New recording materials for holography

by Hans I. Bjelkhagen, Ph.D.

De Montfort University, Centre for Modern Optics, Hawthorn Building, The Gateway
LEICESTER LEl 9BH

Abstract

Some of the alternative silver halide materials that can be considered to replace the previous Agfa
Holotest materials are discussed. The characteristics of Slavich and HRT materials are examined,
including the special aspects of recording and processing ultrahigh-resolution silver halide materials.
These materials can offer a significant improvement in product quality. The sensitivity is lower than
that of Agfa materials but the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range is an improvement.
Photopolymers are increasingly being used for mass production. Dupont’s OmniDex material,
combined with their colour tuning film is an excellent material for this purpose as no wet processing is
involved.

1. Background

The fact that AGFA holographic materials will no longer be produced is of great concern to many
companies and individuals in holography. However, the MILLIMASK plates (green sensitive) high-
resolution materials will still be manufactured by AGFA. This product can replace the former AGFA
HOLOTEST 8E56 holographic plates. There are alternative silver-halide materials which in some
cases are not only a replacement but, in addition, can offer a significant improvement in product
quality, e.g., masters for display holography and some HOEs. The sensitivity is lower compared with
AGFA materials, but smaller grain sizes offer a higher signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range.
Masters and HOEs recorded on ultra-high resolution silver-halide emulsions are similar to DCG
holograms and suitable for mastering. It is possible to hypersensitise such emulsions in order to
increase their sensitivity. (Ref. 1, Chapter 6)

Mass production of holograms on film has more or less already been shifted towards photopolymer
materials. E.I du Pont de Neumours & Co. has a monochrome product on the market, the OmniDex
material. This product combined with the colour-tuning film is an excellent material for mass
production since no wet processing is required, only UV-curing and baking are needed. Later this year
DuPont will introduce a panchromatic photopolymer material for colour holography.

Primarily, the main problem is to find alternatives for pulsed ruby-laser recorded holograms
(wavelength 694 nm) as well as large-format (square-meter size) film holograms (very large-format
Benton transmission and Denisyuk reflection display holograms).
 2. Silver-Halide Recording Materials

2.1 EMULSIONS

2.1.1 Introduction
A silver-halide recording photographic material is based on one type, or a combination of silver-
halide crystals embedded in a gelatin layer, commonly known as the photographic emulsion.
Actually, the photosensitive emulsion is not really an “emulsion” but rather a thin film of silver-halide
microcrystals dispersed in a colloid (gelatin). However, the term “emulsion,” is commonly used in
photography for this perpetual suspension. The emulsion is coated on a flexible or stable substrate
material. There are three types of silver-halides: silver chloride (AgCl), silver bromide (AgBr), and
silver iodide (AgI). Silver chloride is used for low sensitivity emulsions; chloride/bromide emulsions
have high light sensitivity, but the bromide/iodide emulsions have even higher sensitivity. Silver iodide is
never used alone and used in a mixture with silver bromide, it normally constitutes 5% or less. Adding
some silver iodide to fine-grained emulsions at low concentrations gives a higher sensitivity and
contrast than pure silver bromide emulsions of the same grain size. Silver-halide crystals are cubical in
shape and in each crystal a silver ion (Ag+) is surrounded by six halide ions. The crystal normally
possesses an excess of halide ions originating from the emulsion manufacturing process. Silver-halide
grain sizes vary from about 10 nanometers for the ultra-fine-grained Lippmann emulsions to a few
micrometers for high sensitive photographic emulsions (Table 1).

