1994). The California Critical Thinking Skills Test: Test Manual, Mil-
brae, CA: California Academic Press.
Désiré Baartman
deespol@teledata.mz
Introduction
The paper is based on research carried out during the realization and implementation of two international web-based projects
for secondary schools in The Netherlands and Zimbabwe. The paper describes the factors that lead to success as well as the
pitfalls that are responsible for possible failure.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Internet connection are established at most educational institutions in
the developed countries (the North). Researchers and teachers report on the great possibilities, the educational value and use-
fulness, as well as on the challenges that ICT and in particular the Internet offer. The integration of ICT and the use of Internet
in education is being realized at a steady pace (Collis & Moonen, 2001; Stephenson, 2001; Voogt & Plomp, 2001).
Many people realize that access to information through ICT and the Internet is crucial for education. However, a digital gap or
digital divide between the developing countries (the South) and the Northis already observed. Many organizations strive to
minimize this gap and search for solutions to make connectivity affordable for educational institutions in the South (Hudson,
2002; Knight, 2002; Schofield, 2002). At the same time schools, colleges, and universities in the North wish to communicate
with partners in the South. Most of the times, the participants do not realize how big the digital gap already is and how differ-
ent the situation is in terms of hardware and Internet connection at both ends. Many users do not realize what the implications
and options are when using web technology (Morris and Morrison, 2000). Communication problems occur and often cause
frustration with the participants and lead to unnecessary failure of projects.
Are we talking about the same issues: Internet Fast connection, slow connection or no
connection and networked computers?
connection?
In The Netherlands and other affluent countries, the fact that
a school or college has Internet connection implies that they What exactly are the constraints that limit
can connect to the Internet at basically any time and from a
number of PC’s. The Internet connection is fast enough to
Internet connection? Can some of the constraints
browse the web. Staff-members have access to computers be eliminated?
that are connected to the Internet and they have their own e-
mail address. A teacher or lecturer can use a computer room The constraints that are met in the South are related to many
during lessons or give the students an assignment whereby aspects of the Internet and the use of the Internet. Factors
they have to use the Internet after lesson hours. playing a role in Internet connection are the (1) technical and
infrastructure matters, (2) training, knowledge and attitude,
In Zimbabwe and other developing countries having Internet (3) presentation, design and structure of the content, (4) or-
connection means at best that there are a few or there is just ganizational structure, administration, finance and security,
one computer connected to the Internet for a few hours a and (5) culture, psychology, pedagogy and teaching method-
week. The computer is likely to be in the room of a principal, ology. In this article we will only address the issue of train-
deputy or an expatriate teacher and thus access is very lim- ing, knowledge and attitude and summarize the issue of tech-
ited. When a computer-lab has one computer connected to nique and infrastructure. (See Baartman, March 2002). Be-
the Internet, this computer is usually not widely accessible to sides a description, possible solutions or workarounds and
students, but only to some staff-members. Connection to the examples of best practices will be given.
Internet is often allowed not more than a few hours a week.
Many times staff-members have been proudly told that their
school or college now has Internet connection, though they Technical and Infrastructure Mat
Matters
do not have access to it. Sometimes a group of students has
been shown the Internet on a computer and they spread the Why do people in the South meet so many more
news that the school “is now on the Internet.” Most of the
time the computer is there, the software has been installed, technical constraints than people in the North?
the phone-line and possibly the subscription to an Internet
service provider (ISP) have been acquired. This implies that Although there are huge differences in the amount of re-
in theory Internet connection would be possible, though is sources in the schools, the hardware is usually not the bottle-
often not established. neck that causes slow Internet connection in the South.
Participants from the North in international projects ask for However, it is important to minimize the amount of active
information about the infrastructure in the South. The offi- programs while on-line. The most common and affordable
cials of a school or college in the South often mention that Internet connection in the South is a PC with a modem con-
some of their computers are networked. This network is a nected to a fixed telephone line. The reasons for slow Inter-
network because the PCs are connected to each other with net reside within the limited capacity of the phone-lines,
cables (often UTP-cables). However, in most cases there is which are often copper. Another reason is the limited capac-
no server assigned, no transfer of data between the computers ity of the ISP server. ISPs tend to oversubscribe their capac-
in the network, no shared resources besides a printer and no ity, which leads to major slow-downs or even the inability to
back-up facilities. make a connection at all. Even if these problems have been
overcome, the limited bandwidth of the ISP to the backbone
The above situation leads to misinterpretations. People in the of the Internet is a fact in developing countries. Besides these
North receive information that an institution has Internet technical limitations, which are hard to tackle, the costs of
connection and that some computers are networked. The ISP subscription and telephone three to five times higher in
northerners interpret this as: “the institution has Internet con- the South. Add to this the slower connection and the costs
nection available to more computers in a network.” The con- per Megabyte, information becomes many times more ex-
clusion is easily drawn that an Internet-based project, either pensive in the South than in the North (Baartman, March
within the country in the South or across the borders, can be 2002).
