English For Physicists

Unit 1.
WHAT IS PHYSICS 1
УДК 811.111’276.6:53(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1-324я73-1
Ч-46
Под редакцией Г. А. Пусенковой
Рецензенты:
кафедра английского языка № 1
Белорусского национального технического университета
(заведующий кафедрой кандидат филологических наук, доцент С. А. Хоменко);
доцент кафедры теории и практики перевода № 1
Минского государственного лингвистического университета
кандидат филологических наук, доцент В. Г. Минина
Черенда, А. Э.
Ч-46 Английский язык для физиков = English for Physicists : учеб. пособие / А. Э. Че
ренда, Г. А. Пусенкова, О. И. Комкова ; под ред. Г. А. Пусенковой. – Минск : БГУ,
2020. – 303 с. : ил.
ISBN 978-985-566-892-4.
В учебном пособии содержатся оригинальные аутентичные тексты, задания и упраж-

нения, направленные на активизацию всех видов речевой деятельности (чтение, говоре-
ние, аудирование, письмо), развитие иноязычной профессиональной компетенции.
Предназначено для студентов учреждений высшего образования по специальностям
«Физика (по направлениям)», «Ядерная физика и технологии», «Физика наноматериалов
и нанотехнологий», «Компьютерная физика».
УДК 811.111’276.6:53(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1-324я73-1
ISBN 978-985-566-892-4 © БГУ, 2020

contents
предиСловие...............................................................................................................4
Part I. General Physics..............................................................................................5

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS?....................................................................................6
Unit 2. mechanics............................................................................................. 17
Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion............................................................. 28
Unit 4. Energy.................................................................................................... 41
Unit 5. molecular physics........................................................................... 57
Unit 6. Thermodynamics............................................................................... 67
Unit 7. Brownian Motion.............................................................................. 80
Unit 8. magnetism............................................................................................. 90
Unit 9. Electric field and Electric current................................ 102
Unit 10. Michael Faraday............................................................................ 119
Unit 11. Optics................................................................................................... 133
Unit 12. Reflection and refraction.................................................... 145
Unit 13. Luminescence................................................................................. 158
Unit 14. Atomic physics................................................................................ 171
Unit 15. Atomic models................................................................................ 181
Part II. Glossary......................................................................................................... 193
Part III. Nobel Prize Winners in Physics..................................................... 231
Appendices................................................................................................................. 271
literature. ................................................................................................................ 302

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Учебное пособие «English for Physicists» – часть учебно-методического комплек-

са по дисциплине «Иностранный язык (английский язык)». Цель издания – развитие
у студентов иноязычной профессиональной компетенции. Этому способствует содер-
жащийся в нем аутентичный актуальный и познавательный материал. Тематика текстов
соответствует учебным дисциплинам, изучаемым студентами-физиками, расширяет
знания, необходимые в будущей профессии.
Книга состоит из пятнадцати тематических блоков. Каждый блок (Unit) включа-
ет следующие разделы: “Warm-up”, “Vocabulary Focus”, “Reading”, “Comprehension
Сheck”,“Speaking”, “Video View”, “Additional Reading”, “Personal Achievement Checklist”,
систему упражнений на развитие языковых и речевых умений и навыков. Раздел
“Vocabulary Focus” содержит упражнения, направленные на формирование и развитие
лексических навыков, разделы “Reading” и “Speaking” ориентированы на развитие на-
выков изучающего чтения и говорения. Материалы, представленные в разделе “Video
View”, развивают навыки аудирования и говорения, отражают ситуации реального про-
фессионального общения специалистов естественно-научного профиля. Отличитель-
ная особенность издания – внедрение и использование раздела “Personal Achievement
Checklist” – современного инструмента самооценки и рефлексии собственной деятель-
ности студента. Структура каждого раздела предполагает как последовательное выпол-
нение всех предложенных упражнений, так и их выборочное использование.
В учебном пособии есть глоссарий, информация о нобелевских лауреатах по физике,
приложение, где описаны термины, символы, встречающиеся в научной литературе, и др.
Представленный разнообразный учебный материал можно интегрировать в систему
дистанционного обучения с применением современных инновационных технологий и
интерактивных методов обучения.
Unit 1
WHAT IS PHYSICS?
All science is either physics or stamp collecting.
Ernest Rutherford
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “What is physics?” What do you know
about physics?
2. Think of 5–7 questions the answers to which you hope to find in the text.
3. In pairs, ask and answer these questions.
 VOCABULARY FOCUS
1. Mind the pronunciation of the following words.
accurate ['ækjərət] liquid ['lɪkwɪd]
ancient ['eɪnʃ(ə)nt] mechanical [mɪ'kænɪk(ə)l]
atom ['ætəm] mechanics [mɪ'kænɪks]
atomic [ə'tɔmɪk] molecular [mə'lekjulə]
behaviour [bɪ'heɪviə] molecule ['mɔlɪkjuːl]
characteristic [ kærɪktə́'rɪstɪk] natural ['næʧ(ə)r(ə)l]
'
deal (v) [diːl] nature ['neɪʧə]
devise (v) [dɪ'vaɪz] nuclear ['njuːklɪə]
dozen ['dʌz(ə)n] nuclei ['njuːklɪaɪ]
electricity [ ɪlek'trɪsɪtɪ] nucleus ['njuːklɪəs]
'
electron [ɪ'lektrɔn] particle ['pɑːtɪkəl]
experiment [ɪk'sperɪmənt] phenomenon [fɪ'nɔmɪnən]
experimental [ɪk sperɪ'ment(ə)l] physics ['fɪzɪks]
'
fermionic [fɜːmɪ'ɔnɪk] plasma ['plæzmə]
govern (v) ['gʌv(ə)n] substance ['sʌbstəns]
knowledge ['nɔlɪʤ] technique [tek'niːk]
law [lɔː] theoretical [θɪə'retɪk(ə)l]
2. Guess what the following terms mean.
Phenomenon, motion, heat, magnetism, energy, matter, nucleus, charge, electron, plasma,
electricity, particle, molecule.
3. Below you will find a list of words and word combinations mentioned in the text
“What is physics?” Choose their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) ancient science a) свет
2) basic concepts b) химическая реакция
3) chemical reaction c) обычное состояние
6 Part I. General Physics

4) conventional state d) конденсат фермиона
5) experimental physics e) древняя наука
6) fermionic condensate f) основные взаимоотношения
7) fundamental relations g) суммарный электрический заряд
8) in terms of h) природные явления
9) light i) проводить наблюдения
10) to make observations j) экспериментальная физика
11) natural phenomena k) на основе
12) total electrical charge l) основные понятия
4. The words given in A are used in the text “What is physics?” Choose their definitions
in B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) atom a) rule made by authority for the proper regulation of a community or
2) characteristic society
3) charge b) smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical change
4) to exist c) to go round in a circle
5) law d) special mark or quality
6) nature e) not in the form of a liquid or gas
7) phenomenon f) that which is or can be heard
8) physics g) group of sciences dealing with matter and energy, but usually
9) to predict excluding chemistry and biology
10) to revolve h) amount of electricity (to be) put into an accumulator, contained in
11) solid (adj) a substance
12) sound i) to be or go all around
13) to surround j) thing that appears to or is perceived by the senses
k) to be real
l) the whole universe and every created thing
m) to say, tell in advance
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “What is physics?” Pay
attention to the suffixes used to form them.
to vary to know to differ to react
mechanics to observe molecule to investigate
magnet accurate primary convention
electric to behave to transform to relate
6. Match nouns and verbs to form collocations. Use each verb and each noun once
only. Consult the text “What is physics?” if necessary.
1) to come a) laws
2) to devise b) knowledge
3) to formulate c) experiments
4) to give d) the behaviour of natural phenomena
5) to govern e) transformations
6) to make f) phenomena
7) to predict g) observations
8) to study h) one’s origin from
9) to take i) in contact with
Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 7

7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “What is physics?” Choose
their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may differ
from those in the list.
different connection notion to show
fact, incident present-day, novel to create mainly
precisely significant to characterize, to picture entire, whole
basic, essential progress study test
8. The words given below are used with certain prepositions. Find these words in the
text “What is physics?” and give their translation.
to depend to deal to be composed
to divide to consist to revolve
to base to be equal to merge
 READING
Read and translate the text and fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.
what is phYsics?
Physics is one of the most ancient sciences about nature. The word “physics” takes its origin
from the Greek word “phewsis” meaning nature.
Physics is the science studying various phenomena in nature: mechanical motion, heat,
sound, electricity, magnetism and light.
Physics is one of the main sciences about nature. The development of other sciences depends
in many respects on the knowledge of physical phenomena.
Physics divides itself very naturally into two great branches, experimental physics and theoretical
physics. The former is the science of making observations and devising experiments which give us
accurate knowledge of the actual behaviour of natural phenomena. On the basis of experimental facts
theoretical physics formulates laws and predicts the behaviour of natural phenomena.
Every physical law is based on experiments and is devised to correlate and to describe
accurately these experiments. The wider the range of experience covered by such a law, the
more important it is.
Physics is divided into half a dozen or more different fields – mechanics, sound, heat,
electricity and magnetism, light, molecular, atomic and nuclear physics. These different fields
are not distinct but merge into each other.
In all cases physics deals primarily with phenomena that can be accurately described in terms of
matter and energy. Hence, the basic concepts in all physical phenomena are the concepts of matter
and energy. Therefore, it is important to determine accurately the characteristics of both matter
and energy, the laws that govern their transformations, and
the fundamental relations that exist between them.
Every substance or material that we come in contact
with or which is known to man can be divided into particles
known as molecules. Chemical reactions indicate that the
molecules are composed of smaller units, or atoms, and
modern physical methods of investigation have shown that
the atom consists of a centrally situated nucleus with a total
positive charge surrounded by a number of electrons which

revolve around the nucleus. In a stable atom, the total positive charge of the nucleus is equal to
the total negative charge of the electrons which surround the nucleus. The total electrical charge
is zero and this is the conventional state of most atoms.
Matter can exist in four states: solid, gas, liquid and plasma. However, advances in
experimental techniques have realized other phases such as Bose-Einstein condensates and
fermionic condensates.
Notes to the text

•• The former is the science of making observations… – Первая из двух упомянутых – это
наука о проведении экспериментов…
•• The wider the range of experience covered by such a law, the more important it is. – Чем шире
область, которую этот закон охватывает, тем важнее он.
•• … both matter and energy… – … как материи, так и энергии…
•• the former... the latter – первый… последний (из двух названных)
 COMPREHENSION СHECK
1. Choose the correct ending to the following sentences.
1. The word “physics” …
a) originates from the Greek language.
b) takes its origin from Latin.
c) means motion.
2. Experimental physics …
a) gives accurate knowledge of the natural phenomena behaviour.
b) is connected with observations and making experiments.
c) is aimed at formulating laws.
3. Theoretical physics …
a) describes physical processes and phenomenon.
b) is aimed at acquiring knowledge about natural phenomenon.
c) formulates laws.
4. Physical laws …
a) are based on mathematical theorems.
b) are created to describe experiments.
c) describe the behaviour of natural phenomena.
5. Physics divides into …
a) several fields, i.e. molecular, nuclear and atomic physics.
b) different fields such as mechanics, sound, heat, electricity and magnetism, light, etc.
c) half a dozen or more fields – mechanics, thermodynamics, sound, heat, electricity and
magnetism.
6. Physics deals with phenomena that …
a) are explained in terms of energy and light.
b) can be described by means of two concepts matter and energy.
c) characterize energy and matter transformations.
7. Every substance …
a) consists of molecules.
b) is divided into neutrons, electrons and positrons.
c) is composed of nuclei and electrons.

8. The total electrical charge of the atom is …
a) positive.
b) equal to zero.
c) negative.
9. There …
a) are three states of matter: gas, liquid and solid.
b) exist more than four states of matter because such phases as Bose-Einstein condensates and
fermionic condensates have been found.
2. Answer the following questions.