Table 1. Emulsion grain sizes

Type of emulsion Average grain diameter [nm]

Ultra-fine-grained holographic emulsion 10-30

Fine-grained holographic emulsion 30-50
Fast holographic emulsion 50-100
Chlorobromide paper emulsion 200
Lithographic emulsion 200-350
Fine-grained photographic emulsion 350-700
Fast photographic emulsion 1000-2000
Fast medical X-ray emulsion 2500

Silver compounds are sensitive to light at various degree. Silver chloride is only sensitive to violet and
UV light. Silver bromide absorbs light up to about 490 nm, and if silver iodide is added to silver
bromide the sensitivity extends up to about 520 nm. Special sensitisers (dyes) must be added to the
emulsion to make it sensitive to other parts of the spectrum. We say that a photographic material is
orthochromatic if it is also sensitive to green light. If the material has been sensitised to the whole
visible part of the spectrum, including red light, it is said to be panchromatic. It is also possible to
make the material sensitive to infrared light (IR).
2.1.2 Holographic emulsions
The final quality of a holographic image will be the function of a number of factors, such as; the
geometry and stability of the recording setup, the coherence of the laser light, the reference and object
beam ratio, the type of hologram produced, the size of the object and its distance from the recording
material, the recording material and the emulsion substrate used, the processing technique applied, as
well as the reconstruction conditions. We know that, if during the reconstruction of the hologram the
reference beam is identical with the recording reference beam, no image aberrations will occur. This
applies also to circumstances when the reconstruction reference beam is a conjugate of the original
reference beam (time-reversed). Theoretically, the holographic technique is the most perfect imaging
technique in existence, since both the amplitude and the phase of the light wave scattered from the
object are recorded. In practice, the holographic image is subject to certain limitations imposed by the
recording material.

Three main factors will determine the resolution of a holographic image: the recording wavelength, the
numerical aperture and the properties of the recording material itself. However, the following three
points must be considered when discussing the attainable resolution of a holographic image:

• Ideally, the ultimate resolution should be independent of the properties of the recording
material, and should depend only on the wavelength that was used for the recording as well as
on the size of the recorded area of the material (the aperture) and the object distance.
• In practice, the limit on resolution may be set by the recording material, e.g., if it cannot record
spatial frequencies above a certain limit.
• As regards aberrations introduced during the reconstruction of the hologram the following
applies: If we assume that no aberrations are introduced by altering the reference beam, the
only aberrations that will occur are then caused by the recording material itself.

A silver-halide emulsion must comply with certain requirements to be suitable for the recording of
holograms. The most important of these concerns the resolving power of the material. The recording
material must be able to resolve the highest spatial frequencies of the interference pattern created by
the maximal angle θ between the reference and the object beams in the recording setup (Fig. 1).

If λ is the wavelength of the laser light used for the recording of a hologram, then the closest
separation da between the fringes in the interference pattern (in air) is

da = ___λ____
2sin(θ/2)

In the recording layer the fringe spacing de will depend on the refractive index n of the emulsion and is

de = ___λ___
2nsin(θ/2)
 Fig. 1. Demand on resolution for recording a hologram. The recording material must resolve the highest spatial
frequencies of the interference pattern created by the maximal angle C between the reference and the object
beams in the recording setup.

One example of the resolving power needed in a practical situation using an emulsion with a refractive
index of n = 1.62 is the following: A ruby laser with the wavelength λ = 694 nm and a recording
geometry with the maximum angle θ = 25º between the beams are used. This gives de ≈1 µm, which
corresponds to v = l/d = 1000 lines/mm; this is the minimum resolving power required. Close to its
resolution limit the material will exhibit a low MTF and will thus make a low-quality hologram with poor
fringe contrast and low signal-to-noise ratio. For high-quality holograms the resolution limit of the
material must be much higher than the minimum value obtained according to the above formula. For a
reflection hologram recorded in blue light (λ = 400 nm) with an angle of 180o between the beams, a
minimum resolving power of 7600 lines/mm is needed.