established. It turns out that communicating about Internet
References
Baartman, D. (2001). Evaluation Report VVOB-intervention informatics education Zimbabwe. Brussels, Belgium: Vlaamse
Vereniging voor Ontwikkelingssamen-werking en Technische Bijstand.
Baartman, D. (March 2002). What is the Bottleneck of the Internet Connection? Amsterdam: Alice-O.
Bakia, M. (2002), The Costs of Computers in Classrooms: Data from Developing Countries. TechKnowLogia, 4(1).
Brummelhuis, A.G.J. ten et.al.(2000). ICT Monitor. Enschede, Netherlands: University of Twente.
Collis, B. & Moonen, J. (2001). Flexible Learning in a Digital World, Experiences and Expectations. London: Kogan Page.
Hudson, H.E. (2002). Solving the Connectivity Problem. TechKnowLogia, 4(1), 13-15.
Knight, P.T. (2002). The Global Service Trust Fund, Bridging the Digital Divide for Education and Health. TechKnowLogia,
4(1), 44-48.
Ministerie van Onderwijs Cultuur en Wetenschappen. (2002). ICT Monitor 2000-2001. http://www.ict-onderwijsmonitor.nl
Morris, M. & Morrison, J. (2000), Database-Driven Web Sites. Canada: Thomson Learning.
Schofield, T. (2002). Bridging the Digital Divide ....A Vision. TechKnowLogia, 4(2), 72-74.
Stephenson, J. (2001). Teaching and Learning Online, New Pedagogics for New Technologies. London: Kogan Page.
Voogt, J. & Plomp, Tj. (2001). Innovative Didactics with Information and Communication Technology. Enschede, Nether-
lands: University of Twente.
1
South will be used to refer to developing countries in general and North will be used to refer to affluent countries. Literature
and research show that Zimbabwe is among the countries in the South with a relatively good infrastructure and that the Neth-
erlands is among the countries in the North with a good infrastructure.
This work investigates the introduction of a new methodology to evaluate participants in distance education (e-learning) gradu-
ate courses in engineering. The investigation considered the discipline Fundamentals and Applications of Fluidization, offered
in the School of Chemical Engineering at the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), whose subjects focus on several in-
dustrial chemical processes involving fluidized beds. The methodology associated with distance education tools, promoted the
development of technical abilities, the interaction among participants, and the possibility to access remotely the course mate-
rial. The participants evaluated the course through specific forms.
The software monitors how frequently each participant ac- ♦ Chat and discussion list, in which a special topic is
cessed the page. This information is available to registered submitted for discussion at the end of every convenient
students, but requires a password. set of chapters. A deadline is set providing enough time
for discussion among students. The same happens with
chat, but with a stricter schedule.
Methodology
Interaction:
The proposed methodology encompasses three steps: techni- The interaction among participants is assessed during the
cal knowledge, interaction and finally collaboration and deci- course. Motivation, creativity and autonomy are observed
sion making. The methodology builds upon an available and marked. Interactivity is associated with the course dy-
method applied to the course Groupware from The Federal namics. As the students advance in the course, their progress
University of Rio Grande do Sul [Tarouco 2002]. Figure 1 can be observed. The tools used in this step are the chat, the
shows a scheme of the activities undertaken during the discussion list and the login records.
course.
The course required an amount of time equivalent to 25% of
Technical Knowledge: total lectures for all people involved in the course to be to-
At this step the acquired knowledge and abilities were evalu- gether. These meetings provided ground for discussions
ated. The instructor should master the technical knowledge about the course content to strengthen the acquired knowl-
and tools that are used, including computational ones (For- edge, to develop the communication among participants and
tran, Pascal, Matlab). The tools that might be used to assess instructor, as well as to help to assess the participation of
this step are as follows: each member.
Student Profile
Most students registered in the
discipline Fundamentals and
Applications of Fluidization, live and
work in the Campinas region. They are
27 - 40 years old and work in industries.
They register as special students, a
distinct classification from the regular
1
The authors are grateful to the participants in the course for their helpful comments and to PED/CAPES for financial support.
