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Module Code

(M1G406242)

CALEDONIAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,


Computer SULTANATE OF OMAN
Architecture

(Session)
2010-11
MODULE HANDBOOK
(Semester A)

Module Leader
(Geetha Achuthan)

Department of Electronics and Computer


Engineering
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering

PREFACE

Department Name is only Electronic not Electronics

This module hand out is intended to provide you with a concise guide in respect of
M1G406242 Computer Architecture .This is intended to present the basics involved in this
module and it remains as a course guide to achieve the module objective. It is
recommended that the student to go through the text books and reference books that
referred under each chapter in order to have full understanding of the module. In this
handout, you will find information and advice that should prove helpful as you progress
through the module.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to all the authors whose works has been cited as
examples from their books, journals and projects.

Geetha Achuthan

Module Leader

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART A

SL NOTITLEPAGE NOPreface (by Module Leader)21.Module


Details52.Introduction53.Aims and Objectives54.Syllabus 65.Learning
Outcomes66.Learning and Teaching Strategy

(Lectures and Tutorials, Laboratory work details, Assignments


etc)67.Module Delivery and Assessments7Weekly Teaching
Schedule7Assessment Strategy 8Assessment Procedures88.Indicative
Marking Threshold for Course Work99. Appointment Slips

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART B- MODULE NOTES
CHAPTER NOCHAPTER TITLEPAGE NO
1
Computer Systems111.1Introduction 111.2Computer Systems111.3Exercises
121.4Indicative Reading and References 122Data
Representation132.1Introduction 142.2Data Representation142.3Exercises
152.4Indicative Reading and References 153Computer
Operation163.1Introduction 163.2Computer operation163.3Exercises
173.4Indicative Reading and References 174Methods of executable
programs184.1Introduction 184.2Methods of executable programs184.3Exercises
194.4Indicative Reading and References 195Fundamentals of Computer
Architecture205.1Introduction 20
5.2
Methods of Network architecture205.3
Exercises
215.4Indicative Reading and References 21 6 Assignment
22

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1. Module Details

Module Code Module Title Credits Semester Pre Requisite Knowledge


M1G406242 Computer Architecture 10 A Standard Entry Requirements

2. Introduction

Chapter1 provides an idea about computer organization and architecture and also provides
a brief history of the development of computers from early systems to present-day systems.

The binary number system and digital codes are fundamental to digital electronics. Chapter2
shows how the different data types found in digital computers are represented in binary form
in computer registers, and on the binary coding of symbols used in data processing.

Chapter3 describes the organization and architecture CPU, a part of a computer that
performs the bulk of data processing operations from the user’s view.

Chapter4 explains about the major techniques such as pipelining, parallel processing that
are used to increase the computational speed of a computer system and thus its
performance.

In the design of a computer network which is a backbone in today’s communication, different


systems comprising of hardware, software, protocol and devices are used to communicate
with one another. Chapter5 gives a brief about the fundamentals of network architecture.

3. Aims and Objectives

The main aim of this module is to introduce the concepts underlying computer systems
(hardware) and to provide a foundation for succeeding computer technology studies.

More specifically, the objectives are:

• Highlight and compare the various generation of computers.

• Understand the different Digital codes used in digital computers and their
relationship.

• Explain the various binary codes and Error detection codes used in data processing.

• Describe the basic structure of computer hardware and the functional operation of
each unit of a computer.

• Understand the concept of pipelining and the way how it speeds-up processing.

• Understand the basic hardware and software involved in making a network and
layered models used in computer network.

• To develop personal and interpersonal skills including development of self-


awareness of ability aptitude and character and self-confidence.

• To develop learning skills, including time management and work discipline;


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• To understand team working, personal relationships and authority.

4. Syllabus

The teaching syllabus will cover the following area:

Computer Systems:
Difference between Organization and Architecture, A brief history of Computers.

Data representation
Data Types, Complements, Fixed point representation, Floating point representation,
Other binary codes and Error detection codes.

Computer Operation:
General register organization, Stack Organization, Instruction formats, Addressing
modes, Program Control, RISC and CISC.

Methods of executable programs:


Parallel processing, Pipelining, Arithmetic pipelining, Instruction pipeline, Vector
Processing, Array Processing.

Fundamentals of Network Architecture:

Network Hardware, Network Software, Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP).