2.1.3 Image resolution

Theoretically, the resolution of the holographic image should be the true diffraction-limited resolution
that can be obtained when the information is collected over an aperture equal to the size of the
recording holographic plate. In principle, the larger the holographic plate the better the resolution will
be. The limit is of the order of the wavelength λ when the dimension of the plate is infinite (D → ∞).
If the holographic plate is very large, however, the resolving power of the recording material will
eventually limit the resolution of the image. If the resolving power of the recording material is
sufficient, the diffraction-limited resolution can be obtained under the assumption that the high-
resolution recording material is also perfect in that the position of the recorded interference fringes will
not be changed during the processing of the material. In practice, a stable support for the emulsion
(like a glass plate) will be needed and the processing methods applied must be such as not to affect the
recorded fringe position in the emulsion, e.g., no fixing. The most limiting factor on the resolution of a
holographic image is, however, in the form of distortions appearing in the emulsion. These aberrations
are introduced by
• variations in the thickness of the recording medium before processing
• variations in the thickness of the recording medium produced during processing
• variation in the refractive index of the recording medium produced during processing
• deformations of the recording medium that will occur between recording and reconstruction.

2.1.4 Ultra-high-resolution emulsions of the Russian type

In Russia, the main interest has been in the production of reflection holograms of predominantly single -
beam type, also called Denisyuk holograms. In this type of hologram, the grain size is of primary
importance, which is why Russian holographers concentrate on emulsions containing very fine grains.
In the emulsion which Denisyuk used for his first holograms, grain growth was slowed down by high
concentration of KBr. The emulsion was made by Protas.2 This emulsion had grain sizes of about
30 nm. TEA was used to sensitise the emulsion prior to use. The next step was to improve the old type
of Lippmann emulsions. In this case it was possible to reduce grain sizes by instantaneous
emulsification at a low temperature. Here, emulsification temperature was 320C and chilled alcohol
was used. Rapid melting of the coagulated emulsion in a steam bath made reproducible results. A
diffraction efficiency between 20 -24 % was obtained and the grain size was about 30 nm.

The experience gained enabled Protas to make the high quality plate LOI-2 (now called PFG-02).
Protas was able to slow down grain growth during emulsification by increasing the number of growth
centers and introducing special growth inhibitors. The best Russian emulsion ever made is probably the
one achieved by Kirillov et al.3, 4 In their case, grain growth was hampered by the fact that in the
emulsification process, a highly diluted solution was used and the emulsion concentration was
increased by applying the method of gradual freezing and thawing. They used a rather diluted solution
of emulsion containing 0.1 - 1 % gelatin and the following method. Just after the emulsion has been
mixed, it is poured into a beaker and frozen at a temperature between -100C and -200C or even lower.
The emulsion is kept in the beaker for 10 to 15 hours. A rapid freezing method is also suggested. Here,
a thin layer of emulsion is poured into an already chilled tray. The frozen emulsion is then chopped into
small noodles and put on a grid for thawing. To speed up this process, the frozen emulsion noodles are
showered using cold water (3-50C). During this process, the emulsion is at the same time washed in
order to remove unwanted salts. When the temperature of the emulsion increases (about 25-300C) and
becomes liquid, it undergoes a gentle ripening. The process of freezing and thawing can be repeated
several times in order to increase the concentration of the emulsion. It has been verified that the silver
content in the emulsion typically increases about ten times in this repeated process. The silver content
of the emulsion is about 2 - 2.5 g/l at emulsification and after concentration 20 - 30 g/l. Sodium
thiosulfate is added at a temperature of 300 to 320C for 5 to 10 minutes. Then, gold sensitizing takes
place for 5 minutes as well as optical sensitizing. A 20% gelatin solution is added to the emulsion
before it is coated on glass plates. This type of emulsion is used for the PE-2 plates (now called PFG-
03) which has a grain size of about 10 nm.
2.1.5 Development of ultra-high-resolution emulsions
Russian type of emulsions can be processed in a very interesting way which will create very high-
quality low-noise holograms. The most common procedure used for these types of holograms is based
on rather diluted emulsions processed in semi-physical developers in such a way that silver particles of
the order of 20 nm are obtained. A semi-physical developer contains not only a reducing agent but also
a silver-halide solvent. In principle, during the development process Ag+ ions are reduced to metallic
silver in the latent-image centers. The number of these centers grows with increased exposure,
whereas the number of silver ions in a given emulsion is constant, i.e. it is dependent solely on the
concentration of silver in the emulsion and is independent of the exposure time. If the exposure time is
short, few centers will be formed and silver ions will produce silver particles in the same way as when
a conventional developer is used. The density of the emulsion will increase with exposure. However,
above a certain exposure (the number of latent-image centers is high) due to the action of the semi-
physical developer, the number of silver ions transferred to every center diminishes considerably,
which results in silver particles of a smaller size than for conventional processing, and which in turn
causes lower density of the emulsion, i.e. low absorption (colloidal silver). Some facts about such
emulsions and their processing have been reported by Crespo et al.5