Educational and Instructional Goals and learning. Riel (1992) found that students who
K-12 education systems that make a commitment to participated in Internet-based learning networks showed
introduce multimedia technology into schools and increased motivation, a deeper understanding of concepts,
classrooms are likely to face the decision regarding whether and an increased willingness to tackle difficult questions.1 A
to integrate formally technology into the curriculum. review of over 100 studies found that use of computer and
Although it is unlikely that this choice would be made at Internet technology in schools and classrooms
early stages of introducing technology into schools, there
will likely come a point when policymakers and stakeholders ! improves students’ attitudes and confidence and is
agree that dissemination and use of the technology is especially beneficial for ‘at risk’ students,
sufficiently widespread within a system to justify its ! provides instructional opportunities otherwise not
articulation in the curriculum, and perhaps in examinations, available,
particularly if the system is intent on achieving academic ! increases student collaboration on projects,
goals that can be accomplished more effectively with the use ! significantly improves student problem-solving skills,
of technology. Educational goals for which the use of ! increases the preparation of students for most careers
technology is considered supportive include the following: and vocations, and
! tends to shift teaching styles from traditional direct
! Improve teaching and learning in content areas;
approaches to a more student-oriented approach. 2
! Develop students’ skills considered to be essential in the
modern working environment, including the ability to
♦ communicate using a variety of media and formats, To Integrate or not to Integrate
♦ access and exchange information in a variety of There are a number of reasons that education systems may
ways, decide not to integrate the use of technology into the
♦ compile, organize, analyze, and synthesize curriculum, and especially not to hold teachers and students
information, accountable for using technology in the teaching and learning
♦ draw conclusions and make generalizations based process. The most significant reasons are limited and/or
on information gathered, unequal access to computers and the Internet, and unprepared
teachers. Few education systems at this point can guarantee
♦ know discipline content and be able to locate
that all students have adequate and equal access to computers
additional information as needed,
and the Internet to accomplish stated goals; a status that
♦ be self-directed learners,
requires considerable resources for hardware, software,
♦ collaborate and cooperate in team efforts, connectivity, technical assistance and teacher development.
♦ interact with others in ethical and appropriate ways; However, the downside of not integrating technology
! Increase motivation for teaching and learning; formally into the curriculum is that the costly investment in
! Change the social organization of classrooms to be more technology will be underutilized and valuable resources will
student centered; be wasted. Many teachers who have access to the
! Enrich interaction among students, teachers and other technology will not use it, either because they don’t know
schools; how, are satisfied with their current approach to teaching,
! Stimulate creativity and collaboration. feel that using technology is too fraught with technical
difficulties, or that they don’t have sufficient time to devote
Table 1 provides examples of such goals as articulated by to the types of lessons best supported by technology.
six countries that have introduced computers and, in some Moreover, Kerr (1996) argues that integrating technology
cases the Internet, into their schools. into classroom practice requires “a radical shift in both
teaching style and the teacher’s vision of what classroom life
Research studies have found that some of these goals are is all about. This new vision is one that changes the
indeed accomplished by integrating technology into teaching
COUNTRY GOALS
teacher’s role in basic ways, reducing the importance of in the curriculum, we would have more time to engage the
‘chalk and talk’, increasing the need for sensitivity to children in thinking, but now we avoid asking questions that
individual students’ problems and achievements, shifting might require any extra time."4 In countries that have high-
how classrooms are laid out, how evaluation is conducted, stakes examinations, the pressure to “cover the curriculum”
how teachers relate to their colleagues, and a hundred other is exacerbated, and anything that does not support students’
particulars of daily life in schools” (p. 24).3 success on exams is likely to be neglected, including the use
of technology.
Even teachers who are facile with technology and
enthusiastic about using it confront another obstacle – overly Many of the more effective uses of computers and the
packed curricula. For some time now teachers, educational Internet require larger blocks of time and integrate numerous
researchers and others have been arguing that most curricula topics, subjects and skills. They often engage students in
cover far too many topics at a superficial level, and seldom more real-life types of projects than are typically found in
address topics in sufficient depth to promote deep-level textbooks and often involve students in collecting their own
understanding. Studies show that students learn isolated data, extracting information from the Internet, and interacting
facts for a test and forget them soon after, a practice that runs with a broader range of expertise than teachers and
counter to most systems’ stated goals for education. textbooks. Teachers will be reluctant to engage their
Teachers who sincerely want to adopt more child-centered, students in such projects if they are not consistent with what
constructivist approaches bemoan their need to cover the is being measured on high-stakes examinations. Roschelle et
overly full curriculum. “We don’t do what SIP [a long-term al (2000) argue that, “Time spent preparing students to do
teacher development project in Kenya] wants because we well on numerical calculation tests, vocabulary, or English
need to cover the syllabus and we only have 35-minute mechanics cannot be spent on learning about acceleration,
periods. If they cut back on the amount of material covered the mathematics of change, or the structure of Shakespeare’s
Endnotes
1
Reil, M. (1992) A Functional Analysis of Educational Telecomputing. Interactive Learning Environments, Vol. 2, pp. 15-30.