1. What does physics study?
2. Where does the word “physics” originate from?
3. What branches does it divide into?
4. What is the purpose of experimental physics?
5. What is theoretical physics aimed at?
6. Why are physical laws devised?
7. What fields of physics can you name?
8. What are basic concepts in all physical phenomena?
9. What does every substance divide into?
10. What are molecules composed of?
11. What does the atom consist of?
12. What is the total electrical charge equal to?
13. What states of matter do you know?
3. The sentences given below are jumbled. Arrange them in the logical order to sum
up the contents of the text “What is physics?”
1. Every physical law is based on experiments and describes these experiments.
2. The atom consists of a nucleus and a number of electrons revolving around it.
3. Physics studies various phenomena in nature: mechanical motion, heat, sound, electricity, etc.
4. The total electrical charge is zero.
5. The word “physics” takes its origin from Greek.
6. Physics divides into different fields – mechanics, sound, heat, electricity and magnetism,
molecular, atomic and nuclear physics.
7. Physics divides into experimental and theoretical physics.
8. The basic concepts in all physical phenomena are those of matter and energy.
9. Theoretical physics formulates laws and predicts the behaviour of natural phenomena.
10. Matter can exist in four states: solid, gas, liquid and plasma.
11. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the characteristics of both matter and energy.
12. Experimental physics is aimed at making observations and devising experiments.
13. Every substance can be divided into molecules that are composed of atoms.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “What is physics?” to
•• give the definition of physics;
•• name the objectives of theoretical physics and experimental physics;
•• describe the structure of the atom.

2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of modern
physics. You were asked to deliver a report about physics. Use all important facts
from the text “What is physics?” and the mind map given below to speak on the
theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “What is physics?”
and fulfill the tasks given below.
Pre-viewing tasks
acceleration [ək selə'reɪʃ(ə)n] lose (v) [luːz]
'
apply (v) [ə'plaɪ] nature ['neICə]
approach (v) [ə'prəʊʧ] newtonian [njuː'təʊnɪən]
bounce (v) [bauns] pendulum ['pendjʊləm]
catapult ['kætəpʌlt] quantify (v) ['kwɔntɪfaɪ]
electricity [ɪ lek'trɪsɪtɪ] reaction [rɪ'ækʃ(ə)n]
'
equal ['iːkwəl] rewind (v) [ riː'waɪnd]
'
fascinating ['fæsɪneɪtɪŋ] science ['saɪəns]
Galileo Galilei [ gælɪ'leɪəʊ'gælɪleɪ] size [saɪz]
'
kinematics [ k(a)ɪnɪ'mætɪks] weight [weɪt]
'
length [leŋθ]

2. Guess what the following words and word combinations mean.
Mechanics, action, reaction, speed of light, acceleration, motion, thermodynamics,
electromagnetism, quantum theory, electricity, kinematics, length, force, inertia, gravity, particle,
light, optics.
3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

1) to apply a force a) применять силу
2) to approach the speed of light b) создать (придумать) три закона
3) to be at rest c) приближаться к скорости света
4) to be made up of d) раскачиваться вперед и назад
5) to come up with three laws e) проходить фазы
6) to deal with big objects f) избавиться от силы тяжести
7) to get rid of gravity g) увеличить массу
8) to go back to h) иметь дело с большими объектами
9) to go through phases i) использовать программное обеспечение
10) to increase one’s mass j) вернуться к
11) Leaning Tower of Pisa k) покоиться
12) to make amazing discoveries l) состоять из
13) to swing back and forth m) делать удивительные открытия
14) to use software n) Пизанская башня
4. Match the terms and their definitions.

1) acceleration a) force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth,
2) electromagnetism or towards any other physical body having mass
3) force b) branch of science concerned with vision, sight, and light
4) gravity c) speed with which smth moves or happens
5) inertia d) influence tending to change the motion of a body or
6) kinematics produce motion or stress in a stationary body
7) mass e) branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects
8) optics without reference to the forces which cause the motion
9) rate f) property of matter by which it continues in its existing
state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
the state is changed by an external force
g) quantity of matter which a body contains, as measured
by its acceleration under a given force or by the force
exerted on it by a gravitational field
h) branch of physics concerned with the interaction of
electric currents or fields and magnetic fields
i) rate of change of velocity per unit of time
Post-viewing tasks
1. Find logical mistakes in the sentences given below. Take into account the contents
of the film.
1. The word “physics” comes from the Latin word “phewsis”.
2. Galileo made some discoveries in electricity.
3. Galileo made some experiments on pendulums.
4. Isaac Newton formulated two laws of motion.

5. The first law is as follows: when an object is at rest, it tends to stay at rest.
6. The second law can be summed up in the following way: for every action there’s an opposite
reaction.
7. If we apply a force to a small mass, we’ll get a small acceleration and vice versa.
8. Newtonian physics works if we deal with both big and small objects.
9. The laws of physics are the same whether we deal with objects moving with the speed of light
or with a less speed.
10. Quantum mechanics explains phenomena and processes taking place at the molecular level.

1. What does the word “physics” mean?
2. What was Galileo good at?
3. What devices did Galileo use while making his experiments?
4. What field of physics did Galileo contribute to?
5. What did Newton formulate?
6. What does Newton’s first (second, third) law state?
7. What does Newton’s second law mean?
8. Who was the first to explain what happens to objects if they move at the speed of light?
9. What does thermodynamics (electromagnetism) deal with?
10. What is physics?
up the contents of the film.
1. Newton came up with three laws of motion.
2. Speed is another thing. The rules tend to change if we go from speed where we do not move
or move as fast as a bicycle to the speed of light.
3. Classical mechanics only works if we deal with big objects, e.g. the objects of the size of a
catapult.
4. The first law states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest, an object in motion tends to
stay in motion.
5. But there are other fields of physics, e.g. thermodynamics, electromagnetism.
6. Einstein was the first to explain what happens to objects when they move at the speed of
light.
7. What I want you to understand is that physics is a way to understand our world.
8. The word ‘physics’ comes from the Greek language.
9. And Einstein found that when we start to approach the speed of light, time will slow down
for us.
10. The third law is as follows: for every action there’s an opposite and equal reaction.
11. It is the oldest science that we have.
12. But when we get down to the atomic level, it really doesn’t make sense.
13. Richard Feynman explained what would happen not only at a high speed but at the atomic
level.
14. One of the big names is Galileo Galilei who made some amazing discoveries.
15. The second law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration.
16. Now we’ll talk a little bit about Isaac Newton.
17. Classical mechanics is only one thin slice of physics.
4. Describe experiments illustrating Galileo’s discovery and Newton’s laws of motion.

 ADDITIONAL READING
A. Read the text “Тhе history of physics” and translate it in writing.
The history of phYsics
The most advanced science at present is physics. The history of this science begins with Galileo.
Galileo – and in а lesser degree Dеsсагtеs – introduced the fundamental concepts аnd
principles which wеrе enough for physics until the рrеsеnt century. They showed that the laws
of motion аrе the same for all kinds of dead matter and рrobably for living matter also.
Galileo intrоduсеd the two рrinсiрles that made mathematical physics possible: the law of
inertia and the раrаllеlоgrаm law. The law of inеrtiа, now familiar as Newton’s first law of motion
made it possible to calculate the motions of matter bу means of the laws of dynamics alone.
Тесhniсаllу, the prinсiрlе of inеrtiа meant that
causal laws of physics should bе stated in terms of
ассеlеratiоn, i.e. а change of velocity in amount or
direction or both which was found in Nеwtоn’s law
of gгаvitаtiоn. From the law of inеrtiа it followed
that the causal laws of dynamics must bе differential
equations of the second order, though this fоrm of
statement could nоt bе made until Newton and
Leibniz had developed the infinitesimal calculus.
Most of what students do оn the mathematical side
of physics mау bе fоund in Newton’s Principles. Тhе
basic idea of dynamics, the еquаtiоns of motion,
the ideas of momentum, of inеrtiа, of mass and of ассeleration wеrе applied bу Newton to lаrgе
bodies like the Earth аnd the Мооn to explain the structure аnd the motion of the universe. From
Newton to the end of the nineteenth сеnturу, the рrоgrеss of physics invоlvеd nо basically new
рrinсiрlеs. Тhе first rеvоlutiоnаrу novelty was Planck’s intrоduсtiоn of the quаntum constant
h to explain the structure аnd behaviour of atoms in 1900. Аnother departure frоm Nеwtоniаn
рrinсiрlеs followed in 1905, when Еinstеin published his special theory of rеlаtivitу.
In fact, whеn modern sсiеnсе was gгоwing up from the time of Galileo to the time of
Newton, all the sciences wеrе verу much joined tоgеthеr. А single man could do absolutely first-
class rеsеаrсh in рurе mathematics, in physics, in сhеmistrу and even in biology. Towards the
end of that time the sciences were bеginning to separate. Just at this moment we саn see а grеаt
convergence of all sсiеnсеs. Physics is increasingly реnеtrаting all the other раrts of science.
Оur job in physics is to understand а great many complicated phenomena in а unified way
in tеrms of а few simple рrinсiрlеs. Yоu саnnоt рrеdiсt what will happen in future, but уоu have
to bе rеаdу to meet it.
B. Read the text “What is physics?” and fulfill the tasks given below.
What is physics?
Physics is the science that deals with matter and energy and the relationships that exist
between them. Physics is the most comprehensive of the natural sciences because it includes
the behaviour of all kinds of matter from the smallest particles to the largest galaxies. The
word «physics» originates from a Greek word meaning natural things. Physics was originally
called natural philosophy and included all natural science. As a large amount of knowledge

was collected on a particular subject within natural philosophy, that subject branched off and
developed into a separate science.
Various laws of physics are attempts to explain the behaviour of nature in a simple and general
way. Even the most accepted laws of physics, however, are subject to change. Nature’s behaviour
does not change, but techniques for determining its behaviour do change and become more
accurate. At the beginning of the 20th century, the laws of physics were tested extensively and it was
found that they were too narrow to explain many of the new discoveries. A new body of theories
was started. The older body of laws is called classical physics; the new is called modern physics.
uv visible infrared
14
Spectral radiance (kW ⋅ sr–1 ⋅ m–2 ⋅ nm–1)
12
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Wavelength (mm)
The ultraviolet catastrophe
Classical physics is based primarily on the laws of motion and gravitation of Sir Isaac Newton
and the theory of electromagnetic radiation of James Clerk Maxwell. In classical physics matter
and energy are two separate concepts. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It
exists in three basic forms. Plasma – highly ionized gas – has been called a fourth form. Energy
is the capacity to move matter; as more commonly stated, it is the capacity to do work. Energy
exists as mechanical energy, chemical energy, radiant energy, and nuclear energy. Some of the most
important laws in classical physics are the conservation laws. Classical physics is usually divided into
several branches, each of which deals with a group of related phenomena (mechanics, dynamics,
hydromechanics, statics, optics, thermodynamics, acoustics, the study of electricity and magnetism).
Modern physics is based on the theory of relativity of Albert Einstein and the quantum theory
of Max Planck and others. Matter and energy are not separate concepts, but are alternate forms
of each other. The theory of relativity states that matter and energy are interchangeable and that
mass and time can vary. Quantum theory states that light and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation behave as though they had a double nature. Sometimes they behave as waves; at other
times they behave as particles. Small particles of matter also have a double, or wave-particle,
nature. Modern physics is broken up into various fields of study (atomic physics, nuclear physics,
high-energy physics, or particle physics, ultrasonics, solid-state physics, plasma physics).
1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

1. Physics deals with … .
2. It is the most comprehensive … .
3. Various laws of physics … .

4. Nature’s behaviour … .
5. Classical physics … .
6. Matter is … .
7. Energy exists … .
8. Classical physics is divided … .
9. Modern physics is based … .
10. The theory of relativity states … .
11. Quantum theory states … .
2. Formulate the main idea of the text.
3. Choose key sentences from the text to speak on the problem described. Make use
of the following prompts.
1. The text is about … .
2. At first the author describes (defines, analyzes, determines, considers, regards, states that, etc.) … .
3. Then the author passes on (to) (turns to) the description (analysis, definition, determination,
consideration, etc.) of … .
4. It is pointed out (indicated, showed, admitted, etc.) that … .
5. At the end of the text the author draws the following conclusion … .
6. The author concludes by stating (pointing out, stressing, underlining, emphasizing, etc.) that … .
7. In my opinion (I think (suppose, believe, etc.)) that … .
If necessary use the following words connecting sentences or paragraphs with one
another.
•• Also, furthermore, in addition;
•• first, next, finally, later, afterwards;
•• but, still, although, though, yet, however, nevertheless;
•• for example, in other words;
•• in brief, in short.
 Personal Achievement Checklist