5. Learning Outcomes

On successful completion of this module the student will be able to:

1. Describe the range of computer systems.

2. Describe the operation of the components within computer systems.

3. Apply the different number systems used in computer arithmetic.

4. Describe the various methods of producing executable programs.

5. Describe fundamental Network architectures.

6. Identify and demonstrate transferable skills.

6. Learning And Teaching Strategy

(Lectures and Tutorials, Laboratory work details, Assignments etc)

Lectures will be used to introduce the theoretical concepts and introduce the key features of
the applications. A portion of laboratory time will be used to provide a forum for discussing
any problems with the theoretical material. Laboratory time will be used to provide
supervised practical exercises based on real examples from engineering applications to
reinforce the mechanisms described in theory, and, where possible, will be self-paced and
student centered. Directed learning will be used to prepare for and to consolidate lectures.

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7. Module Delivery and Assessments

Weekly Teaching Schedule

Week Date
commencing
from Lecture Programme

1 18 Sep 10 Difference between Organization and Architecture, A brief history of


Computers

2 19 Sep 10 Data Types

3 20 Sep 10 Complements(r’s and r-1’s compliments)

4 21 Sep 10 Fixed point representation, Floating point representation

5 22 Sep 10 Other binary codes and Error detection codes

6 23 Sep 10 General register organization, stack organization

7 24 Sep 10 Instruction formats, Addressing modes

8 25 Sep 10 Program Control, RISC and CISC

9 13 Nov 10 Parallel processing, Pipelining

10 27 Nov 10 Arithmetic pipelining, Instruction pipeline

11 28 Nov 10 Vector Processing, Array Processing

12 29 Nov 10 Network Hardware, Network Software

13 13 Nov 10 OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Reference Model

14 01 Dec 10 Revision

Assessment Strategy

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(i)Mid –term test - 20%

(ii) Coursework1 - 60%

(iii) Coursework2 - 20%

Assessment Procedures

This module is assessed by Continuous Assessments (10 credit point module)

Sl.No Description Mode Marks

Written Test
1 Mid–term Test 20%

2 Coursework1 Case Study/Lab Work 60%

3 Coursework2 Theory Based Quiz 20%

Total 100%

Pass requirement : Minimum 40%

8.Indicative Marking Threshold for Course Work

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Indicative Indicative Commentary


Grade Mark
Excellent Standard
• Exceptionally clear, well structured and theoretically
70% and informed.
above • Standard of English excellent,
A • Exceptionally good powers of analysis and interpretation.
(EXCELLENT • Adequate References
PASS) Solutions to problems
• all steps in a meticulously structured
• use of relevant units and interpretations,
• use of intelligent and innovative methods
High Standard
• Displaying a thorough understanding of the topic.
• Focusing clearly on the question
• Demonstrate extensive reading to support analysis
60-69% • Soundness of judgment
• Coherently reasoned statement with empirical evidence.
(VERY GOOD
B • Shows room for improvement
PASS) • Proper referencing to sources
Solutions to problems
• all steps in a structured manner with relevant units.
• answers to show accurate results ( may miss simple
steps)
• some interpretations of Solution (may be incomplete)

Generally good standard


• solid pieces of work which answer the question,
• show evidence of familiarity with available texts;
• a clear conclusion in a generally focused and well written
50-59% manner,
• use of citations, quotations and references.
(GOOD
C • room for improvement in breadth of reading, depth of
PASS) analysis
• References included
Solutions to problems
• Contain necessary/important steps with relevant units.
• more or less accurate results, (may miss some steps
which are not very critical to problem solving)
• lack of proper interpretation of results.
Adequate standard
• substantial room for improvement, (e.g. in terms of the
40-49% standard of written English, the sharpness of focus on the
question)
D (PASS) • lack of sophistication of the analysis
• References included, but not adequate
Solutions to problems
• steps for solving problem based on theory and principles
(may lack some steps towards the final answers)
• no substantial interpretation of the final result
F 30-39% Standard below average degree standard
• Display some potential of degree standard (falls down in
(FAIL) at least one of the categories indicated above)
Solutions to problems

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• not containing important steps for solving the problem


• initial steps correct but mistakes towards final result
Weak and well short of degree standard
failure to
• focus on question set, identify the issues accurately,
understand and use core concepts, distinguish between
Below 30% important and unimportant facts and theories, understand
(BAD FAIL) or interpret the main arguments in the literature, cite
sources; provide proper references
• a poor standard of sentence construction, grammar &
spelling.
• commit major mistakes in choosing the data/lacks
important and critical steps towards obtaining final result

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CHAPTER 1

Computer Systems

1.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an idea about computer organization and architecture and also
provides a brief history of the development of computers from early systems to present-day
systems.

Aims and Objectives

By studying this chapter the student shall be able to

 Differentiate between computer organization and architecture.