2
Cradler, J. and Bridgeforth, E. (1997) Recent Research on the Effects of Technology on Teaching and Learning. (Online at
http://www.wested.org/techpolicy/research.html)
3
Kerr, S.T. (Ed.) (1996) Technology and the future of schooling: Ninety-fifth Yearbook of the National Society of the Study of Education,
part 2, pp. 131-171. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
4
Capper, J., Nderitu, S. and Ogula, P. (2002) Conflict Between National Curriculum Standards and Efforts to Improve Teaching, in S. E.
Anderson (Ed.) Improving Schools Through Teacher Development: Case Studies of the Aga Khan Foundation Projects in East Africa.
The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
5
Roschelle, J., Kaput, J., & Stroup, W. (2000). SimCalc: Accelerating student engagement with the mathematics of change. In M.J. Jacobsen
& R.B. Kozma, Innovations in science and mathematics education: Advanced designs for technologies of learning. Hillsdale, NJ:
Earlbaum. pp. 47-75.
6
ISTE (2000) National Educational Technology Standards for Students: Connecting Curriculum and Technology. Agate, OR.
7
Malyn-Smith, J., Donaldson, J., Spera V., Wong, J., Kimboko, R., Llorente, C., Miller, M., Bredin, S. and Guilf, V. (1999) IT Pathway
Pipeline Model: Rethinking Information Technology Learning in Schools, EDC: Newton, MA.
(https://secure.edc.org/publications/prodView.asp?1182)
8
Kozma, R. and Espinoza, C. (2001) Integrating Technology into the Curriculum to Support Standards-based Achievement in a Middle
School. OECD. http://www.oecd.org/EN/documentation/0,,EN-documentation-4-nodirectorate-no-no-no-4,00.html
1
Jesse T. Airaudi received his Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin, and teaches in the English Department at Baylor University in
Waco, Texas. He may be contacted at Jesse_Airaudi@baylor.edu
2
Issue title of the Syllabus: Technology for Higher Education number for May 2002.]
http://www.syllabus.com/mag.asp?month=5&year=2002
3
Soledad MacKinnon, "Technology Integration in the Classroom: Is There Only One Way to Make It Effective?" TechKnowLogia 4.4 (Oc-
tober - December 2002) http://www.techknowlogia.org.
4
"Conference Looks at Pros and Cons of Technology," Footnotes: Newsletter of the American Association of Professors 23 (2002-03): 7.
For related discussions, access A.A.U.P.'s Footnotes online: http://www.aaup.org/publications/Footnotes/index.htm
5
Francis Christensen, "A Generative Rhetoric of the Paragraph," The Sentence and the Paragraph (Urbana, Il: National Council of Teachers
of English, 1978): 21.
6
Diane Halpern, Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking. Mahwah, N.J.: 1984; Diane Halpern and Associates,
Changing College Classrooms: New Teaching and Learning Strategies for an Increasingly Complex World. Mahwah, N.J.: 1994; Diane
Halpern and Milton D. Hakel. Applying the Science of Learning to University Teaching and Beyond. San Francisco: 2002.
7
Judith V. Boettcher, "What Does Knowledge Look Like and How Can We Help It Grow?" Syllabus Magazine Aug. 1999: 64+.
8
Paul O' Dea, "Teaching Students to Write," A Writer Teaches Writing: A Practical Method of Teaching Composition, ed. Donald M.
Murray (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1968): 217.
9
Samuel Scudder, “Take This Fish and Look At It,” The Rinehart Reader, eds. Jean Wyrick and Beverly J. Slaughter (Forth Worth: Harcourt
College Publishers), 271-72.
10
Francis Christensen, "A Generative Rhetoric of the Paragraph," ed. W. Ross Winterowd, Contemporary Rhetoric: A Conceptual Back-
ground with Readings (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975): 234.
11
William Somerset Maugham, "Pain," eds. Jo Ray McCuen and Anthony C. Winkler, Readings for Writers, 5th ed. (San Diego: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, 1974): 181.