Now In Future
I know I am going to

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 2
mechanics
Gravitation is not responsible for people falling in love.
Albert Einstein
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Mechanics”. What do you know about
mechanics?
acceleration [ək selə'reɪʃ(ə)n] mathematical [ mæθə'mætɪk(ə)l]
' '
angular ['æŋgjulə] mechanism ['mekənɪz(ə)m]
dynamics [daɪ'næmɪks] momentum [mə'mentəm]
energy ['enəʤɪ] motion ['məʊʃ(ə)n]
enunciate (v) [ɪ'nʌnsɪeɪt] particle ['pɑːtɪkl]
equilibrium [ iːkwɪ'lɪbrɪəm] postulate ['pɔstjulɪt]
'
equality [ɪ'kwɔlɪtɪ] precision [prɪ'sɪʒ(ə)n]
force [fɔːs] propulsion [prə'pʌlʃ(ə)n]
frictional ['frɪkʃ(ə)nəl] relativity [ relə'tɪvɪtɪ]
'
kinematics [ k(a)ɪnɪ'mætɪks] rigid ['rɪʤɪd]
'
law [lɔː] survive (v) [sə'vaɪv]
2. Guess what the following words mean.
Classical, to balance, postulate, phenomenon, to formulate, to ignore, approximation, planetary,
orbital, kinematics, dynamics, conservation, energy, stress.
3. Below you will find a list of terms mentioned in the text “Mechanics”. Choose their
Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) acceleration a) точность
2) action b) относительность
3) angular momentum c) размер, размерность
4) dimension d) трение
5) equilibrium e) действие, воздействие
6) force f) угловой момент, вращательный момент
7) friction g) частица
8) interaction h) поступательное движение, тяга
Unit 2. Mechanics 17
9) law of conservation i) взаимодействие
10) motion j) закон сохранения
11) particle k) сила
12) precision l) ускорение
13) propulsion m) движение
14) relativity n) равновесие
4. The words given in A are used in the text “Mechanics”. Choose their definitions in
B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) application a) to say, to tell in advance
2) framework b) deep, having great knowledge
3) to interfere c) not clear or distinct; uncertain
4) rigid d) the same, not varying in form, quality, etc.
5) to predict e) that part of a structure that gives shape and support
6) profound f) firm, strict, unbending
7) uniform g) to prevent, to hinder
8) vague h) putting to practical use
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Mechanics”. Pay attention
to the suffixes and prefixes used to form them.
to apply initial firm accurate
precise planet equal difficult
to vary orbit to consider friction
to interact relative to conserve definite
only. Consult the text “Mechanics” if necessary.
1) to achieve a) phenomena
2) to balance b) intrinsic properties of bodies
3) to constitute c) centre stage
4) to determine d) a state of rest
5) to enunciate e) the science of statics
6) to hold f) limits of structures
7) to ignore g) one’s energy
8) to play h) forces
9) to predict i) an important part
10) to sap j) one’s importance
11) to undervalue k) basic postulates
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Mechanics”. Choose their
synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may differ from
those in the list.
to explain to compute peculiar tough, hard
effect significance idea interplay
rule to appear uncertain size
accuracy

text “Mechanics” and translate them.
to account to lead to be concerned to range
to act to center to inherit to consist
to arise to deal to derive
 READING
mechanics
Classical mechanics deals with the motion of bodies under the influence of forces or with
the equilibrium of bodies when all forces are balanced. This field of physics is considered as the
elaboration and application of basic postulates that were first enunciated by Isaac Newton in his
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687). These postulates are called Newton’s
laws of motion. They may be used to predict with great precision a wide variety of phenomena
that range from the motion of individual particles to the interactions of highly complex systems.
In classical mechanics the laws are initially formulated for point particles in which the
dimensions, shapes, and other intrinsic properties of bodies are ignored. Thus, in the first
approximation even objects as large as the Earth and the Sun are treated as pointlike – e. g., in
calculating planetary orbital motion.
In the framework of modern physics, classical mechanics can be understood as an
approximation that arises out of the more profound laws of quantum mechanics and the theory of
relativity. However, that view of the subject’s place greatly undervalues its importance. Our present-
day view of the world and man’s place in it is firmly rooted in classical mechanics. Moreover, many
ideas and results of classical mechanics survive and play an important part in the new physics.
Classical mechanics consists of kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics is concerned with
the geometrically possible motion of a body or a system of bodies without consideration of the
forces involved (i.e., causes and effects of the motions). Dynamics is the study of the action of
forces in producing either motion or static equilibrium (the latter
constituting the science of statics). In statics, interest centers
on the topic of equilibrium, in which any number of forces
balance each other and thereby cancel. A rigid framework, such
as a bridge, a vehicle chassis, or the timber frame of a house or
roof, will experience various stresses according to the loading
characteristics. The study of statics is important for determining
the loading limits of such structures.
If the forces that act on a system do not cancel, motion will
result; the analysis of this situation falls within the province of
dynamics. Before the work of Galileo and Newton, ideas about
the motion of material bodies were vague and inaccurate. There
was a common belief that, in the absence of forces, all bodies
eventually achieve a state of rest. Forces were thus required
to act continuously to produce any sort of motion. This led
to difficulties in explaining how, for example, an arrow can
continue to fly through the air when the only evident source of
propulsion is the bow. Problems also arose in accounting for the
Earth’s continuing motion around the Sun.
To describe the motion of bodies Newton produced the first systematic set of mathematical
laws. Newton maintained that mere motion does not require force: only accelerated motion
needs a mechanism. Uniform motion in a straight line is “natural” and will continue indefinitely
unless some agency interferes. This is the essential content of Newton’s first law of motion. Thus,
a vehicle slows to rest only because frictional forces sap its energy. In space, there is no friction
to restrain the Earth’s motion within the solar system.
Newton’s second law relates the acceleration of a body to the forces acting on it. Newton’s
third law expresses the equality of action and reaction. These laws of classical mechanics embody
the laws of conservation of energy, momentum, and angular momentum, which play a central
part in understanding all isolated mechanical systems.
It is a remarkable fact that, although Newton’s laws are no longer considered to be
fundamental, nor even exactly correct, the three conservation laws that were derived from Newton’s
laws – the conservation of energy, momentum, and angular momentum – remain exactly true
even in quantum mechanics and relativity. In fact, in modern physics, force is no longer a central
concept, and mass is only one of a number of attributes of matter. (Though force and mass are still
central concepts in classical mechanics) Energy, momentum, and angular momentum, however,
still firmly hold centre stage. The continuing importance of these ideas inherited from classical
mechanics may help to explain why this subject retains such great importance in science today.
Notes to the text

•• … the latter constituting the science of statics. – … последнее рассматривается в статике.
•• Forces were thus required to act… – Таким образом, требовалось, чтобы силы действовали…
•• There is no friction to restrain… – Не существует трения, которое может ограничивать…
•• Newton’s laws are no longer considered to be fundamental… – Законы Ньютона больше не
считают фундаментальными…
 COMPREHENSION СHECK
1. Classical mechanics …
a) is concerned with the motion of bodies under the influence of forces.
b) is connected with the motion of photons.
c) deals only with the bodies that are not affected by forces.
2. Newton’s laws …
a) can be used to describe the motion of atoms.
b) are formulated for pointlike objects.
c) describe the motion of particles having a spherical shape.
3. Classical mechanics consists of …
a) kinematics and statics.
b) dynamics and kinematics.
c) dynamics and statics.
4. Dynamics …
a) studies the motion of bodies under the influence of forces.
b) studies the motion of bodies under the action of forces or if the force of equilibrium is equal
to zero.
c) is concerned with the motion of bodies not taking into account forces.

5. Newton’s first law states that …
a) a body moves uniformly when some force acts on it.
b) uniform motion will continue indefinitely unless some force starts acting.
c) a body does not move if no force affects it.
6. Newton’s laws of motion …
a) are still thought to be fundamental.
b) are not true in quantum mechanics and relativity.
c) are true both in classical and quantum mechanics.
7. Energy, momentum and angular momentum …
a) are still central concepts.
b) are no longer main concepts.
c) are concepts that are employed only in mechanics.
2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

1. What does classical mechanics deal with?
2. How is classical mechanics connected with Newton’s laws?
3. What can Newton’s laws predict?
4. For what objects are Newton’s laws formulated?
5. What is the role of classical mechanics in modern physics?
6. What does classical mechanics consist of?
7. What did people think about the motion of bodies before the work of Galileo and Newton?
8. What difficulties or problems arose in explaining motion of bodies?
9. What did Newton state about motion?
10. What laws can be derived from Newton’s laws of motion?
11. What concepts are still central in modern physics and what aren’t?
up the contents of the text “Mechanics”.
1. It consists of kinematics and dynamics.
2. Before Newton’s time people knew little about the motion of bodies.
3. Classical mechanics is connected with the motion of bodies under the influence of forces
and with bodies at rest when all forces are balanced.
4. Newton produced a number of laws that describe the motion of bodies.
5. These laws are formulated for pointlike bodies.
6. Newton’s laws of motion laid the foundation of classical mechanics.
7. Kinematics deals with the motion of bodies not taking into account the forces involved.
8. In modern physics Newton’s laws no longer hold centre stage.
9. Classical mechanics still plays an important part in modern physics.
10. Dynamics studies the action of forces in producing motion or static equilibrium.
11. The three conservation laws are derived from Newton’s laws of motion.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Mechanics” to
•• give definitions of classical mechanics, kinematics, dynamics;
•• formulate Newton’s laws of motion.
2. You are a guest speaker at some conference. You were asked to deliver a report
about the development of mechanics. Use all important facts from the text
“Mechanics” and the mind map given below to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Physics course of motion in 1D”
Pre-viewing tasks
acceleration [ək selə'reɪʃ(ə)n] instantaneous [ ɪnstən'teɪnɪəs]
' '
appropriate [ə'prəʊprɪɪt] kinematics [ k(a)ɪnɪ'mætɪks]
'
Aristotle [ ærɪ'stɔt(ə)l] length [leŋθ]
'
average ['æv(ə)rɪʤ] measure (v) ['meʒə]
displacement [dɪs'pleɪsmənt] occurrence [ə'kʌrəns]
Earth [ɜːθ] quantity ['kwɔntɪtɪ]
equation [ɪ'kweɪʒ(ə)n] straight [streɪt]
Galileo [ gælɪ'leɪəʊ]
'
Motion, physical quantity, size, direction, initial (final) position, distance, time interval, average
(constant, starting) velocity, equation, variable, gravity, free fall, falling object, height.

1) to be equal to a) подставлять
2) dimension b) скорость
3) displacement c) мгновенное ускорение
4) to increase d) наклон, тангенс угла наклона
5) instant e) смещение, перемещение
6) instantaneous acceleration f) величина, абсолютное значение
7) magnitude g) момент, мгновение
8) to multiply h) увеличивать
9) slope i) умножать
10) speed j) измерение, размерность
11) straight line k) касательная
12) to substitute l) прямая линия
13) tangent m) время, возведенное в квадрат
14) time squared n) равняться

1) average velocity a) deals with the motion of objects
2) displacement b) is a vector quantity that depends on when and where the
3) instantaneous acceleration object begins and ends its motion
4) instantaneous velocity c) is a quantity that has both size and direction
5) kinematics d) is the quantity that represents change in position
6) meter e) is the SI unit of length
7) speed f) is the magnitude of the velocity
8) vector g) is the actual acceleration of an object at a given instant in time
h) is the actual velocity of an object at a given instant in time
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. The fundamental quantities necessary for the description of the object motion are position,
velocity and acceleration.
2. A vector has only direction.
3. To find the displacement of an object, it is necessary to know only its ending position.
4. The average velocity of an object depends only on when and where its motion begins.
5. The instantaneous velocity of an object is equal to the slope of the line tangent to the given point.
6. The average acceleration of an object depends only on its starting and ending velocity.
7. We use the same set of equations for describing the motion of an object if both the acceleration
and velocity are constant.
8. The acceleration of an object in free fall is due to gravity and equals about 10 m/s2.
9. Aristotle and Galileo thought that the acceleration of a falling object does not depend on its mass.