 Highlight and compare the various generation of computers.

1.2 Computer Systems


1.2.1 Difference between Organization and Architecture

 Computer Architecture: refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct


impact on the logical execution of a program.
Example: the number of bits used to represent various data types
 Computer Organization: refers to the operational units and their interconnections that
realize the architectural specifications.
Example: things that is transparent to the programmer.
 Computer Architecture comes before Computer Organization.

1.2.2 Brief History of Computers

The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes


(i) 1943-1946: ENIAC
• First general purpose computer
• 30 tons + 15000 sq. ft. + 18000 vacuum tubes + 140 KW = 5000
additions/sec
(ii) Von Neumann Machine (1945: EDVAC )
• Data and instructions are stored in a single read-write memory.
• Execution occurs in a sequential fashion from one instruction to the next.
(iii) 1946: Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS) computer
• Prototype for all subsequent general-purpose computers.
• First commercial computers are UNIVAC, UNIVAC II.

The Second Generation: Transistors (1947)


• Introduction of more complex ALU and control units
• High-level programming languages
• Provision of system software with computers

The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1958)

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• Increasing Number of I/O Ports


• Increasing Memory Size, cost.
• Different models could all run the same software, but with different
price/performance
• Bus structure was introduced.

Fourth Generation: No clear characterization


• Semiconductor memory
• Microprocessors and personal computers
• Distributed computing
• Larger and larger scales of integration

1.3 Exercises
1. Distinguish the terms Computer Architecture and Computer Organization.

2. What is meant by generation in computer terminology? How many computer generations


are there till now?

3. Explain the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes.

4. List out the various generations of computers along with their basic characteristics.

5. List out some advantages of IC technology over transistor technology.

1.4 Reference book


William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, Designing for Performance.
Fourth Edition. Prentice –Hall of India Private Limited, 1998.

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CHAPTER 2

Data Representation

2.1 Introduction
The binary number system and digital codes are fundamental to digital electronics. This
chapter shows how the different data types found in digital computers are represented in
binary form in computer registers. Majorly deals about how representation of numbers
employed in arithmetic operations, and on the binary coding of symbols used in data
processing.

Aims and Objectives


By studying this chapter the student shall be able to:

 Understand the different data types found in digital computers.

 Solve the problems based on number systems and its conversions.

 Represent and solve problems based on 1’s, 2’s, 9’s, 10’s complements.

 Analyze and explain fixed-point representation and floating- point representation.

 Explain the various binary codes and Error detection codes used in data processing.

2.2 Data Representation:

2.2.1 Data Types


The 3 main categories of data types used in registers of digital computers are:

1. Numbers

2. Alphabets

3. Discrete symbols

Number systems:
A number system of base, r (for example 10) is one that uses distinct symbols for r digits (0
to 9).The four main number systems that are commonly used in programming are:

• Binary (Base 2) - Symbols used are 1, 0


• Decimal (Base 10) - Symbols used are 0 to 9
• Octal (Base 8) - Symbols used are 0 to 7
• Hexadecimal (Base 16) - Symbols used are 0 to 9, A to F

2.2 .2 Complements
• Complements are used in computers for representing and manipulating negative
numbers.
• The two different types of Complements for a base r are

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o r’ s complement- Given a +ve number N with n digits, r’s complement is


defined as rn – N for N ≠ 0; zero otherwise.
2’s complement, 10’s complement
o (r-1)’s complement - Given a +ve number N with n digits, r-1’s complement
is defined as ( rn – 1)-N for N ≠ 0; zero otherwise.
1’s complement, 9’s complement.

• Subtraction of Unsigned Numbers: Direct method of subtraction to be used.

2.2.3 Fixed Point Representation


• Integer Representation: Signed –magnitude representation, Signed-1’s complement
representation and Signed 2’s complement representation are the 3 ways of
representing a number.

• Arithmetic Addition: Ordinary arithmetic addition, 2’s compliment addition.

• Arithmetic Subtraction: 2’s compliment subtraction.

• Overflow: Overflow occurs when 2 numbers of n digits are added and the sum is n+ 1
digit. Overflow can be detected by observing the carry.

• Decimal Fixed –Representation: The number of registers used to represent a decimal


digit depends on the binary code used.

2.2.4 Floating Point Representation


• Mantissa (m) and exponent (e) are the two parts of a number in floating point
representation.

• General form of representing a floating point number is m x re.

• If the most significant digit of the mantissa is nonzero, then a floating –point number
is said to be normalized.

• A set of subroutines will be in computers that are not having hardware for floating
point computations.