12
Bob Horn. "Visual Language: Conveying Information in Instruction and on the Web," an interview with the author, Bob Horn, in Syllabus:
New Directions in Educational Technology, May 1999: 24+.
13
O’Dea, 217-18.
Digital Cameras: Overview night? Will I be taking mostly portraits or landscape shots?
Action or still?
It is likely that by now most people know what a digital
camera is - or at least have heard of one. However, it is most With these questions in mind, here are several things to
unlikely that people would associate digital cameras with consider when buying a digital camera:
education. With the technology present today, nothing
seems out of the realm of use for any activity, be it fun or 1. Resolution: this refers to the number of dots or
learning. Video games traditionally were only thought of as pixels per an image. The more pixels there are the better
kid distractions, but today they are being used as a teaching the resolution and the quality of the image. Older
tool. Computers and the Internet are probably the most cameras offered 1- to 2-mexapixels. Newer ones are
central components of the use of technology in education. offering up to 4- and even 5-megapixels. As a rule of
And now, the advent of digital cameras makes learning fun. thumb, a 2-megapixel camera can produce a good 5-by-7
print; a 3-megapixel camera, an 8-by-10; and a 4-
Digital cameras are similar to conventional ones in that they megapixel one, an 11-by-17 print. The way a camera
range in quality and cost. Both have a lens that focuses an will be used will help determine the amount of
image onto a Charge Coupled Device (CCD), which then resolution you will need.
converts the image into electrical pulses. Both then store the 2. Size, Weight and Design: Cameras range in
image onto a "storage medium." However, the similarities size from 6.8 ounces to 2.6 pounds. If portability is
stop here. important, consider the size and weight of the camera.
Smaller cameras are convenient, but also have smaller
Digital cameras differ from conventional cameras in the way dials and buttons that could make using them more
they function. Similar to a conventional camera, when a difficult.
picture is taken, the shutter opens, allowing light to enter the 3. Zoom Lens: Some cameras offer optical zoom,
camera and strike the CCD. Where a digital camera differs is while others have digital zoom. Optical zoom moves the
that once light strikes the CCD, it is then sent to the internal lens to magnify the subject, while digital zoom only
memory of the camera, called the buffer. After the image captures fewer pixels and magnifies them. This clearly
information reaches the buffer, it is then compressed into would jeopardize the quality of the image. It is
JPEG format. The completed image is then transferred to the recommended that for best results, to go with at least a
memory card on the camera (the storage device). For some 2X optical zoom.
cameras, this process causes a lag time, and therefore one 4. Focus: Digital cameras often offer automatic focus,
cannot take another picture immediately. Others have which for most of us is sufficient. For the few cases
enough of an internal buffer to allow for multiple pictures to where in a close up shot the camera cannot get a focus
be taken in a row, called burst shooting. lock, a manual focus would help.
5. Storage: In lay terms, storage refers to the medium
What to Consider When Buying where pictures are stored once taken. In a conventional
camera, that would be the film. In digital cameras, it
When buying a digital camera, ask yourself a few questions. ranges from floppy disks, to compact disks, to memory
How will I be using the camera? Will I be emailing pictures, cards. Floppy disks are the least expensive but storage
or doing a lot of printing? Will I be publishing on the web? on them is slow and the disks can only hold one or two
Will it be for home use, or will I be doing professional high-resolution images. Compact disks store more
layouts? Will I be using it indoors our out? Daytime or at images, but the cameras that use them are bulky.
Memory cards are the most expensive, but allow the
This site compiled by the Berglund Center for Internet Studies at Pacific University, makes a valiant effort towards linking
ICT (information and communication technologies) to learning via Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
(Anderson, et. al., 2001). The taxonomy presented on this site is designed to represent the varying cognitive processes that
can be facilitated by the integration of ICT into the teaching and learning process.
Part of Eduscape.com, this site is just one topic under their Teacher Tap resource list. Teacher Tap is a free, professional
development resource that helps educators address common technology integration questions by providing practical, online
resources and activities. A definitive overview of critical and creative thinking is articulated as well as how Bloom’s
domains of learning can be reflected in technology-rich projects.
Introduction to CSILE
http://csile.oise.utoronto.ca/intro.html
This is the home site for CSILE (Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments), a collaborative-networked
software program…"designed to help students achieve extraordinary learning by providing supports for thinking and
understanding." CSILE has been utilized for nearly 2 decades and has a strong body of research to support its claims.
