TSS Tunnel & Shaft Sealing

Ltd.
Engineers & Contractors

Backfill Properties
Mineralogy
Important to understand mineralogy because
-some minerals are very abrasive and will cause a lot of wear in the backfill lines
-some minerals cause break down of the cement over time
-flat minerals settle slower than rounded particles

Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity is the ratio of mass of fill particles to mass of an equal volume of
water
Measure this using volumetric flask method.

Measure weight of flask + 250 ml water (W1)

Empty flask and add sample of fill material
W2 = weight of dry sample
Then fill flask to 250 ml line with water and weigh
W3 = flask+sample+water

Then the S.G. of the sample is W2/[W1-(W3-W2)]

Moisture Content
Moisture content is reported either on a dry weight basis or total weight basis.
Mineral processors use a total weight basis

Moisture Content (w)=Mass of water/(Mass of Solids+Water)

Geotechnical engineers use dry weight basis i.e. w = Mass of water/Mass of Solids

For backfill it is recommended that the geotechnical engineer's definition of

moisture content be used and use percent solids when discussing the water content
of the backfill.

Void ratio is defined as the volume of voids to the volume of solids and is a very
sensitive measure of the packing density of a fill.

Void Ratio (e)= Vv/Vs

Void Ratio can be calculated if you know the S.G., bulk density, and moisture
content of the backfill

where r s is the bulk density of the soil

Porosity: Porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil

Percent Solids
Percent solids = mass of solids/(mass of solids+water).
Small changes in pulp density can result in a dramatic increase in the line pressure
particularly for paste backfills.

Grain Size
The grain size distribution will determine the permeability of the fill. The higher the
"slimes" content, the lower the percolation rate.

Grain size distribution affects the pumpability of fill. In the case of hydraulic fill, the
larger the grain size the faster the terminal settling velocity. The velocity of the
slurry in the pipe must exceed this settling velocity. Grain size distribution affects
void ratio and ultimately the strength of the fill. The lower the void ratio, the higher
the strength. A more uniformly graded fill has a lower void ratio.

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Unconfined compressive strength is measured on cemented fill by casting cylinders
and compressing them much like a concrete cylinder test. Sample diameters are
50-75 mm in the case of sandfill and tailings backfill. Samples sizes up to 300 mm
or more are desirable for consolidated rockfill.

The elastic modulus can also be calculated from this test.

The unconfined compressive strength value is usually used as an indirect
measurement of the shear strength of the fill.

Shear Strength
-measured by direct shear tests or triaxial testing
-not normally performed

Rheology
Rheology is the study of the shear strength behaviour of liquids. Viscosity is a
measure of the shear strength or the resistance to movement between different
layers in a fluid or mixture. In concrete terminology this is also known as the
workability. The viscosity of a paste mixture is difficult to predict and is influenced
by many factors including: pulp density, grain size, mineralogy, and grain shape.
The concrete slump test has generally been used as a measure of the viscosity of
paste mixtures. Paste mixtures commonly exhibit slumps of 15-20 cm (6-10") on a
standard (12") cone.

Paste mixtures behave as non-Newtonian fluids, that is, they do not exhibit constant
viscosity with variation in flow rate. The yield stress of a paste is greater than zero
before flow commences. Research and experience to date, indicates that paste
backfill can be considered to be a Bingham plastic fluid, exhibiting constant
viscosity with increased velocity, once the yield stress has been overcome. It can
also be a pseudo-plastic fluid, exhibiting decreasing velocity as velocity increases

Percolation Rate

For uncemented fills, the most important design criteria is percolation rate. 10
cm /hour minimum percolation rate is a common rule of thumb. If the percolation
rate is too slow, it slows down mine productivity. It can create high pressures on
bulkheads (potentially dangerous condition)

Backfill Binders
Types of Binder

The most common type of binder is ordinary portland cement (OPC) (Type I)
because it is usually the most readily available.

Other common binders are typically pozzolans that react with the products of
cement hydration to form other cementitious compounds. Pozzolans can be used to
replace 30-75% of the portland cement in a mix.

Examples include:

Fly Ash (PFA): a very fine ash collected by cyclones and hydrostatic precipitators
in coal burning power plants.