1. What does kinematics deal with?
2. What is necessary if one wants to find the position of an object in one dimension?
3. What is displacement? What is it equal to?
4. What quantity helps to answer the question how fast an object is moving?
5. How is velocity defined?
6. What is speed?
7. What is instantaneous acceleration?
8. What is the instantaneous acceleration of an object equal to?
9. When the motion is in one dimension and the velocity is constant, how can one determine
the position of an object?
10. What equation is used to determine the position of an object when the motion is in one
dimension and the acceleration is constant?
11. What is the most common example of one-dimensional motion?
12. How is the acceleration of a free-falling object denoted?
1. Instantaneous velocity is the actual velocity of an object at a given instant in time.
2. Instantaneous acceleration is the actual acceleration of an object at a given instant in time.
3. The most important quantities used for describing motion are position, displacement, time,
velocity and acceleration.
4. The magnitude of the velocity is called speed.
5. When the object velocity changes, it experiences acceleration.
6. Time is another important quantity used to describe motion.
7. Kinematics deals with the motion of objects.
8. The average velocity of an object is a vector quantity that depends on when and where the
object begins and ends its motion.
9. To find the position of an object in one dimension, it is necessary to have an appropriate
frame of reference and units for measuring distances.
10. The third equation is derived from the first two by eliminating time as a variable and relates
velocity, acceleration and displacement.
11. The quantity that represents change in position is called displacement.
12. The answer to the question how fast the object moves is its speed or velocity.
13. An object in free fall has acceleration equal to that of gravity.
14. The average acceleration of an object depends only on its starting and ending velocity and
the time interval over which it changes.
15. When motion is in one dimension and the acceleration is constant, the object velocity as a
function of time is equal to its starting velocity plus its acceleration multiplied by time.
16. A common example of one-dimensional motion is free fall.
17. When the motion is in one dimension and the velocity is constant, the object position as a
function of time is equal to its starting position plus its starting velocity multiplied by time.
18. These equations of motion can be used to solve a variety of problems.
19. Galileo was correct that the speed of a falling object is independent of mass.
20. Aristotle and Galileo expressed different opinions about the acceleration of a falling object.
4. Describe how to find

•• the position of an object in one dimension;
•• the object displacement;
•• the average velocity of the object;
•• the instantaneous velocity of the object;
•• the average acceleration of the object;
•• the instantaneous acceleration of the object;
•• the object position if motion is in one dimension and the velocity is constant;
•• the object velocity if motion is in one dimension and the acceleration is constant.

A. Read the text “Kinematics” and translate it in writing.
Kinematics
Kinematics is a branch of physics and a subdivision of classical mechanics which describes
motion, without regard to its causes, in terms of position, velocity, and acceleration. Kinematics
aims to provide a description of the spatial position of bodies or systems of material particles, the
rate at which the particles are moving (velocity), and the rate at which their velocity is changing
(acceleration).
When the causative forces are disregarded, motion descriptions are possible only for particles
having constrained motion i.e. moving on determinate paths. In unconstrained, or free, motion,
the forces determine the shape of the path.
For a particle moving on a straight path, a list of positions and corresponding times will
constitute a suitable scheme for describing the motion of the particle. A continuous description
will require a mathematical formula expressing position in terms of time.
When a particle moves on a curved path, a description
of its position becomes more complicated and requires two
or three dimensions. In such cases continuous descriptions
in the form of a single graph or mathematical formula are
not feasible. The position of a particle moving on a circle,
for example, can be described by a rotating radius of the
circle. The rotating radius is known as a position vector
for the particle, and, if the angle between it and a fixed
radius is known as a function of time, the magnitude of the
velocity and acceleration of the particle can be calculated. Velocity and acceleration, however,
have direction as well as magnitude; velocity is always tangent to the path, while acceleration has
two components, one tangent to the path and the other perpendicular to the tangent.
B. Read the text “Newtonian mechanics” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Newtonian mechanics
In 1987 the world science societies marked the 300th anniversary of the publication of
Newton’s book “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”. His book is unequalled in
the whole history of science. Mathematically, it could only be compared to Euclid’s “Elements”.
It immediately became the bible of the new sciences.
Newton’s contribution to the world science was decisive in finding the mathematical method
for converting physical principles into quantitatively calculable results that can be confirmed by
observation, and, conversely, to arrive at the physical principles from such observations.
The instrument by which he did this was the
infinitesimal calculus which he used to solve vital
questions in physics and taught others to do the same.
By its use it is possible to find the position of a body
at any time knowing the relations between that position
and its velocity or if the law of force is known, the path
can be calculated. Applied inversely, Newton’s law of
gravitational force follows directly from Kepler’s law of
motion. Mathematically, they are two different ways of
saying the same thing.
The calculus, as developed by Newton, could be used and was used by him for solving a great
variety of mechanical and hydrodynamic problems. In his Principles Newton did far more than
establish the laws of motion of the planets. He established, once and for all, the dynamic view
of the universe instead of the static one and showed that the universe was regulated by simple
mathematical laws.

1. Newton’s Principles were published … .
2. Mathematically, Newton’s book could be compared … .
3. Newton developed the mathematical method for … .
4. By means of his infinitesimal calculus it is possible to find … .
5. Newton’s calculus can be used for solving … .
6. In this work Newton established … and showed … .

of the prompts given in exercise 3 (p. 16).

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 3
Newton’s laws of motion

No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.
Isaac Newton
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Newton’s laws of motion”. What do
you know about these laws?
accomplish (v) [ə'kʌmplɪʃ] postulate (n) ['pɔstjulɪt]
analyze (v) ['ænəlaɪz] procedure [prə'siːʤə]
calculus ['kælkjuləs] proportionality [prə pɔːʃə'nælɪtɪ]
'
constrain (v) [kən'streɪn] quantitative ['kwɔntɪtətɪv]
downward ['daunwəd] quantity ['kwɔntɪtɪ]
empirical [ɪm'pɪrɪk(ə)l] remain (v) [rɪ'meɪn]
equation [ɪ'kweɪʒ(ə)n] straight [streɪt]
govern (v) ['gʌvən] surface ['sɜːfɪs]
inertia [ɪ'nɜːʃə] weight [weɪt]
momentum [mə'mentəm]
Empirical, planetary, constant, (to) postulate, inertia, gravitational, planet, orbit, conception,
vector, proportional, basic, electromagnetic, dynamics, gravity, statics, complex.
3. Below you will find a list of terms mentioned in the text “Newton’s laws of motion”.
Choose their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) calculus a) прямая линия
2) constant speed b) величина
3) direction of motion c) изменение скорости со временем
4) inversely proportional d) исчисление
5) law of inertia e) закон инерции
6) magnitude f) импульс
7) momentum g) равнодействующий, результирующий
8) resistance h) скорость

9) resultant i) сопротивление
10) straight line j) обратно пропорциональный
11) time rate of change of the velocity k) вес
12) velocity l) направление движения
13) weight m) постоянная скорость
4. The words given in A are used in the text “Newton’s laws of motion”. Choose their
definitions in B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) acceleration a) quantity of matter which a body contains, as measured by its
2) force acceleration under a given force or by the force exerted on it
3) gravity by a gravitational field
4) inertia b) force exerted in opposition to an applied force
5) magnitude c) influence tending to change the motion of a body or produce
6) mass motion or stress in a stationary body
7) momentum d) speed of something in a definite direction
8) motion e) numerical quantity or value
9) reaction f) quantity having direction as well
10) vector g) as magnitude, especially as determining the position of one
11) velocity point in space relative to another
12) weight h) property of matter by which it remains in a state of rest or, if it
is in motion, continues in the same direction and in a straight
line unless it is acted upon by an external force
i) force exerted on the mass of a body by a gravitational field
j) rate of change of velocity per unit of time
k) force that attracts a body toward the centre of the earth, or
toward any other physical body having mass
l) process of continual change in the physical position of an object
m) quantity of motion of a moving body, measured as a product
of its mass and velocity
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Newton’s laws of motion”.
Pay attention to the suffixes and prefixes used to form them.
planet to direct to accelerate to act
basic gravitation proportion to separate
able quantity result individual
practical to describe to resist to connect
only. Consult the text “Newton’s laws of motion” if necessary.
1) to define or constrain a) planetary motion
2) to change b) the underlying physical processes
3) to derive c) three laws of motion
4) to formulate d) rest into motion or motion into rest
5) to describe e) a body
6) to define f) procedures
7) to act on g) the motion
8) to develop h) equations
9) to govern i) force
Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 29

7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Newton’s laws of motion”.
Choose their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may
differ from those in the list.
to modify, to vary mainly
to stay to rule
to specify try
to perform, to finish to state
idea velocity
to evolve to allow
assumption to understand
object to get, to obtain
text “Newton’s laws of motion” and translate them.
proportional effect
in terms to act
to pull opposite
 READING
Newton’s laws of motion
The empirical laws of Kepler describe planetary motion, but Kepler made no attempt to
define or constrain the underlying physical processes governing the motion. It was Isaac Newton
who accomplished that feat in the late 17th century. Newton defined that momentum was
proportional to velocity, the constant of proportionality being defined as mass. Newton then
defined force (also a vector quantity) in terms of its effect on moving objects and in the process
formulated his three laws of motion.
Newton’s first law states that, if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight
line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted upon
by a force. This postulate is known as the law of inertia, and it is basically a description of one
of the properties of a force: its ability to change rest into motion or motion into rest or one kind
of motion into another kind. Before Galileo’s
time it was thought that bodies could move only
as long as a force acted on them and that in the
absence of forces they would remain at rest.
Those who sought to find the forces that kept the
planets moving failed to realize that no force was
necessary to keep them moving at a practically
uniform rate in their orbits; gravitational force,
of which they had no conception, only changes
the direction of motion.
Newton’s second law is a quantitative
description of the changes that a force can
produce in the motion of a body. It states that
the time rate of change of the velocity (directed

speed), or acceleration, is directly proportional to the force F and inversely proportional to the
mass m of the body; i.e., a = F/m or F = ma; the larger the force, the larger the acceleration (rate
of change of velocity); the larger the mass, the smaller the acceleration.
Both force and acceleration have direction as well as magnitude and are represented in
calculations by vectors (arrows) having lengths proportional to their magnitudes. The acceleration
produced by a force is in the same direction as the force; if several forces act on a body, it is their
resultant (sum), obtained by adding the vectors tail-to-tip that produces the acceleration.
The second law is the most important, and from it all of the basic equations of dynamics
can be derived by procedures developed in the calculus. A simple case is a freely falling body.
Neglecting air resistance, the only force acting on
the body is its weight acting down, and it produces a
downward acceleration equal to the acceleration of
gravity, symbolized as g, which has an average value of
9.8 metres (32.2 feet) per second2 near the surface of
the Earth.
Newton’s third law states that the actions of two
bodies upon each other are always equal and directly
opposite; i.e., reaction is always equal and opposite to
action. The proposition seems obvious for two bodies in
direct contact; the downward force of a book on a table
is equal to the upward force of the table on the book. It
is also true for gravitational forces; a flying airplane pulls
up on the Earth with the same force that the Earth pulls
down on the airplane.
The third law is important in statics (bodies at rest)
because it permits the separation of complex structures
and machines into simple units that can be analyzed
individually with the least number of unknown forces.

At the connections between the units, the force in one member is equal and opposite to the force
in the other member. The third law may not hold for electromagnetic forces when the bodies
are far apart.
Notes to the text

•• It was Isaac Newton who accomplished… – Именно Исаак Ньютон совершил…
•• … the constant of proportionality being defined as mass… – … причем константа пропор
циональности определялась как масса…
•• … unless it is acted upon by a force. – … если на него не воздействует сила.
•• … that kept the planets moving… – … которые заставляли планеты двигаться…
•• … the larger the force, the larger the acceleration… – … чем больше сила, тем больше
ускорение…
•• … by vectors (arrows) having lengths proportional to their magnitudes. – … векторами
(стрелками), длины которых пропорциональны их величинам (численным значениям).
•• … it is their resultant (sum), obtained by adding the vectors tail-to-tip, that produces the
acceleration. – … именно их результирующая (сумма), полученная путем сложения век
торов от начала до конца, создает ускорение.
 COMPREHENSION CHECK
1. Kepler …
a) didn’t try to define the physical processes governing the motion.
b) attempted to define the physical processes governing the motion.
c) explained the ability of the force to change rest into motion.
2. Newton …
a) thought that momentum was inversely proportional to speed.
b) stated that momentum was the quantity of motion of a moving body.
c) considered that momentum was proportional to velocity.
3. Newton’s first law states that …
a) if a body is at rest, it will remain at rest if it is acted upon by a force.
b) if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will remain at rest or
keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted upon by a force.
c) if a body is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will continue moving if it is acted
upon by a force.
4. Newton’s first law …
a) describes the relationship between different kinds of forces.
b) defines different properties of the force and velocity.
c) describes the ability of the force to change rest into motion or motion into rest.
5. Newton’s second law states that …
a) the time rate of change of the velocity, or acceleration, is inversely proportional to the force
F and directly proportional to the mass m of the body.
b) the time rate of change of the velocity, or acceleration, is directly proportional to the force
F and inversely proportional to the mass m of the body.
c) the time rate of change of the velocity is directly proportional to the force F and to the mass
m of the body.