Published by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL), this comprehensive report bridges the gap
between ICT and constructivist theory. A valuable reference for educators as this theory is translated into actual educational
practice. Several classroom case studies are provided along with pedagogical strategies to effectively integrate technology
into the classroom.
AACE (Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education) is an “international, educational and professional not-
for profit organization dedicated to the advancement of the knowledge, theory, and quality of learning and teaching at all
levels with information technology.” This site is a significant gateway of educational research on ICT.
CRLT, the Center for Research on Learning and Technology, at Indiana University is an organization dedicated to helping
educators find the appropriate application of ICT to improve teaching and learning in diverse settings. Several useful
references on student learning with ICT are linked off this site.
This is the home site for the Regional Technology in Education Consortia, R*TEC, a compilation of 10 US regional centers
funded by the US Dept. of Education. The centers focus specifically on underserved student populations and work toward
equitable access to technology for all schools and communities, making sure new technologies have a positive impact on
teaching and learning.
ICTE is a global annual Conference on ICT application in education. The conference alternates each year between a location
in North America and Europe. For those seeking an international perspective on ICT in education, this conference is a must.
TeacherUniverse
http://www.teacheruniverse.com/news/research.html
Part of Riverdeep Interactive Learning, TeacherUniverse offers a suite of Professional Development tools for teachers and
school administrators geared towards effective instructional ICT applications. Contained off this site is a compendium of
educational research on the effects of ICT on student achievement.
This site is home to the Big6, a widely-known and used approach by thousands of K-12 schools and higher education
institutions for teaching ICT skills that facilitate problem-solving skills. The Big6TM describes the six thinking steps a person
goes through any time there is an information problem to solve. The Big6 is especially designed for library media specialists
and classroom teachers interested in the curriculum integration of information literacy.
JOURNALS
T.H.E. Journal
http://www.thejournal.com/
Technological Horizons in Education Journal (T.H.E. Journal) is “the longest running, most widely read education
technology publication, serving educators for over 30 years”…plus it is free. T.H.E. is also sponsor of EduHound, an online
gateway to education resources on the Internet.
EJITE, Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, features research findings, practical articles on
technology integration, book and software reviews, and commentary on topics of interest to educators (PK-16). The journal
is published electronically twice each year (Winter and Spring).
The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment (JTLA) is a peer-reviewed, scholarly on-line journal. The JTLA was
established in response to a growing interest in the intersection of computer-based technology, learning, and assessment.
Alan Levy1
Executive Vice President, Municipal Networks
air4wan - WiFi Group
alanlevy@air4wan.com
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a method to exchange, to send and to receive all types of information. It can
be used for telephone calls, playing games or watching movies. The Internet Protocol is a process for
combining information into packets, and sending these from one point to another. It can operate faster,
and send more information, because it groups large quantities of information into small packets that are
faster to transmit and subsequently less expensive to send.
We should always remember that the real benefit derived from the Internet is the lower cost for commu-
nications –- and a more rapid exchange of information. Anything we do that degrades this benefit is
not only counter-productive, but will necessarily eliminate its adoption by a set of potential users.
No matter what effort is made to develop services, applications and content, if the Internet is difficult to
enter, if passing through the gateway is troublesome, fewer people will seek access or discover value in
adopting the use of IP-based communications. The first and primary barrier therefore is the gateway.
This barrier changes with advances in technology. As technology advances it becomes easier and less
expensive to overcome technical barriers. And so, the original question remains. Why aren’t more peo-
ple using the Internet?
Today, most people access the Internet through the Public Switched Telephone Network, or PSTN, which
is simply the telephone line. Many users also access the Internet through their cable television service,
and some through direct satellite service. Even cellular telephone service providers are deploying new
technologies that provide access to the Internet.
The technologies behind all of these methods of access are advancing, and there is no technical reason
why they cannot continue to do so. The decision regarding which type of service to select seems to de-
pend on cost. Of course, this would only be true if all services were equally available. But this is not the
case. Let us not forget that government regulates the deployment of these services. Government, through
various mechanisms, chooses who can or cannot deploy Internet access technology. And poorly funded
regulatory agencies in developing countries are often challenged and limited in their action by very pow-
erful incumbent operators.