2.2.5 Other Binary codes and Error Detection codes

• Gray Code: Is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only
one bit.
• BCD (Binary- Coded Decimal): is an encoding for decimal numbers in which each
digit is represented by its own binary sequence. In BCD, four bits are generally used
to represent a digits 0 through 9.
• Excess-3 code: used on some older computers. In XS-3, numbers are represented
as decimal digits, and each digit is represented by four bits as the BCD value plus 3
(the "excess" amount).
• Weighted code: 2421 code is an example.
• ASCII Code: American Standard Code for Information Interchange is commonly used
for the binary information transmission.
• EBCDIC: Extended BCD Interchange uses 8 bits for each character.
• Parity bit is the most common error detection code which is generated at the sending
end by the parity generator. At the receiving end Parity checker will detects the error.

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2.3 Exercises
1. Problems 1 to 5 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd
Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

2. Problems 11 to 15 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd


Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

3. Problem 22 in chapter 3 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition
ISBN 0-13-175563-3

2.4Indicative reading, text books and reference book


Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

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CHAPTER 3

COMPUTER OPERATION

3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the organization and architecture CPU, a part of a computer that
performs the bulk of data processing operations from the user’s view.

Aims and Objectives


By studying this chapter the student will be able to:

 Describe how registers communicate with the ALU through buses

 Explain the operation of memory stack.

 Understand the different types of instruction formats and the addressing modes used
to retrieve data from memory.

 Understand the concept of reduced instruction set computer(RISC) and complex


instruction set computer(CISC)

3.2 Computer Operation

3.2.1 General register organization:


• Registers that are inside the CPU is used to store the intermediate results.

• For direct data transfers as well as for performing various micro operations
register organization is used.

• It comprises bus system, ALU, control unit, multiplexers, and decoder for its
operation

3.2.2 Stack Organization:


• Stack is a storage device that stores the last item of information in the top.

• It is otherwise known as LIFO (last in first out).

• Push (insertion of item) and pop (deletion of an item) are the two operations of a
stack.

• Stack organization is very effective in evaluating arithmetic expressions.

3.2.3 Instruction Formats:


• An instruction is normally made up of a combination of an operation code (op
code) and some way of specifying an operand.

• A set of rules defining the way the operands, data and addresses are arranged in
an instruction is known as instruction format.
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• General Format of any instruction is op code operand .E.g.: ADD R1,A,B

• Zero-Address Instructions, One-Address Instructions, Two-Address Instructions


and Three -Address Instructions are the types of instructions based on the
address it is holding.

3.2.4 Addressing Modes:


• An addressing mode specifies how to calculate the effective memory
address of an operand in an instruction.

• The most common addressing modes are:

 Immediate addressing mode

 Direct addressing mode

 Indirect addressing mode

 Register addressing mode

 Register indirect addressing mode.

3.2.5 RISC and CISC:


• CISC(Complex instruction set computer) characteristics are :

 A large number of instructions.

 A large variety of addressing modes(5 to 20)

 Variable length instruction formats.

• RISC(Reduced instruction set computer) characteristics are :

 Relatively few instructions. Hardwired.

 Relatively few addressing modes.

 Fixed –length, easily decoded instructions.

3.3 Exercises
Problems 3, 13, 14, 16 in Chapter 8 of Morris Mano, S., Computer System
Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3.

3.4 Indicative reading, text books and reference book


Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

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CHAPTER 4

METHODS OF EXECUTABLE PROGRAMS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter explains about the major techniques such as pipelining, parallel processing
that are used to increase the computational speed of a computer system and thus its
performance.

Aims and Objectives


By studying this chapter the student shall be able to:

 Understand the concept of pipelining and the way how it speeds-up processing.

 Explain arithmetic pipelining and instruction pipelining concepts.

4.2 Methods of executable programs

4.2.1 Parallel Processing


• It is the processing of program instructions by dividing them among multiple
processors to run a program in less time.

• Two or more tasks can be performed by a computer simultaneously. For example,


parallel processing takes place when one instruction is being run while another
instruction is being read from memory.

4.2.2 Pipelining

• Pipelining is a technique of allowing more than one instruction to be in some stage of


execution at the same time.

• Pipeline processor can be used to implement any operation that can be decomposed
into a sequence of sub operations of the same complexity.

• Processing speed of a system gets increased if pipelining technique is used.

4.2.3 Arithmetic Pipelining


• An arithmetic operation is divided into sub-operations for executing in the pipeline
segments.

• Arithmetic pipeline concept is usually found in high speed computers.

• Used to implement floating-point operations, multiplication of fixed-point numbers and


in scientific operations.