6. Force …
a) a) and speed have both direction and magnitude.
b) b) has no direction.
c) c) and acceleration have magnitude as well as direction.
7. Newton’s third law states that …
a) the actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directly opposite.
b) reaction is usually equal and opposite to action.
c) the actions of bodies are always opposite.

1. What did Newton define before formulating the laws of motion?
2. What does Newton’s first law state?
3. What postulate is known as the law of inertia? What does it mean?
4. What does Newton’s second law state?
5. What can be derived from the second law?
6. What does Newton’s third law state?
7. Why is the third law important in statics?
8. What scientists should be mentioned in discussing the laws of motion? What is their
contribution?
up the contents of the text “Newton’s laws of motion”.
1. This postulate is known as the law of inertia.
2. Newton’s first law states that, if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight
line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant speed unless it is acted
upon by a force.
3. The empirical laws of Kepler describe planetary motion.
4. The proposition seems obvious for two bodies in direct contact; the downward force of a
book on a table is equal to the upward force of the table on the book.
5. Newton then defined force in terms of its effect on moving objects and in the process
formulated his three laws of motion.
6. Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce in
the motion of a body.
7. It states that the time rate of change of the velocity (directed speed), or acceleration, is
directly proportional to the force F and inversely proportional to the mass m of the body.
8. Newton’s third law states that the actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and
directly opposite; i.e., reaction is always equal and opposite to action.
9. Newton defined that momentum was proportional to velocity, the constant of proportionality
being defined as mass.
10. The acceleration produced by a force is in the same direction as the force; if several forces
act on a body, it is their resultant (sum) that produces the acceleration.
 SPEAKING
1. Choose the sentences from the text “Newton’s laws of motion” in which the author
•• defines momentum, force;
•• formulates Newton’s first (second, third) law of motion.

2. Imagine you deliver a lecture on “Newton’s laws of motion”. Include all important
facts from the text above and add some information if necessary. Use the following
mind map to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Newton’s three laws of motion”
Pre-viewing tasks
acceleration [ək selə'reɪʃ(ə)n] relationship [rɪ'leɪʃ(ə)nʃɪp]
'
awareness [ə'wɛənɪs] shuttle ['ʃʌtl]
equation [ɪ'kweɪʒ(ə)n] spacecraft ['speɪskrɑːft]
external [ɪk'stɜːn(ə)l] sphere [sfɪə]
Isaac Newton ['aɪzək 'njuːt(ə)n] variable ['vɛərɪəbl]
propel (v) [prə'pel]

Physical space, inertia, object, physical quantity, balance, direction, rate, slower pace, to double,
reaction, equation, variable.

1) basic laws of motion a) внешняя сила
2) external force b) неуравновешенная сила
3) magnitude c) основные законы движения
4) to remain at rest d) научная революция
5) rocket engine e) прямая линия
6) scientific revolution f) равномерное движение
7) straight line g) ракетный двигатель
8) unbalanced force h) оставаться в покое
9) uniform motion i) величина

1) acceleration a) force exerted in opposition to an applied force
2) to collide b) rate of change of velocity per unit of time
3) gravity c) numerical quantity or value
4) magnitude d) speed with which something moves or happens
5) rate e) to hit with force when moving
6) reaction f) force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Sir Isaac Newton developed only three laws of motion.
2. The first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest or in a uniform motion in a
straight line if acted upon by an unbalanced force.
3. The motion of the object changes when some force acts on it.
4. The natural tendency of an object to remain at rest is called inertia.
5. The second law of motion is the law of force, mass, time and acceleration.
6. The acceleration of an object depends upon its mass, speed and the magnitude of the force
applied to it.
7. Acceleration depends upon three variables.
8. The third law of motion, the law of action and reaction states that for every action there is
reaction.

1. When did Newton live?
2. What did he develop?
3. Where were his laws of motion published?
4. What did Newton’s discoveries lead to?
5. What does the first law of motion state?
6. How can you explain that three spheres on the table remain in a state of rest?
7. What is inertia?
8. What magnitudes does the second law of motion connect?
9. What is acceleration?
10. What does it depend on?
11. How is the relationship between force, mass and acceleration expressed?
12. What does the third law of motion state?
13. What example is given in the film to illustrate the third law of motion?
14. Can you give your own examples of Newton’s laws of motion functioning in everyday life?
1. Newton developed three laws of motion.
2. The first law of motion states that object will remain at rest or in a uniform motion in a straight
line unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
3. When an unbalanced force acts upon an object, the motion of the object changes.
4. Newton lived from 1642 to 1727.

5. The second law of motion is the law of force, mass and acceleration.
6. His laws were published in a three-volume work.
7. The third law of motion states that for every action there in an equal and opposite reaction.
8. Acceleration depends on the mass of an object and the magnitude of the force applied to it.
9. Newton’s discoveries started a scientific revolution.
10. The relationships between force, mass and acceleration is the source of one of the most
important equations in physics.
4. Formulate Newton’s laws of motion and give examples to illustrate them.
A. Read the texts “Motion”, “Velocity” and “Mass” and translate them in writing.
Motion
Motion is the change of position of a body relative to another body or with respect to a
frame of reference or a coordinate system. All motions take place on definite paths, and the
nature of these paths determines the character of the motion. If all points in a body have similar
but not necessarily straight paths relative to another
dv body, the first body has motion of translation relative
a=
dt v + dv dv to the second body. If the paths are straight, it is called
rectilinear translation. In both cases all points in the
v body have the same velocity (directed speed) and the
m dr m
same acceleration (time rate of change of velocity).
dr
v= If all points in a body have different paths on
r r + dr dt
another body, the motion of the first body relative to
the second is a combination of translation and rotation.
Rotation occurs when any line on a body changes its
Kinematic quantities of a classical particle:
mass m, position r, velocity v, orientation relative to a line on another body. For
acceleration a example, on a reciprocating engine, one end of the
connecting rod is attached by a hinge-type joint (the
wrist pin) to the piston and moves with it on a straight path relative to the cylinder block, while
the other end of the rod is attached by a hinge-type joint (the crankpin) to the crankshaft and
moves with it on a circular path relative to the block.
Bodies connected by hinges can only rotate relative to one another. Consequently, the motion
of the connecting rod relative to the piston and relative to the crankshaft is pure rotation. Relative
to the block, the motion is a combination of translation and rotation, which is the most general
type of plane motion – i.e., motion in parallel planes relative to the block.
All motions are relative, but the term relative motion is usually reserved for motion relative to
a moving body – i.e., motion on a moving path. Strictly speaking, Newton’s laws of motion are
valid only for motions on paths that are fixed to the centre of the solar system. These are known
as absolute paths, and, because the Earth rotates and moves around the Sun, motion relative to
the Earth is not absolute motion. In most cases, however, the effects of the Earth’s motion on
calculations involving Newton’s laws are small and can be neglected. Motions relative to the
Earth or to any body that is fixed to the Earth are assumed to be absolute.
In addition to rotating about moving axes, like the connecting rod, or about a fixed axis,
like the crankshaft, a body can also rotate about a fixed point. This is the type of motion that a
spinning top executes.

Velocity
Velocity is a quantity that designates how fast and in what direction a point is moving. As it
has direction as well as magnitude, velocity is known as a vector quantity and cannot be specified
completely by a number, as can be done with time or length, which are scalar quantities. Like
all vectors, velocity is represented graphically by a directed line segment (arrow) the length of
which is proportional to its magnitude.
A point always moves in a direction that is tangent to its path; for a circular path, for example,
its direction at any instant is perpendicular to a line from the point to the centre of the circle
(a radius). The magnitude of the velocity (i.e., the speed) is the time rate at which the point is
moving along its path.
If a point moves a certain distance along its path in a given time interval, its average speed
during the interval is equal to the distance moved divided by the time taken. A train that travels
100 km in 2 hours, for example, has an average speed of 50 km per hour.
During the two-hour interval, the speed of the train in the previous example may have varied
considerably around the average. The speed of a point at any instant may be approximated
by finding the average speed for a short time interval including the instant in question. The
differential calculus, which was invented by Isaac Newton for this specific purpose, provides
means for determining exact values of the instantaneous velocity.
Mass
Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia, a fundamental property of all matter. It is, in
effect, the resistance that a body of matter offers to a change in its speed or position upon the
application of a force. The greater the mass of a body, the smaller the change produced by
an applied force. Although mass is defined in terms of inertia, it is conventionally expressed
as weight. By international agreement the standard unit
of mass, with which the masses of all other objects are
compared, is a platinum-iridium cylinder of one kilogram.
Weight, though related to mass, nonetheless differs
from the latter. Weight essentially constitutes the force
exerted on matter by the gravitational attraction of the
Earth, and so it varies from place to place. In contrast, mass
remains constant regardless of its location under ordinary
circumstances. A satellite launched into space, for example,
weighs increasingly less the further it travels away from the
Earth. Its mass, however, stays the same.
For years it was assumed that the mass of a body always remained invariable. This notion,
expressed as the theory of conservation of mass, held that the mass of an object or collection of
objects never changes, no matter how the constituent parts rearrange themselves. If a body splits
into pieces, it was thought that the mass divided with the pieces, so that the sum of the masses
of the individual pieces would be equal to the original mass. Or, if particles were joined together,
it was thought that the mass of the composite would be equal to the sum of the masses of the
constituent particles. But this is not true.
With the advent of the special theory of relativity by Einstein in 1905, the notion of mass
underwent a radical revision. Mass lost its absoluteness. The mass of an object was considered
equivalent to energy, interconvertible with energy, and it increased significantly at exceedingly high
speeds near that of light (about 300000 metres per second, or 186,000 miles per second). The total
energy of an object was understood to comprise its rest mass as well as its increase of mass caused
by high speed. It was discovered that the mass of an atomic nucleus was measurably smaller than
the sum of the masses of its constituent neutrons and protons. Mass was no longer considered
constant, or unchangeable. The new conservation principle is the conservation of mass-energy.

B. Read the texts “Acceleration”, “Momentum” and “Kepler’s laws of planetary
motion” and fulfill the tasks that follow the texts.
Acceleration
Acceleration is a time rate at which a velocity is changing. As velocity has both magnitude
and direction, it is called a vector quantity; acceleration is also a vector quantity and must
account for changes in both the magnitude and direction of a velocity. The velocity of a point
or an object moving on a straight path can change
in magnitude only; on a curved path, it may or
may not change in magnitude, but it will always
change in direction. This condition means that the
acceleration of a point moving on a curved path
can never be zero.
If the velocity of a point moving on a straight
path is increasing (i.e. if the speed, which is the
magnitude of the velocity, is increasing), the
acceleration vector will have the same direction as
the velocity vector. If the velocity is decreasing (that is, the point or object is decelerating), the
acceleration vector will point in the opposite direction. The average acceleration during a time
interval is equal to the total change in the velocity during the interval divided by the time interval.
The acceleration at any instant is equal to the limit of the ratio of the velocity change to the
length of the time interval, as the time interval approaches zero.
When a point moves on a curved path, the component of the acceleration that results from
the change in the direction of the velocity vector is perpendicular to the velocity vector and
is directed inward, to the concave side of the path; its magnitude is given by the square of the
velocity divided by the radius of curvature r of the path: v / r. The change in the magnitude of v
may be represented by another vector (that is, a second component of the acceleration) collinear
with v and in the same direction if v is increasing and in the opposite direction if v is decreasing.
If velocity is stated in metres per second, acceleration will be stated in metres per second2.
1. Complete the following sentences.

1. Acceleration is … .
2. Velocity has both … , it is called … .
3. The velocity of a point or an object moving on a straight path can change … .
4. If the velocity of a point moving on a straight path is … , the acceleration will have … .
5. The average acceleration is equal to … .
6. When a point moves on … , the component of the acceleration is … , it’s magnitude is given … .
Momentum
Momentum is a product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Isaac Newton’s second law
of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum is proportional to the force acting on
the particle. Albert Einstein showed that the mass of a particle increases as its velocity approaches
the speed of light. At the speeds treated in classical mechanics, the effect of speed on the mass
can be neglected, and changes in momentum are the result of changes in velocity only.