Example of a WiFi Network In comparison, a WiFi network not only has a much greater
bandwidth capacity, but is also far less expensive. And as
Let us look at one example of a WiFi network. I have chosen WiFi technology rapidly advances, costs are being reduced
the new network in the city Athens, Georgia, in the USA, regularly. Here are some current options for a small WiFi
because it is supported in part by the local government and network, including equipment, costs and distance of cover-
the local university. Athens is a small city with a little more age.
than 100,000 residents. A Wireless Athens Group (WAG)3
was formed to develop the WiFi network. The network cur- In this example, a node represents an Access Point, which is
rently covers a few city blocks downtown, but will soon ex- a box-like antenna and supporting equipment. A large net-
pand to twenty-four city blocks.4 work uses both nodes and less expensive repeaters to extend
range of coverage.
Whether from a park bench or an outdoor cafe, a student,
office worker, or tourist can access the Internet if they're in Wired Node (low cost)
range of the small WAG antennas, really nothing more than
small boxes mounted on top of nine light poles around the ⇒ Linksys BEFW11S4 (wireless router and hub) ($200), or
city. The signals do not penetrate most walls or buildings, so Agere RG-1000 or RG-1100 (optional, but recom-
mended) ($170-$220)
Total out of pocket cost can be as little as $200 or less. ⇒ 1+ mid-gain Omni directional antenna, e.g. 8-dBi (op-
However, the range is limited to a few hundred feet. For tional) ($100)
more range, you need an antenna and/or amplifier.
⇒ Several mid-to-high gain patch or parabolic antennas
Wired Node (mid-cost) ($50-$200/ea)
⇒ Linksys BEFW11S4 (wireless router and hub), or Ori- ⇒ High quality self supporting or guyed antenna ($500-
noco RG-1000 (residential gateway), or RG-1100 $1,000+)
(broadband gateway) ($170-$220) ⇒
⇒ Misc. cables (optional, but recommended) ($200-$500+)
⇒ Cables, adapters (depending on the length) ($100)
⇒ ComputerRouter (free, or higher)
⇒ 8 to 15-dBi Omni directional antenna (optional, but rec-
ommended) ($100- $200) This is a truly powerful full IP-capability node costing be-
tween $5,000 and $10,000+, and capable of serving thou-
⇒ ComputerRouter (free, or higher) sands of users.
For less than $400 you can establish an access point with an The options for a wired access point, or node, as shown
Omni directional antenna. If mounting the Omni outside, above indicate that the cost for a ten square mile WiFi
anticipate paying another $100-$200 for a lightning arrestor network “cloud” is approximately US$ 150,000 or more.
and a mast. This is sufficient to cover many metropolitan areas, and is
affordable by many municipal governments.
Wired Node (deluxe)
Benefits For Education
⇒ Orinoco RG-1000 (residential gateway), RG-1100, or
Cisco AP or bridge ($200-$500+) IP-based applications for education are dramatically en-
hanced when deployed over WiFi broadband networks.
⇒ Cables, adapters (depending on the length) ($100-$200) WiFi networks are basically local-loop networks providing
last-mile connectivity. Local-loop networks are where indi-
⇒ Amplifier ($300-$500) viduals, schools, businesses, hospitals, libraries and govern-
ments connect to the Internet. In essence, they are commu-
⇒ 8 to 15-dBi Omni directional antenna ($100-$200) nity networks; they both serve and operate within the local
community. Education applications can reside on the local
⇒ Mast or guyed antenna (optional, but recommended) network and empower a community like never before. The
($100+) community becomes capable to direct and determine its own
requirements and processes, maintain and strengthen local
⇒ ComputerRouter (free, or higher) standards, enhance collaboration between individuals and
institutions, and develop an economy capable to compete
This is a high quality node capable to cover a large area, if with other communities.
the antenna is mounted sufficiently high, and costs approxi-
mately $800-$1,500. Many if not all, amplifiers provide As an example, local schools with access to broadband can
integrated lightning protection; a separate lightning arrestor control the dissemination of their own local initiatives. Stu-
may not be necessary. This node covers a square mile dents can practice all media forms and processes through
area, or more in certain circumstances. actual hands-on experience. Local television and radio sta-
tions can distribute, even produce, unique media content.
Wired Node (cost no object)
Benefits for the Community
⇒ 3-4+ Orinoco business AP, or Cisco AP, or bridge
($500-$1,000/ea) A WiFi network can provide local hospitals, schools, gov-
ernment offices, emergency services, utilities, and everyone,
⇒ 3-4 amps ($300-$500/ea) with low cost 24-hour access to full broadband services –-
1
The author gratefully acknowledges valuable comments by Francisco J. Proenza, FAO Investment Centre Economist
2
http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/24/nyregion/24FEAT.html?ex=1039158120&ei=1&en=fad7c117f52e2583
3
http://www.nmi.uga.edu/research/wag
4
http://www.cnn.com/2002/TECH/science/07/31/coolsc.wireless.cloud
A knowledge-based economy relies primarily on the use of ideas rather than physical abilities and on the application of tech-
nology rather than the transformation of raw materials or the exploitation of cheap labor. Knowledge is being developed and
applied in new ways. Product cycles are shorter and the need for innovation greater. Trade is expanding worldwide, increas-
ing competitive demands on producers.