• The optimum silver concentration in the emulsion has been found to be 1.1 g/m2 (emulsion
thickness of about 10 µm).
• The development time in the Russian GP 2 developer is about 12 minutes without agitation at
a temperature of 200C.
• The highest optical density can be obtained at the exposure of about 0.2 mJ/cm2, while the
optimal diffraction efficiency can be obtained at the exposure of about 0.6 mJ/cm2 (3 times
higher) when the optical density is reduced and colloidal silver is formed.
• The additional heat treatment also improved the diffraction efficiency, hardening the emulsion
and thus making it less prone to shrinkage during processing.
• In general, the lower the concentration of silver ions in the emulsion, the longer the
development time must be in order to obtain high diffraction efficiency.

From the discussion above it is clear why little success can be expected from the application of the
semi-physical developing technique to the Western types of silver-halide materials (such as AGFA
materials) which have a high silver content and rather large silver-halide grains. Normally, if this
technique is applied to, e.g. AGFA materials, problems with silver precipitation on the emulsion surface
combined with dispersion due to dichroic effects may occur.

It is also clear that due to the combination of very small grains in the emulsion and the demand for
higher exposure in order to create colloidal silver during processing, Russian types of emulsions will be
much less sensitive compared with commercial silver-halide emulsions produced by Western
photographic companies. However, the advantage of using slower silver-halide emulsions is very high.
The quality of the holograms recorded on such materials is higher than can be obtained on the
commonly used AGFA materials of today. This fact should be encouraging to people who now have to
learn how to use new and different silver-halide materials for holography. In the following a short
survey of existing alternatives to AGFA materials will be given.
2.2 SLAVICH MATERIALS

In Russia the main producer of holographic materials is SLAVICH Joint Stock Co, Micron Branch,
located outside Moscow.6 The main differences between the SLAVICH and the KODAK and AGFA
holographic materials are the grain size and the silver content in the emulsion. The Russian recording
emulsions can have grain sizes as small as 10 nm and the silver content is usually one-half (about 0.25
g/cm3) of the normal silver content in the Western materials. The glass plate sizes are: 4” by 5”, 8” by
10”, 288 mm by 406 mm, 609 mm by 812 mm. Glass substrate thickness between 1.8 mm and 5.0 mm.
Sheet film: 200mm by 300mm, 102mm by 127mm, 203mm by 254mm. Slavich material can also be
ordered as roll film. Later this year, SLAVICH intends to manufacture a roll film, 1 .2m by 10m.

Table 2. SLAVICH products

MATERIAL Emulsion Spectral Sensitivity Resolving

thickness sensitivity [mJ/cm2] at power
[µm] [nm] [lp/mm]
488 514 633 647

Monochrome
PFG-0l 10-12 633-647 - - 0.1 0.1 3000
PFG-03M 7 633-647 - - 3 3 10000
PFG-04 (DCG) 10-12 488-514 200 400 - - -
VRP (AH) 488-532 0.1 0.1 - - 3000
VRP-M (No AH) 7 488-532 0.1 0.1 - - 3000

Colour
PFG-03C 7 480-647 1.5 1.2 1.0 1.0 10000

The PFG-01 plate is a potential replacement for pulsed ruby laser holograms. The PFG-03 is an
excellent emulsion for reflection holograms recorded with red cw lasers.