From Newton’s second law it follows that, if a constant
force acts on a particle for a given time, the product of force
and the time interval (the impulse) is equal to the change in
the momentum. Conversely, the momentum of a particle is
a measure of the time required for a constant force to bring
it to rest.
The momentum of a rigid body is the sum of the
momenta of each particle in the body. Being proportional
to velocity, momentum has direction; consequently, when a
Momentum of a pool cue ball
body in plane motion rotates, the momentum of each particle is transferred to the racked balls
has a moment about any point in the plane. The sum of these after collision
moments of momenta is called the angular momentum of the
body about the point and is equal to the product of the moment of inertia of the body about the
point and the angular velocity of the body. The time rate of change of the angular momentum
of a body about a point is equal to the moment of the applied forces about the point. Applied to
elementary particles such as electrons, angular momentum is called spin.
1. Complete the following sentences.

1. Momentum is … .
2. Isaac Newton’s second law of motion states … .
3. Albert Einstein showed … .
4. From Newton’s second law it follows … .
5. Conversely, the momentum of a particle is … .
6. The momentum of a rigid body is … .
7. Being proportional to velocity, momentum has … , consequently, when a body in plane
motion …, the momentum has … .

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Kepler’s laws are laws describing the motions of the planets in the solar system. They were
derived by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, whose analysis of the observations of the
16th-century Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe enabled him to announce his first two laws in the
year 1609 and a third law nearly a decade later, in 1618. Kepler himself never numbered these
laws or specially distinguished them from his other discoveries.
Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be stated as follows: (1) All planets move
about the Sun in elliptical orbits, having the Sun as one of the foci. (2) A radius vector joining
any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths of time. (3) The squares of the
sidereal periods (of revolution) of the planets are directly proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the Sun. Knowledge of these laws, especially the second (the law of areas),
proved crucial to Isaac Newton in 1684–85, when he formulated his famous law of gravitation
between the Earth and the Moon and between the Sun and the planets. Newton showed that
the motion of bodies subject to central gravitational force need not always follow the elliptical
orbits specified by the first law of Kepler but can take paths defined by other, open conic curves;
the motion can be in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits, depending on the total energy of the body.
Thus, an object of sufficient energy – e.g., a comet – can enter the solar system and leave

again without returning. From Kepler’s second law, it may be observed further that the angular
momentum of any planet about an axis through the Sun and perpendicular to the orbital plane
is also unchanging.
The usefulness of Kepler’s laws extends to the motions of natural and artificial satellites
as well as to unpowered spacecraft in orbit in stellar systems or near planets. As formulated by
Kepler, the laws do not, of course, take into account the gravitational interactions of the various
planets on each other. The general problem of accurately predicting the motions of more than two
bodies under their mutual attractions is quite complicated; analytical solutions of the three-body
problem are unobtainable except for some special cases. It may be noted that Kepler’s laws apply
not only to gravitational but also to all other inverse-square-law forces and, if due allowance is
made for relativistic and quantum effects, to the electromagnetic forces within the atom.

1. Kepler’s laws are laws describing … .
2. They were derived … .
3. Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be stated as follows: … .
4. Knowledge of these laws, especially the second (the law of areas) … .
5. The usefulness of Kepler’s laws … .
6. Kepler’s laws apply … but also to … .

3. Give a short summary of the text by choosing key sentences. Make use of the
prompts given in exercise 3 (p. 16).

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 4
Energy
Measure what can be measured,
and make measurable what cannot be measured.
Galileo Galilei
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Energy”. What do you know about energy?
ability [ə'bɪlɪtɪ] measure ['mɛʒə]
applied [ə'plaɪd] pendulum ['pendjʊləm]
associate (v) [ə'səʊʃɪeɪt] pulley ['pulɪ]
boundary ['baund(ə)rɪ] quantity ['kwɔntɪtɪ]
Unit 4. Energy 41
capacity [kə'pæsɪtɪ] recognize (v) ['rekəgnaɪz]
collision [kə'lɪʒ(ə)n] require (v) [rɪ'kwaɪə]
constraint [kən'streɪnt] science ['saɪəns]
convert (v) [kən'vɜːt] successive [sək'sesɪv]
distance ['dɪst(ə)ns] thermodynamics [ θɜːmədaɪ'næmɪks]
'
exist (v) [ɪg'zɪst] weight [weɪt]
2. Guess the meaning of the following words.

Energy, kinetic, potential, electrical, chemical, constant, magnetic, mass, total, principle, term,
idea, configuration, natural, transformation, process, elastic.
3. Choose Russian-English equivalents in the list below.

1) at rest a) постепенно
2) capacity b) содержать, вмещать
3) collision c) электрический ток
4) to contain d) столкновение
5) to dissipate e) в рамках действия
6) electric current f) ядерный
7) nuclear g) независимо от, не принимая во внимание
8) progressively h) оставаться постоянной
9) regardless of i) рассеивать
10) to remain constant j) в покое
11) thermal energy k) способность
12) within the constraint l) тепловая энергия
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “Energy”. Find their definitions in
A B
1) to conserve a) force of attraction between any two objects, esp. that force which
2) to convert attracts objects towards the centre of the earth
3) elastic b) having the tendency to go back to the normal or previous size or
4) energy shape after being pulled or pressed
5) force c) to keep from change, loss or destruction
6) friction d) pressure or influence exerted at a point, tending to cause movement
7) gravity e) power of, capacity for doing work
8) heat f) unit, standard or system used in stating size, quantity, or degree
9) measure g) to change from one form into another
10) pendulum h) rubbing of one thing against another, esp. when this wastes energy
i) weighted rod hung from a fixed point so that it swings freely
j) high temperature
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Energy”. Pay attention to
the suffixes used to form them.
to regard to discover to conserve to vary
to evaluate wide conclusive to describe
careful to collide nature relative
able to develop to state to differ

only. Consult the text “Energy” if necessary.
1) to apply a) heat
2) to create b) a mechanism
3) to generate c) the 17th century
4) to go back to d) configuration
5) to go on between e) motion
6) to hold for f) successive evaluations
7) to result from g) a force
8) to slow down h) natural phenomena
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Energy”. Choose their
synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may differ from
those in the list.
ability despite important
sequential to raise result
to change immobility various
stable limit movement
text “Energy” and translate them.
to associate regardless to speed
to result to apply to slow
to be converted to be equal equivalent
 READING
Energy
The term energy was not applied as a measure of the ability to do work until rather late in
the development of the science of mechanics. The idea of energy goes back at least to Galileo
in the 17th century.
He recognized that, when a weight is lifted with a pulley system, the applied force multiplied
by the distance through which that force must be applied (a product called, by definition, the
work) remains constant even though either factor may vary.
Energy is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in many forms. These different forms
include potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. All
forms of energy are associated with motion. For example, any given body has kinetic energy if
it is in motion. A tensioned device such as a bow or spring, though at rest, has the potential for
creating motion; it contains potential energy because of its configuration. Similarly, nuclear
energy is potential energy because it results from the configuration of subatomic particles in the
nucleus of an atom.
Energy can be converted from one form to another within the constraint of the conservation
law. The law of conservation of energy holds for all natural phenomena and requires that the
total energy should not change in all changes that occur in nature. The conservation of energy
is not a description of any process that goes on in nature, but rather it is a statement that energy
Unit 4. Energy 43
remains constant regardless of when it is evaluated or what processes go on between successive
evaluations.
The law of conservation of energy is applied not only to nature as a whole but to closed
or isolated systems within nature as well. Thus, if the boundaries of a system can be defined
in such a way that no energy is either added to or removed from the system, then energy must
be conserved within that system regardless of the details of the processes going on inside the
system boundaries.
The first kind of energy to be recognized was kinetic energy, or energy of motion. In certain
particle collisions, that are called elastic, the sum of the kinetic energy of the particles before
collision is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy of the particles after collision. The notion of
energy was progressively widened to include other forms. The kinetic energy lost by a body when
it travels upward against the force of gravity is converted into potential energy, or stored energy,
which in turn is converted back into kinetic energy as the body speeds up during its return to
Earth. So the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy of, say, a satellite or a freely swinging
pendulum is constant or nearly so. Friction, however, slows down the most carefully constructed
mechanisms. Thus their energy dissipates gradually. During the 1840s it was conclusively shown
that the notion of energy could be extended to include the heat that friction generates. The
truly conserved quantity is the sum of kinetic, potential, and thermal energy. This version of
the conservation-of-energy principle, expressed in its most general form, is the first law of
thermodynamics. The conception of energy continued to expand to include energy of an electric
current which is stored in an electric or a magnetic field.
With the advent of relativity physics (1905), mass was first recognized as equivalent to energy.
The total energy of a system of high-speed particles includes not only their rest mass but also the
very significant increase in their mass as a consequence of their high speed. After the discovery
of relativity, the energy-conservation principle has alternatively been named the conservation of
mass-energy or the conservation of total energy.

Notes to the text
The first kind of energy to be recognized… – Первым видом энергии, которую смогли рас
познать (обнаружить, выявить)…
1. Choose the proper ending a, b, or c.
1. The idea of energy dates back to …
a) Newton.
b) Galileo.
c) ancient Greek scientists.
2. Energy is …
a) the ability to do work.
b) is equal to the product of the applied force and the distance through which that force must
be applied.
c) equals mass times one-half of the velocity squared.
3. Energy may exist in …
a) two main forms, i.e. kinetic and potential.
b) only if a body moves.
c) different forms that are associated with motion.
4. Energy …
a) never changes without losses.
b) can be transformed from one form to another in accordance with the conservation law.
c) of a falling body doesn’t remain constant.
5. The law of conservation of energy …
a) states that the total energy does not change in manifold changes that nature undergoes.
b) states that energy remains constant.
c) holds only for bodies at rest.
6. The first form of energy that was recognized by scientists was …
a) nuclear energy.
b) potential energy.
c) energy of motion.
7. The kinetic energy lost by a body when it travels upward is converted into …
a) thermal energy.
b) potential energy.
c) chemical energy.
8. Mass was first recognized as equivalent to energy …
a) when nuclear physics arose.
b) when relativity physics emerged.
c) with the advent of atomic physics.

1. What is energy?
2. When was the term energy used as a measure of the ability to do work?
3. What did Galileo think?
Unit 4. Energy 45
4. What forms of energy do you know?
5. Can energy be converted?
6. What does the law of conservation of energy state?
7. Where is the law of conservation of energy applied?
8. What was the first type of energy to be recognized?
9. When does kinetic energy convert into potential energy?
10. When was heat recognized as a form of energy?
11. What is the truly conserved quantity?
12. What is electrical energy?
13. What happened when relativity physics arose?
3. Put the jumbled sentences in the logical order to sum up the contents of the text.
1. The law of conservation of energy is applied to nature as a whole and to closed or isolated
systems within nature.
2. Energy is the capacity for doing work.
3. The notion of energy is constantly widened to include more and more forms of energy.
4. All these forms of energy are connected with motion.
5. The idea of energy dates back to Galileo in the 17th century.
6. The energy-conservation principle changed its name to the mass-energy conservation
principle.
7. The first kind of energy that was recognized was kinetic energy.
8. The term energy was used as a measure of the ability to do work rather late.
9. There are many forms of energy: potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical and others.
10. When relativity physics emerged, mass was regarded as equivalent to energy.
11. Energy can be converted from one form into another.
12. The law of conservation of energy requires that the total amount of energy should remain
constant.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Energy” to
•• give the definition of energy;
•• formulate the law of conservation of energy;
•• name fields of application of the law of energy conservation.
2. Use the following key words and word combinations to express the main idea of
each paragraph.
1. Idea of energy, to go back to, Galileo.
2. Applied force, to multiply, distance, to remain constant, either factor, to vary.
3. Energy, capacity, to do work.
4. To exist, forms of energy.
5. Energy, to convert, forms.
6. Law of conservation, to hold, natural phenomena.
7. Law of conservation, to state, total energy, to change.
8. Law of conservation, to apply, nature, closed systems.
9. Notion of energy, to widen, to include, different forms of energy.
10. Advent, relativity physics, energy-conservation principle, to name, mass-energy.