The global knowledge economy is transforming the demands of the labor market in economies throughout the world. It is also
placing new demands on citizens, who need more skills and knowledge to be able to function in their day to day lives.
Equipping people to deal with these demands requires a new model of education and training, a model of lifelong learning. A
lifelong learning framework encompasses learning throughout the life cycle, from early childhood to retirement. It encom-
passes formal learning (schools, training institutions, universities), nonformal learning (on-the-job and household training), and
informal learning (skills learned from family members or people in the community). It allows people to access learning oppor-
tunities as they need them rather than because they have reached a certain age.
Lifelong learning is crucial to preparing workers to compete in the global economy. However, it is important for other reasons
as well. By improving people’s ability to function as members of their communities, education and training increase social
cohesion, reduce crime, and improve income distribution.
Developing countries and transition economies risk being further marginalized in a competitive global knowledge economy
because their education and training systems are not equipping learners with the skills they need. To respond to the problem,
policymakers need to make crucial changes. They need to replace the information-based, teacher-directed rote learning pro-
vided within a formal education system governed by directives with a new type of learning that emphasizes creating, applying,
analyzing, and synthesizing knowledge and engaging in collaborative learning throughout the lifespan. This article describes
several different ways in which they can do this.
Creating a Labor Force Able to The private sector is playing a growing role
Compete in the Global Economy in education throughout the world
Traditionally, the public sector provided most education
In traditional industries most jobs require employees to learn services. Today that is changing. In many middle-income
how to perform routine functions, which, for the most part, countries, the private education sector is growing, fostered by
remain constant over time. Most learning takes place when a the poor quality and coverage of public education and the
worker starts a new job. In the knowledge economy, change need to relieve fiscal burdens and promote innovation. In
is so rapid that workers constantly need to acquire new skills. Brazil, since 1995 the number of students enrolled in higher
Firms can no longer rely solely on new graduates or new education has grown more than 70 percent, with most of this
labor market entrants as the primary source of new skills and growth occurring in private colleges and universities, which
knowledge. Instead, they need workers who are willing and now account for 71 percent of higher education enrollment.
able to update their skills throughout their lifetimes. Coun- In China, 500 new institutions of higher learning were estab-
tries need to respond to these needs by creating education lished between 1995 and 1999.
and training systems that equip people with the appropriate
skills. The private education sector is growing rapidly in transition
economies as well. Poland alone has 195 private higher edu-
cation institutions, which educate more than 377,000 stu-
Distance education is one way in which countries can offer Certification and quality assurance systems
more flexible learning opportunities. Many countries use are needed to assess learners and inform
interactive radio instruction in basic education. Mexico uses them about providers
television to educate about 15 percent of its lower secondary The outcomes of learning must be monitored effectively.
school students. In the 1990s the National Teachers Institute Quality assurance systems need to recognize the range of
in Nigeria graduated more teachers through its distance settings, both formal and informal, in which learning takes
learning program than all other programs in the country place, and they need to provide opportunities for learners to
combined. The Internet is beginning to transform higher edu- demonstrate their newly acquired skills and knowledge.
cation and corporate training. In 1999, for example, 92 per- Quality assurance systems also need to provide prospective
cent of large corporations in the United States piloted Web- learners with information about the offerings and perform-
based training programs. ance of providers.
Governing a Lifelong Quality assurance systems can also make it easier for learn-
Learning System ers to move between different types and levels of learning
environments. Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the
To create effective lifelong learning systems, countries need United Kingdom have national qualification systems, which
to make significant changes to both the governance and fi- assign qualifications from different institutions to a set of
nancing of education and training. In many OECD countries levels, with each level linked to competency standards. Stu-
governments that once focused exclusively on public fi- dents at colleges and universities in the United States can
nancing and public provision of education and training are transfer credits from one institution to another. In addition,
now trying to create flexible policy and regulatory frame- the Bologna process is moving toward Europe-wide agree-
works that encompass a wider range of institutional actors. ment on equivalence and quality assurance mechanisms.
These frameworks include legislation and executive orders,
arrangements for ensuring coordination across ministries and
other institutions involved in education and training activi-