2.2.1 Processing
The processing (development, fixing and bleaching) of Russian emulsions is slightly different from
processing AGFA materials. The Russian emulsion is much softer than AGFA emulsions. A pre-
hardening step is often necessary before development and bleaching can be performed. The following
bath is used (6 minutes):

Distilled water 750 ml

Formaldehyde 37 % (Formalin) 10 ml (10.2g)
Potassium bromide 2g
Sodium carbonate (anhydrous) 5g
Add distilled water to make 1l

Conventional developers, such as, e.g. KODAK D-19, can be used with SLAVICH products. For
reflection work, the CW-C2 Catechol developer7 works very well (after prehardening). Most
rehalogenating holographic bleach baths work and, in particular, the PBU-amidol bleach8 works very
well, without any shrinkage of the processed emulsion (after prehardening). In addition, PBQ and
Ferric EDTA bleaches work fine with these emulsions. Reversal bleaching using solvent bleaches
seems to dissolve both exposed and unexposed silver halide grains, resulting in low diffraction
efficiency and is not recommended for SLAVICH materials.
An interesting aspect of processing ultra-fine-grained emulsions is the possibility to use colloidal
development and highly diluted developers. Colloidal silver grains formed in the emulsion during
development are so small that very little absorption occurs (they act more like phase holograms).
Holographers would probably like this method, since it produces holograms with high diffraction
efficiency combined with very low scattering noise, applying a highly diluted (inexpensive) developer
only. The Russian GP-2 developer (stock solution) is frequently employed for colloidal development:

Methylphenidone 0.2 g
Hydroquinone 5 g
Sodium sulfite (anhydrous) 100 g
Potassium hydroxide 5 g
Ammonium thiocyanate 12 g
Distilled water 1 1.

Working solution: 15 ml stock solution + 400 ml distilled water. Developing time at 200C is
between 12 and 15 minutes without agitation.

After development the hologram can be fixed (which will introduce a shrinkage, and thus, a colour shift
in a reflection hologram) or desensitized (with no shrinkage) in the following solution:

Phenosafranine (C18H15CIN4) 300 mg

Methanol 0.5 1
Distilled water 0.5 1
Treatment time is about 3 minutes.

Very high-quality reflection holograms can be produced using the easy-to-use type of colloidal silver
processing. For colour holography9 the SLAVICH PFG-03c emulsion is the only commercial silver-
halide emulsion that can produce high-quality large-format holograms.

2.2.2 Emulsion investigations

A few years ago, the SLAVICH monochrome materials were tested and compared with the AGFA
products.10 A single-beam recording setup for Denisyuk reflection holograms was arranged for
recording a special test object. Helium-neon and argon ion lasers constituted the illumination sources.
The processing of the silver-halide materials were performed according to the known techniques of
obtaining high-quality amplitude and phase holograms.1 For example, the three-step processing method
of obtaining low-noise phase holograms introduced by Phillips was used for AGFA materials.11

The following silver-halide materials were investigated: AGFA Holotest 8E75HD, 8E56HD, lAE-reflex
(another Russian emulsion), and SLAVICH PFG-03. Processing of the Western materials are
indicated in the figure captions and the recipes are found in the references (e.g., Ref. 1). Phillips’
three-step processing technique, fixation-free rehalogenating bleaching (PBQ, Fe-EDTA, and PBU-
amidol bleaches), reversal bleaching (CW-C2 developer - dichromate bleach) were investigated.
Russian materials were processed in the developer GP-2 and fixed or desensitised. The main results
are summarized in Figs. 2 and 3.
.
 Scattering that occurs in the emulsion during recording limits both the resolution and the
signal-to-noise ratio. The diffraction efficiency measurements of the recorded holograms are
presented in Fig. 2. Here, the efficiencies are given as a function of the reference beam
incidence angle. The shift of the Bragg angle towards smaller values clearly demonstrates the
degree of emulsion shrinkage (in some cases expected as a result of fixing or reversal
bleaching).