3. You are a guest speaker at a conference. You were asked to deliver a report about
energy. Use all important facts from the text “Energy” and the mind map given
below to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
A. Watch the film “Kinetic energy”
Pre-viewing tasks
billiard ['bıljəd] joule [ʤuːl]
carpenter ['kɑːpɪntə] kinetic [k(a)ɪ'netɪk]
cue [kjuː] laziness ['leɪzɪnəs]
ditch-digger [dɪʧ'dɪgə] measure (v) ['mɛʒə]
earth [ɜːθ] stationary ['steɪʃ(ə)n(ə)rɪ]
inertia [ɪ'nɜːʃə] transfer (v) [træns'fɜː]

Force, acceleration, work, kinetic energy, gravity, movement, inertia, joule, speed, distance.
Unit 4. Energy 47
1) ability to do work a) способность совершать работу
2) amount of work b) заставлять двигаться
3) to apply a force c) измерять
4) to borrow words d) заставить объект двигаться
5) to force to move e) притягивать к земле
6) to make an object move f) передавать (переносить) энергию
7) to measure g) количество (объем) работы
8) to mind one’s own business h) источник
9) origin i) заимствовать слова
10) to pull down to earth j) неподвижные объекты
11) stationary objects k) прикладывать (применять) силу
12) to transfer energy l) заниматься своим делом
4. Combine two parts of the sentences.

1) energy a) equals mass times acceleration
2) force b) is the amount of work done when one Newton of force
3) force is applied through a distance of one metre
4) kinetic energy c) is measured in joules
5) one joule d) is the ability to do work
6) work e) is the energy of movement
f) is measured in newtons
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Force is equal to mass times velocity.
2. Work is measured in newtons.
3. One joule is the amount of work done when one newton of force is applied to an object.
4. When you have some mass, you have the ability to do work.
5. The English word “energy” comes from Latin.
6. The word “energy” means the ability to work.

1. What is necessary to make stationary things move?
2. When is work done?
3. Why doesn’t the first billiard ball move?
4. Why does this ball start moving?
5. Why can the second ball make the first one move?
6. What does the word “energy” mean in Greek?
7. Why does the moving ball have energy?
8. Is work possible without energy?
9. In what units is energy measured?
10. Where does the word kinetic come from? What does this word mean?
3. Put the jumbled sentences in the logical order to sum up the contents of the film.
1. The first billiard ball doesn’t move because no force acts on it.
2. The English word “energy” comes from Greek and it means the ability to do work.

3. This energy was transferred to the cue which in turn transferred the energy to the billiard ball
by making it move.
4. Stationary things do not move.
5. The second billiard ball makes the first one move as it has movement.
6. If an object has both mass and speed, it has the ability to do work, i.e. to get other things to
move.
7. The moving ball had some energy and the origin of this energy was the billiard player whose
arm had work in it, or energy because of its movement.
8. Physicists decided to call the energy of movement kinetic energy.
9. Force is necessary to make them move.
10. When a force moves an object through some distance, work is done.
4. Describe the experiments

•• with two billiard balls;
•• with a billiard player and a billiard ball.
B. Watch the film “Potential energy”

Pre-viewing tasks
exert (v) [ɪg'zɜːt] potential [pə'tenʃ(ə)l]
frighten (v) ['fraɪt(ə)n] sling [slɪŋ]
giant ['ʤaɪənt] store (v) [stɔː]
perch (v) [pɜːʧ] windmill ['wɪnd mɪl]
'
Potential (kinetic) energy, energy of movement (position), force, speed, distance, rock, cliff.

1) to convert a) преобразовывать энергию
2) to drive windmills b) измерять в джоулях
3) to exert a force through a distance c) превращать, преобразовывать
4) force of gravity d) доля секунды
5) to get back kinetic energy e) сила тяжести
6) to measure in joules f) возвращать кинетическую энергию
7) split second g) накапливать энергию
8) to store up energy h) оказывать силу на расстоянии
9) to transform energy i) приводить в движение мельницы

1) distance a) rate at which someone or something moves or operates
2) mass b) energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position
3) movement relative to others
Unit 4. Energy 49
4) potential energy c) quantity of matter which a body contains, as
5) speed measured by its acceleration under a given force or
by the force exerted on it by a gravitational field
d) length of the space between two points
e) act of changing physical location or position
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Moving things have the ability to do work but they can’t apply a force through a distance.
2. The terms “work” and “energy” mean the same.
3. Work is measured in joules and energy – in newtons.
4. Kinetic energy is the energy of position.
5. Only moving things have energy.
6. Stationary objects possess potential energy.
7. Potential energy is the energy of location.
8. Kinetic energy can change into potential energy when a moving object slows down.
9. The air around us has energy.

1. What objects have the ability to apply a force through a distance?
2. What is another word for “work in”?
3. What units are used to measure energy?
4. What is kinetic energy?
5. If an object has no kinetic energy, can it do any work on another object?
6. How does the energy of position become the energy of movement?
7. When doesn’t an object have any kinetic energy?
8. How can kinetic energy be transformed into potential energy?
3. Arrange the jumbled sentences in the logical order to sum up the contents of the
film.
1. In turn kinetic energy can transform into potential energy when an object stops moving.
2. But they have the energy of position or what physicists call potential energy.
3. The rock on the edge of the cliff has potential energy and no kinetic energy.
4. Moving objects have the ability to do work.
5. Stationary objects can’t have any kinetic energy and they can’t do any work on you.
6. Both work and energy are measured in joules.
7. Not only moving objects have energy.
8. Nevertheless this potential energy can transform into kinetic energy due to the slightest puff
of the wind.
9. Thus energy is never lost, one form of it can be transformed into another.
10. The energy of movement is called kinetic energy.
4. Describe the experiments

•• in which a very small man and a very large giant take part;
•• which illustrate the transformation of potential energy into kinetic energy and vice versa.

 READING
A. Read the texts “Kinetic energy” and “Potential energy” and translate them
in writing.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is a form of energy that an object or a particle has by reason of its motion. If
work, which transfers energy, is done on an object by applying a net force, the object speeds up
and thereby gains kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a property of a moving object or particle and
depends not only on its motion but also on its mass. The kind of motion may be translation (or
motion along a path from one place to another), rotation about
an axis, vibration, or any combination of motions.
Translational kinetic energy of a body is equal to one-half
the product of its mass, m, and the square of its velocity, v, or
1/2mv.
This formula is valid only for low to relatively high speeds;
for extremely high-speed particles it yields values that are too
small. When the speed of an object approaches that of light
(300000 metres per second, or 186,000 miles per second),
its mass increases, and the laws of relativity must be used.
Relativistic kinetic energy is equal to the increase in the mass of
a particle over that which it has at rest multiplied by the square
of the speed of light.
The unit of energy in the metre-kilogram-second system is the joule. A two-kilogram mass
moving at a speed of one metre per second has a kinetic energy of one joule. For a rotating body,
the moment of inertia, I, corresponds to mass, and the angular velocity (omega), corresponds
to linear, or translational, velocity.
Potential energy (Stored Energy) Kinetic energy (Active Energy)
Accordingly, rotational kinetic energy is equal to one-half the product of the moment of
inertia and the square of the angular velocity, or 1/2I. The total kinetic energy of a body or a
system is equal to the sum of the kinetic energies resulting from each type of motion.
Potential energy
Potential energy is stored energy that depends upon the relative position of various parts of
a system. A spring has more potential energy when it is compressed or stretched. A steel ball has
more potential energy raised above the ground than it has after falling to the earth. In the raised
Unit 4. Energy 51
position it is capable of doing more work. Potential energy is a property of a system and not of
an individual body or particle.
Potential energy arises in systems with parts that exert forces on each other of a magnitude
dependent on the relative position of the parts. In the case of the Earth-ball system, the force
of gravity between the two depends only on the distance separating them. The work done in
separating them farther, or in raising the ball, transfers additional energy to the system, where it
is stored as gravitational potential energy.
Potential energy also includes other forms. The energy
stored between the plates of a charged capacitor is electrical
potential energy. What is commonly known as chemical
energy, the capacity of a substance to do work or to evolve heat
by undergoing a change of composition, may be regarded as
potential energy resulting from the mutual forces among its
molecules and atoms. Nuclear energy is also a form of potential
energy.
The potential energy of a system of particles depends only
on their initial and final configurations; it is independent of the
path the particles travel. In the case of the steel ball and the earth, if the initial position of the
ball is ground level and the final position is ten feet above the ground, the potential energy is
the same, no matter how or by what route the ball was raised. The value of potential energy is
arbitrary and relative to the choice of reference point. In the case given above, the system would
have twice as much potential energy if the initial position were the bottom of a ten-foot-deep
hole. Gravitational potential energy near the Earth’s surface may be computed by multiplying the
weight of an object by its distance above the reference point. In bound systems, such as atoms,
in which electrons are held by the electric force of attraction to nuclei, the zero reference for
potential energy is a distance from the nucleus is so great that the electric force is not detectable.
In this case, bound electrons have negative potential energy, and those just free of the nucleus
and at rest have zero potential energy.
Potential energy may be converted into energy of motion, called kinetic energy, and in turn
to other forms such as electrical energy. Thus, water behind a dam flows to lower levels through
turbines that turn electric generators, producing electric energy plus some unusable heat energy
resulting from turbulence and friction.
Historically, potential energy was included with kinetic energy as a form of mechanical
energy so that the total energy in gravitational systems could be calculated as a constant.
Notes to the text

… the system would have twice as much potential energy if the initial position were… –
… система обладала бы потенциальной энергией в 2 раза больше, если бы исходным по
ложением было…
B. Do the tasks to the text “Mechanical energy”.

1. Below you’ll find the problems this text could contain. Choose the most appropriate
problems to be mentioned in this text.
•• Definition of mechanical energy;
•• description of experiments revealing the existence of mechanical energy;
•• names of scientists contributed to the study of mechanical energy;
•• forms of mechanical energy;
•• facts related to the history of mechanical energy investigations.

2. After reading the text check whether your choice was correct.
3. Read the text “Mechanical energy” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy, or energy of motion, and the potential
energy, or energy stored in a system by reason of the position of its parts.
Mechanical energy is constant in a system that has only gravitational forces or in an otherwise
idealized system – that is, one lacking dissipative forces, such as friction and air resistance, or one in
which such forces can be reasonably neglected. Thus, a
swinging pendulum has its greatest kinetic energy and
least potential energy in the vertical position, in which
its speed is greatest and its height above the Earth least;
it has its least kinetic energy and greatest potential
energy at the extremities of its swing, in which its speed
is zero and its height is greatest.
As the pendulum moves, energy is continuously
passing back and forth between the two forms.
Neglecting friction at the pivot and air resistance,
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the
pendulum, or its mechanical energy, is constant. Actually the mechanical energy of the system
is diminished at the end of each swing by the tiny amount of energy transferred out of the system
by the work done by the pendulum in opposition to the forces of friction and air resistance.
A weightlifter applies a force

to cause a barbell to be displaced. A drawn bow possesses
The barbell then possesses mechanical energy
mechanical energy – in the form of elastic
all in the form of potential energy potential energy
The mechanical energy of the Earth-Moon system is nearly constant as it is rhythmically

interchanged between its kinetic and potential forms. When the Moon is farthest from the Earth
in its nearly elliptical orbit, its speed is least. Its kinetic energy has become least, and its potential
energy is greatest. When the Moon is closest to the Earth, it travels fastest; some potential energy
has been converted to kinetic energy.
4. Complete the following sentences. Your answers must be related to the ideas

contained in the text.
1. Mechanical energy is the sum … .
2. Mechanical energy is constant in … .
3. A swinging pendulum has its greatest kinetic energy and least potential energy in … .
Unit 4. Energy 53
4. It has its least kinetic energy and greatest potential energy in … .
5. As the pendulum moves, energy … .
6. The mechanical energy of the Earth-Moon system is nearly constant because … .
6. Speak about mechanical energy. Make use of the prompts given in exercise 3

(p. 16).
C. Read the text “Heat and nuclear energy” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Heat and nuclear energy
Heat energy is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in
temperature. If two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, energy is transferred –
i.e., heat flows – from the hotter body to the colder.
The effect of this transfer of energy usually, but not always, is an increase in the temperature
of the colder body and a decrease in the temperature of the hotter body. A substance may
absorb heat without an increase in temperature by changing from one physical state (or phase)
to another, as from a solid to a liquid (melting), from a solid to a vapour (sublimation), from
a liquid to a vapour (boiling), or from one solid form to another (usually called a crystalline
transition).