4.2.4 Instruction Pipelining


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• By using instruction pipelining consecutive instructions can be read from the memory
while the previous instructions are being executed in some other segment.

• It permits the overlapping of instruction fetch and execute phases.

• Three major conflicts of instruction pipelining are (i) Resource conflicts (ii) Data
dependency and (iii) Branch difficulties.

4.2.5 Vector Processing

• Vector processing is a procedure for speeding the processing of information by a


computer.

• Pipelined units are used to perform arithmetic operations on uniform, linear


arrays of data values.

• Used mainly in computers that is involved in specialized applications such as


Medical diagnosis, space flight simulations.

4.2.6 Array Processor

• It is a processor which is used to perform computations on large arrays of data.

• It refers to two types of processors (i) Attached array processor (ii) SIMD Processor.

• The performance of a computer in specific numerical computations can be improved

by using array processor in it.

4.3 Exercises
1. Explain the terms (i) Parallel processing and (ii) Pipelining.

2. Explain in detail Arithmetic Pipelining.

3. Explain in detail Instruction Pipelining.

4. Explain the main features of (i) Vector Processing and (ii) Array Processing.

4.4 Indicative reading, text books and reference book


Morris Mano, S., Computer System Architecture, 3rd Edition ISBN 0-13-175563-3

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CHAPTER 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

5.1 Introduction
In the design of a computer network which is a backbone in today’s communication, different
systems comprising of hardware, software, protocol and devices are used to communicate
with one another. This chapter gives a brief about the fundamentals of network architecture.

Aims and Objectives


By studying this chapter the student can be able to:

 Understand the basic hardware and software involved in making a network.

 Explain the seven layered and four layered models used in computer network.

5.2 Methods of Network Architecture:

5.2.1 Network hardware

• Networking hardware includes the set of equipment needed to perform data-


processing and communications within the network.
• Computers, Routers, switches, hubs, gateways, access points, network interface
cards, Networking cables, network bridges, modems, ISDN adapters, firewalls
and other related hardware are the major equipment used in networking.
• The most common kind of networking hardware today is Copper-based Ethernet
adapters.

5.2.2 Network Software

• Network software is highly structured by using techniques such as Protocol


Hierarchies, Interfaces and Services like connection oriented and connectionless
networks.

5.2.3 Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP)

5.2.3.1 OSI Reference Model

• The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is the International Standards


Organization’s model.

• It is a seven layered architecture that defines a networking framework for


implementing protocols in seven layers.

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• Control will be passed from one layer to the next starting at the application layer (top
layer) in one station, and proceeding to the (bottom layer) physical layer over the
channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

5.2.3.2 TCP/IP Model


• The TCP/IP model, Internet Protocol Suite, is a four layered architecture that
describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific
networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network.

• TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted,


addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.

5.3 Exercises
1. Define computer network.

2. Explain (i) Hardware and (ii) Software.

3. Explain the various applications of the computer network.

4. Explain the different layers of ISO OSI reference model used for computer
network with a diagram.

5. Explain the different layers of TCP/IP reference model used for computer network
with a diagram.

6. Write short notes on the following

(i)Internet

(ii)Firewall

(iii)Intranet

5.4 Indicative reading, text books and reference book


1. Andrew S.Tanenbaum. Computer Networks, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.isbn-81-203-1165-5.
2. Networking Fundamentals, CCNA Exploration Companion Guide. Dye, Mark, McDonald,
Rick Rufi, Antoon. 1st Edition Published Oct 29th 2007 ISBN 978- 1-58713-208-7
3. McQuerry, Steven. Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices, Part 1 (ICND1): CCNA Exam
640-802 and ICND1 Exam 640-822, 2nd Edition, Published December 2007. ISBN-13: 978-
1-58705-462-4

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Assignment

Aim of the assignment: To enable the student to study the different generation of
computers, computer operation.

Objective:
The Computer Architecture Assignment has been developed to allow the student to:

 To identify the computer operations

 To learn the revolution of computers

 To know about network categories and protocols

Task expected:

1. Explain the operation steps involved in the fetch-execute cycle of a computer.

2. Explain the advantages of direct memory access data transfer as compared to


program controlled data transfer.

3. Briefly explain the characteristics of the following computer systems. Give two
examples for each category.

(i) Microcomputers

(ii) Mainframe computers

(iii) Supercomputers

4. Write in detail the following topics.

(i) Local area network

(ii) TCP/IP

5. With the help of a flow chart explain the process of program execution.

Module Code & Title: M1G406242 Computer Architecture

Lecturer / Date: Geetha Achuthan

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