Fig. 2. The diffraction efficiency of the recorded test holograms as a function of

the reference beam incidence angle.

1. Slavich PFG-03 processed in developer GP-2 and fixed.

2. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a reversal dichromate bath.
3. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath and treatment
in a sodium sulfite shrinkage bath for colour tuning.
4. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer HOLODEV 602 and bleached in a reversal dichromate bath and Phillips’
noise reduction redeveloping colloidal step.
5. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath and Phillips’
noise reduction redeveloping colloidal step.
6. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath.
7. IAE-emulsion processed in developer GP-2 and fixed.
 The noise evaluation was performed by contrast measurement in the black domain of the
recorded image of the test object as well as of the object itself. Fig. 3. The Russian PFG-03
emulsion shows the highest diffraction efficiency as well as the lowest noise level. Among the
holograms recorded on AGFA material, good results concerning both diffraction efficiency
and signal-to-noise ratio, are obtained by the developer CW-C2 and the PBU-amidol bleach.
In white-light reconstruction of the holograms of the test object the contrast was determined
by measuring the intensity difference in the image between a perfectly absorbing black area
and a perfectly white area both present in the test object. The contrast of the hologram image
reconstruction was that presented in relation to the contrast of the same features measured at
the object itself. This contrast at the object was set to be 100%. In relation to this value, the
contrasts of the reconstructions for the same set of holograms described in Fig. 2 are
presented at the back row R2 at Fig. 3. In the front row R1 the relative measurements of the
scattering noise in the holographic reconstructions are presented. The figures appearing on
vertical bars are percentage values of the maximum white that was detected in reconstruction.
This light intensity, that is measured over the perfectly black areas of the reconstructed image
of the object, is the measure of the scattering noise in the holographic reconstruction. It is
observed that the highest contrast and lowest scattering noise are related to the Russian PFG-
03 and lAE plates.

Fig. 3. Noise and contrast evaluation in holographic white-light reconstructions.

1. Slavich PFG-03 processed in developer GP-2 and fixed.

2. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a reversal dichromate bath.
3. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath and treatment
in a sodium sulfite shrinkage bath for colour tuning.
4. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer HOLODEV 602 and bleached in a reversal dichromate bath and Phillips’
noise reduction redeveloping colloidal step.
5. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath and Phillips’
noise reduction redeveloping colloidal step.
6. Agfa 8E75HD processed in developer CW-C2 and bleached in a rehalogenating PBU-amidol bath.
7. IAE-emulsion processed in developer GP-2 and fixed.
2.3 HRT MATERIALS

In Germany, Richard Birenheide manufactures holographic emulsions in his HRT company.12 The
emulsion is harder than the SLAVICH products. At the present time only glass plates are
manufactured. Later this year HRT will coat polyester film (100 µm or 180 µm thick). Initially, 500
or 600 mm wide rolls will be produced and cut to smaller sizes. The glass plate sizes are: 2.5” by
2.5”, 4” by 5”, 8” by 10”, 300 mm by 400 mm, 500 mm by 600 mm.

Table 4. HRT products

MATERIAL Emulsion Spectral Sensitivity Resolving

thickness sensitivity [mJ/cm2] at power
[µm] [nm] [lp/mm]
450 540 650 694
Monochrome
BB-700* 7 660-7 10 - - - ? ?
BB-640 7 580-650 - 0.3 - - 5000
BB-520 7 480-540 - 0.2 - - 5000
BB-450 7 410-470 0.2 0.2 - - 5000
Colour
BB-PAN 7 450/540/650 1.0 1.0 10 6000

* Proposed, not yet on the market

Recommended processing solutions for the HRT materials are an ascorbic acid developer followed
by a rehalogenating copper sulfate bleach.

Developer:
Metol 4 g
Ascorbic acid 25 g
Sodium carbonate (anhydrous) 70 g
Sodium hydroxide 15 g
Distilled water 1 1.