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (BFS): a product of the steel making industry. It
can be used as a partial or total replacement of OPC however lime must be added in
the absence of any OPC.

Others -ground waste glass, natural pozzolans

Jacklegs and Stopers

- Holes are generally 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 diameter
-Use 150-200 cfm compressed air at 90 psi
-percussion drill 2000-2500 blows/minute

Fragmentation
Rock, explosive and design variables are combined using five underlying principles
in this modern version of the Kuz-Ram fragmentation model.

Breakage theory (Kuznetsov): The amount of breakage that occurs with a known
amount of explosive energy can be calculated.

Size distribution theory (Rosin & Rammler): The full range of fragment sizes can be
determined from the average size if the mode of breakage is known.

Explosive detonation theory (Tidman): The amount of energy released by an

explosive can be calculated from its detonation behavior.

Blast design correlation (Cunningham) A correlation exists between the many

different blast configurations and the mode of breakage.

Rock type correlation (Lilly): The effect of rock properties is to modify the amount of
breakage that will occur.

Kuznetsov Equation

The original equation, developed by Kuznetsov, was modified by Cunningham for

ANFO based explosives.

Xav. = A K^-0.8 Qe^0.167 (115/E)^0.633

Where:

Xav average size of material (cm)

A = blastability index
K = powder factor (kg explosive / cubic m rock)
Qe = charge weight (kg)
E = strength of explosive (% ANFO)

Rosin Rammler Equation

The size distribution is calculated from the Rosin-Rammler equation.

( FALTA LA ECUACIÓN)

Where:
Y Percentage of material less than the size X (%)
X size of material (m)
Xc characteristic size (m)
n = uniformity

Characteristic Size

The characteristic size is calculated from the average size for use in the Rosin-
Rammler equation.

Xc = Xav / ( 0.693 )

Where:

Xc characteristic size (m)

Xav average size of material from the Kuznetsov equation (m)

Uniformity

The uniformity exponent is calculated from an equation developed by Cunningham.

0.5 0.1

n = [2.2 - 14 (B/D) ] [0.5 (1 + S/B)] [1-Z/B] [0.1 + (Lb - Lt) / L ] [L/H] P

P = 1.0 square pattern
1.1 staggered pattern

Where:

n uniformity exponent
B burden (m)
D hole diameter (mm)
S spacing (m)
Z standard deviation of drilling error (m)
Lb bottom charge length (m)
Lt top charge length (m)
H bench height (m)
P blast pattern factor

NB GoldFrag uses only one charge per hole.

Tidman Equation

The explosive strength is calculated from a modified equation originally developed

by Tidman:

E = [ VODe / VODn ]² RWS

Where:

E effective relative weight strength (%)

VODe effective (field) velocity of detonation (m/s)
VODn nominal (maximum) velocity of detonation (m/s)
RWS weight strength relative to ANFO (%)
Blastability Index

The Blastability Index (or 'Rock Factor') is calculated from an equation originally
developed by Lilly. It is used to modify the average fragmentation based on the rock
type and blast direction.

A = 0.06 (RMD + JF + RDI + HF)

Where:

A blastability index
RMD rock mass description
JF joint factor
RDI rock density index
HF hardness factor

The individual components are:

RMD =10 + 10 Xi
JF = JFs + JFo
JFs = 10 spacing < 0.1
20 0.1 < spacing < oversize
50 oversize < spacing
JFo = 10 dip < 10
20 dr < 30
30 60< dr
40 30< dr < 60
dr = | JDD - FFDD |
RDI = 25( rr- 2)
HF = Y/3
UCS/5

Where:

Xi in situ block size (m)

JF joint factor
JFs joint spacing factor
JFo joint orientation factor
dr relative dip direction (degrees)
JDD joint dip direction (degrees)
FFDD free face dip direction (degrees)
rr rock specific gravity
Y Young's modulus (GPa)
UCS unconfined compressive strength (MPa)

Powder Factor

The equation is:

K = Qe / B S H

Where:

K powder factor (kg / cubic m)

B burden (m)
S spacing (m)
H bench height (m)
Qe = charge weight (kg)