Bleach:
Copper sulphate 35 g
Potassium bromide 100 g
Sodium hydrogen sulphate 5 g
Distilled water 1 1.

For reversal processing: a pyrogallol developer dichromate bleach (“pyrochrome”).

-

More about silver-halide emulsions, hypersensitising, desensitising, and processing techniques can be
found in Ref. 1.
 3. Photopolymer Materials

An alternative to silver-halide material for holograms is the holographic photopolymers from E.I. du
Pont de Nemours & Co. The monochrome materials (OmniDex) are commercially available, but
the panchromatic materials are still in the development phase. Photopolymer film is a very suitable
recording material for mass replication by contact-copying holograms and HOEs from silver-halide
masters. The photopolymer materials from DuPont are easy to use for holography. It has its special
advantages of easy handling and dry processing (only UV-curing and baking). The emulsion
thickness is 20 µm. After the exposure is finished, it has to be exposed to direct strong white or UV
light for developing. DuPont recommends about 100 mJ/cm2 exposure at 350-380 nm. After that,
the hologram is put in an oven at a temperature of 1200C for two hours in order to increase the
brightness of the image.

4. References

1. H.I. Bjelkhagen: Silver Halide Recording Materials for Holography and Their Processing, Springer Series
in Optical Sciences, Vol. 66 (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, New York 1993)
2. Yu.N Denisyuk, I.R. Protas: Improved Lippmann photographic plates for recording stationary light waves.
Opt. Spectrosc. (USSR) 14, 381-383 (1963)
3. N.I. Kirillov, N.V. Vasilieva, V.L. Zielikman: Preparation of concentrated photographic emulsions by
means of their successive freezing and thawing (in Russian). Zh. Nauchn. Prikl. Fotogr. Kinematogr. 15, 441-
443 (1970)
4. N.I. Kirillov, N.V. Vasilieva, V.L. Zielikman: A method for the concentration of the hard phase of the
photographic emulsion by consecutive freezing and thawing (in Russian). Uspkhi Nauchno i Fotografli 16, 204-
211 (1972)
5. J.J. Crespo, A. Bonmati, M. Pardo: Influence of Ag+ concentration of the photographic emulsion on the
efficiency of reflection holograms. Optica Pura y Aplicada 19. 85-91 (1986)
6. Y.A. Sazonov, P.1. Kumonko: Holographic materials produced by the “Micron” plant at Slavich, in Sixth
Int’l Symposium on Display Holography, ed. by T.H. Jeong, H.I. Bjelkhagen. Proc. SPIE 3358, 31-40 (1998)
7. D.J. Cooke, A.A. Ward: Reflection-hologram processing for high efficiency in silver-halide emulsions.
AppI. Opt. 23, 934-941 (1984)
8. H.I. Bjelkhagen, N. Phillips. W. Ce: “Chemical symmetry - Developers that look like bleach agents for
holography,” in Practical Holography IV, ed. by SA. Benton. Proc. SPIE 1461, 321-328 (1991)
9. H.I. Bjelkhagen, T.H. Jeong, D. Vukicevic: Color reflection holograms recorded in a panchromatic
ultrahigh-resolution single-layer silver halide emulsion. J. Imaging Sci. Technol. 40, 134-146 (1996)
10. HI. Bjelkhagen, D. Vukicevic: Investigation of silver halide emulsions for holography, in Holographic
Imaging and Materials, ed by T.H. Jeong. Proc. SPIE 2043, 20-30 (1993)
11. N. Phillips: Bridging the gap between Soviet and Western holography, in Holography, Commemorating
the 90th Anniversary of the Birth of Dennis Gabor, ed. by P. Greguss, T.H. Jeong. SPIE Institute Volume IS
8, 206-214 (1991)
12. R. Birenheide: The BB emulsion series: current standings and future developments, in Sixth Int’l Symposium
on Display Holography, ed. by T.H. Jeong, H.I. Bjelkhagen. Proc. SPIE 3358, 28-30 (1998)