Charge Weight

The equation is:

Qe = 1000 p r² L re

Where:

Qe charge weight (kg)

r hole radius (m)
L charge length (m)
re explosive SG

Ore Passes
There are four problems which can affect the performance of ore passes:

1. Hangups due to interlocking arches

2. Hangups due to cohesive arches
3. Piping or Ratholing
4. Wear

1. Hangups due to Interlocking Arches

These hangups occur when the larger fragments form stable arrangements in the
ore pass. They more frequently occur at knuckles and constructions such as
drawpoints. Particle size and shape relative to the ore pass size affect the
probability of forming interlocking arches. Hambley (1987) provides the following
guidelines for ore pass design to prevent interlocking arches:
Ratio of ore pass dimension (D) to Relative Frequency of Interlocking
Particle dimension (d)

D/d>5 Very Low; almost certain flow

5>D/d>3 Often; flow uncertain

D/d<3 Very high; Almost certain no flow

2. Hangups Due to Cohesive Arches

Cohesive arches form as a result of sticky, fine particles adhering to each other. For
material handling purposes, Jenike(1964) suggests particles less than 0.01 inches
be considered as fines. These particles exhibit a cohesive component to their shear
strength in addition to a frictional component. This resistance is enhanced if
moisture is present. If the strength of the fines is sufficient, a stable arch may form
across the ore pass. If the ore pass is sufficiently wide, gravity forces will exceed the
shear strength within the arch.
The minimum dimension of the ore pass to prevent cohesive arching is determined
from:

D>(2c/γ )(1+1/r)(1+sin φ )

where:
D = ore pass dimension
c = cohesion of fines (psf)
γ = density of fines (pcf)
r = length to width ratio of the opening
φ = internal angle of friction of the fines
To prevent cohesive arches the mine will need to undertake to do the following:

• when areas high in clay content such as fault zones are being mined, this material should be fed
into the ore pass on a gradual basis.
• If there are a lot of fines, the level of the ore pass should be kept low so if there is a hangup, it is
near the bottom where it can be removed by high pressure water jetting.
• Material within the ore pass that is high in fines should be constantly moving
• Water inflow into the ore pass should be avoided.

3. Ratholing
This can be controlled by modifying the size of the chute or hole drawing from the
ore pass. Its a subject for detailed engineering stage.
4. Wear
Based on a review of ore pass literature, operators differ in opinion as to whether
wear is reduced by operating the ore pass empty or full. Where hangups have been
a problem, either from cohesive arches or interlocking arches, ore passes are
operated as near to empty as possible (Kiruna Mine).
Mining Equipment
Underground Mining Equipment Surface Mining and Plant Equipment
Tunnel Boring Machines Walking Draglines
Raise Boring Machines Rotary Truck Mounted Drills
Jacklegs and Stopers Air Tracks (Percussive, Crawler Mounted Drills)
Jumbos Track Mounted Rotary Drills
Underground Top Hammer Production Drills Bucket Wheel Excavators
Underground ITH Production Drills Dozers (Tracked)
LHD's (Scooptrams) Graders
U/G Graders Front-End Loaders
U/G Boom Trucks Cable Shovels
Scissorlift Trucks Scrapers
Continuous Miners Hydraulic Shovels
Roadheaders Haul Trucks
Longwall Miners Air Compressors
Trucks Cooling Towers
Locomotives Coal Fired Generator Plants
Car Dumpers Diesel Generating Plants
Mine Hoists Utility Substations
Mucking Machines Transmission Lines
Slushers Centrifugal Fans
Axial Flow Fans Mine Air Heaters
Centrifugal Fans Portable Buildings
U/G Service Trucks Portable Crushing/Screening Plants
U/G Supervisor/Technician Vehicle Mobile Cranes
Service Trucks

Cost Indexes
Cost indexes are a way of comparing a cost or quote obtained for a product or
service in one year to the cost in anther year. For example if you have a quote for a
haul truck in September, 1997 and you would like to know the cost in January, 2000,
the calculation would be:

Cost (01/2000) = Cost (09/1997) *Index (01/2000) /Index(09/1997)

Mining Cost Service Index

ENR Construction Cost Index