The important distinction between heat and temperature (heat is a form of energy and
temperature is a measure of the amount of that energy present in a body) was clarified during
the 18th and 19th centuries.
Nuclear energy, also called atomic energy, is released in significant amounts in processes
that affect atomic nuclei, the dense cores of atoms. It is distinct from the energy of other atomic
phenomena such as ordinary chemical reactions, which involve only the orbital electrons of
atoms. One method of releasing nuclear energy is by controlled nuclear fission in devices called
reactors, which now operate in many parts of the world. Another method for obtaining nuclear
energy, controlled nuclear fusion, had not been perfected by the late 1980s. Nuclear energy has
been released explosively by both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
1. Complete the following sentences in accordance with the contents of the text.
1. Heat energy is transferred … .
2. The effect of energy transfer is … .
3. A substance may absorb heat … .
4. Heat and temperature are different notions because … .
5. Nuclear energy is released … .
6. One method of releasing nuclear energy is … .
7. Another method for obtaining nuclear energy is … .
2. Describe the forms of energy mentioned in the text.
3. Use the following key words and word combinations to speak on the problem
described in the text.
1. Heat energy, to transfer, temperature difference.
2. Effect, energy transfer, increase, temperature, decrease, colder / hotter body.
3. Substance, to absorb, heat, to change, physical state.
4. Nuclear energy, to release, processes, to affect, atomic nuclei.
5. Nuclear energy, to release, reactors.
6. Nuclear energy, to obtain, controlled nuclear fusion.
Unit 4. Energy 55
 NOW TRY THIS QUIZ
Energy: Fact or Fiction?
1. Video games use very little energy.
True False
2. Hooke's law has to do with elastic materials.

True False
3. Energy can be transmitted wlrelessly.

True False
4. Radar is a system that uses waves of energy to sense objects.

True False
5. Microbes can provide energy.

True False
6. Radio is electromagnetic.
True False
7. In the human body, food energy is stored In the hair.

True False

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 5
molecular physics
It's the right idea, but not the right time.
John Dalton
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is about molecular physics. What do you know about
molecular physics?
binding ['baɪndɪŋ] molecular [mə'lekjulə]
diagnostics [ daɪəg'nɔstɪks] molecule ['mɔlɪkjuːl]
'
exhibit (v) [ɪg'zɪbɪt] nuclear ['njuːklɪə]
hierarchy ['haɪ(ə)rɑːkɪ] nucleus ['njuːklɪəs]
interpret (v) [ɪn'tɜ:prıt] objective [əb'ʤektɪv]
ionization [ aɪɔnaɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n] optimization [ ɔptɪmaɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n]
' '
maintenance ['meɪnt(ə)nəns] quantum ['kwɔntəm]
measure (v) ['meʒə] technique [tek'niːk]
microscopic [ maɪkrə'skɔpɪk] temporarily ['temp(ə)r(ə)rɪlɪ]
'
Structure, result, apparatus, strategy, design, identification, technical, electron, crystal,
biochemistry, theory.
3. Choose English-Russian equivalents in the list below.

1) binding energy a) свободные атомы
2) bound nuclei b) кристаллическая решетка
3) collision interval c) иметь дело с
4) crystal lattice d) единственное ядро
5) to deal with e) в обычном состоянии
6) energy state f) межатомные расстояния
7) free atoms g) энергетическое состояние
8) interatomic distances h) энергия связи
9) method of probing i) связанные ядра
Unit 5. Molecular physics 57

10) molecular phenomena j) промежуток времени между последовательными
11) single nucleus столкновениями
12) under normal conditions k) молекулярные явления
l) метод исследования
4. The words given in the left-hand column are mentioned in the text “What is
molecular physics?” Find their definitions in the right-hand column and translate
these words into Russian.
1) to bind a) to be concerned with
2) to deal with b) framework of crossed laths or metal strips as a screen, fence
3) lattice or door
4) matter c) complex; with the latest improvements and refinements
5) microscopic d) smallest unit into which a substance can be divided without
6) molecule a change in its chemical nature
7) nucleus e) central part, round which other parts are grouped or round
8) remarkable which other things collect
9) to survey f) method of doing something expertly
10) sophisticated g) to look closely at or examine
11) technique h) to tie, to fasten
i) too small to be visible except under a microscope
j) out of the ordinary; deserving or attracting attention
k) substance(s) of which a physical thing is made
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “What is molecular physics?”
Pay attention to the suffixes used to form them.
molecule atom nucleus theory experiment
to calculate to measure to maintain to improve space
instant to collide to identify to apply to ionize
6. Match nouns and verbs to form collocations. Use each noun and each verb once
only. Consult the text “What is molecular physics?” if necessary.
1) to be based on a) calculations
2) to come b) energies of the order of eV
3) to concern c) spatial symmetry
4) to deal with d) quantum mechanics
5) to employ e) atomic combinations
6) to exhibit f) close together
7) to form g) interatomic distances
8) to involve h) free atoms
9) to measure i) laboratory apparatus
10) to require j) measurements
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “What is molecular physics?”
Choose their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may
differ from those in the list.
field impact to regard
to be made up of aim to demand
way to use to name
mistake to account for dimension

text “What is molecular physics?” and translate them.
to deal to consist
next to be based
according close
 READING
Read and translate the text and fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension
check.
what is Molecular physics?
Molecular physics, atomic physics, and nuclear physics are subjects next to each other,
according to the hierarchy of sizes. They study the microscopic structure of matter. Nuclear
physics deals with the nucleus only. Atomic physics deals with free atoms, that is, a single nucleus
and the electrons around it. Molecular physics
is the branch of physics dealing with molecules
(systems consisting of more than one bound
nucleus and electrons around them).
Molecular physics is (a) theoretical and (b)
experimental. The former is based on quantum
mechanics and deals with molecular phenomena
and results that can be calculated, explained, and
interpreted by quantum physics. It involves much
theory, and requires complicated calculations Van der Waals molecule. Calculated structure
and computer programming. The latter employs of a (H2O)100 icosahedral water cluster
sophisticated laboratory apparatus, experimental
techniques, and computerized processes of data analysis. It involves measurements, instrumental
diagnostics and maintenance, laboratory strategy, improvement design, error analysis, identification
of experimental parameters, service and troubleshooting, technical optimization methods, etc.
Molecular physics concerns energies of the order of eV because the molecular energies
(binding forces) are of the order of 1 to 5 eV. That is why molecular physics can be actually
called “very low-energy physics”.
Molecules are formed by the binding of two or more atoms. The size of a molecule is of the
order of Å. Molecules dealt with by molecular physics have dimensions of the order of a few
Ångströms.
Molecular physics deals with molecules that (a) are stable under normal conditions, and
(b) are small, consisting of two to (at most) ten atoms (and sometimes of no more than five or
six atoms), because such molecules have interatomic distances of the order of Å. It does not
deal with:
(1) atomic combinations formed temporarily by two free atoms which collide and thus
momentarily come too close together during the collision interval, constituting an instantly
combined system (which is an unstable pair);
(2) Van der Waals molecules formed by interacting atoms too close to each other;
(3) solid crystals and crystal lattices;
(4) very heavy molecules and macromolecules (i.e., large molecules consisting of many
atoms).

The main objective of molecular physics is the study of the following:
(1) Sizes, shapes, and structure of molecules. For example, one can measure the interatomic
distances inside the molecule, the crystal lattice constants, and the angles between the nuclei in
the molecular configuration.
(2) Molecular symmetry. It is the first thing to be considered when we study the structure of
a molecule. Molecules exhibit remarkable spatial symmetries.
(3) Binding energies, binding forces, and molecular ionization.
(4) Internal energy states of molecules (they give an idea about the molecules themselves and
the structure of matter in general).
(5) Optical, electrical, and magnetic properties of molecules.
(6) Construction of molecular models and formulation of the theory of real molecules.
(7) Development of methods of probing and surveying molecules.
(8) Applications of the above and extension of the importance of the subject to technology,
biology, biochemistry, and medicine.
Notes to the text

It is the first thing to be considered… – Это первое, что должно быть рассмотрено…
1. Choose the best ending a, b, c or d.
1. Molecular physics studies …
a) microscopic structure of matter.
b) nuclei.
c) atoms.
d) molecules consisting of bound nuclei and electrons around them.
2. Theoretical molecular physics is based on …
a) classical mechanics.
b) quantum mechanics.
c) quantum physics.
d) nuclear physics.
3. Experimental molecular physics …
a) employs experime ntal techniques, laboratory devices and computerized processes of data
analysis.
b) uses computers for data processing.
c) makes use of laboratory apparatus and setups.
d) applies different methods for data analysis.
4. Molecular physics deals with molecules that are …
a) unstable and small.
b) small and stable.
c) large and stable.
d) large and unstable.
5. The main aim of molecular physics is to study …
a) sizes, shapes and structure of molecules.
b) the structure of macromolecules.

c) optical and electrical properties of free atoms.
d) energy states of atoms.
2. Make sure that you remember correctly the figures mentioned in the text.
1. Molecular energies are of the order of 1/10 to 5/50 eV.
2. Molecules are formed by the binding of 1/2 or more atoms.
3. Molecules studied by molecular physics have dimensions of the order of a few/10/100
Ångströms.
4. Molecular physics deals with small molecules consisting of 2/20 to 5/10 atoms.
5. These molecules have interatomic distances of 1/10 Ångström(s).
3. Use the text to answer the following questions.

1. What is the difference between molecular, atomic and nuclear physics?
2. What are they similar in?
3. What are two branches of molecular physics?
4. What is theoretical molecular physics based on?
5. What is used by experimental molecular physics?
6. What does experimental molecular physics involve?
7. Why can molecular physics be called very “low-energy physics”?
8. What is the size of molecules studied by molecular physics?
9. What are two basic characteristics of molecules that are considered by molecular physics?
10. What aims of molecular physics can you name?
1. Molecular physics does not deal with atomic combinations, Van der Waals molecules and very
heavy molecules.
2. Theoretical molecular physics deals with molecular phenomena that can be calculated and
explained by quantum mechanics.
3. Molecular physics considers molecules that are small and stable under normal conditions.
4. Molecular physics is aimed at studying sizes, shapes and structure of molecules.
5. Molecular physics divides into experimental and theoretical.
6. Experimental molecular physics uses laboratory equipment, experimental techniques and
computerized processes of data analysis.
7. Molecular, atomic and nuclear physics study the microscopic structure of matter.
8. Molecular physics regards energies of the order of eV.
9. Molecular physics studies molecules consisting of more than one bound nucleus and electrons
surrounding these nuclei.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “What is molecular physics?” to
•• give the definition of molecular physics (atomic physics, nuclear physics);
•• describe molecules that molecular physics deals with;
•• name types of atomic combinations, molecules and crystals that molecular physics does
not study;
•• enumerate objectives of molecular physics.

2. You are a guest speaker at a conference. You were asked to deliver a report on
molecular physics. Use the information from the text “What is molecular physics?”
and the mind map given below to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Kinetic molecular theory of matter”
Pre-viewing tasks
arrangement [ə'reɪnʤmənt] mean [miːn]
considerable [kən'sɪdərəb(ə)l] molecular [mə'lekjulə]
firmly ['fɜːmlɪ] molecule ['mɔlɪkjuːl]
gaseous ['gæsɪəs] negligible ['neglɪʤəb(ə)l]
liquid ['lɪkwɪd] possess (v) [pə'zes]
loosely ['luːslɪ] vibrate (v) [vaɪ'breɪt]

Matter, motion, solid, liquid, attraction, speed, kinetic energy, direction, substance.

1) arrangement of molecules a) постоянное движение
2) considerable speed b) сила притяжения
3) constant motion c) твердое состояние
4) force of attraction d) молекулярная теория
5) mean position e) расположение молекул
6) molecular theory f) среднее положение
7) solid state g) значительная скорость

1) force of attraction a) substance(s) of which a physical thing is made
2) gas b) power of pulling towards
3) kinetic energy c) the process of continual change in the physical position of an object
4) liquid d) energy of a moving body because of its motion
5) matter e) body or substance which is solid, not a liquid or a gas
6) motion f) kind of air-like substance
7) solid g) to move rapidly and continuously backwards and forwards
8) to vibrate h) substance like water or oil that flows freely
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. The kinetic theory of matter describes matter in terms of the motion of molecules or atoms.
2. Only solids consist of molecules.
3. Molecules possess kinetic energy when they are at rest.
4. The arrangement of molecules in solids, gases and liquids is similar.
5. Molecules in solids can move freely.
6. Molecules in solids have large kinetic energy.
7. Molecules in liquids are closely packed.
8. Molecules in liquids have less kinetic energy than molecules in solids.
9. Molecules in gases move with a considerable speed in one direction.

1. What do solids, liquids, gases consist of?
2. Why do molecules possess kinetic energy?
3. How are atoms arranged in solids?
4. Why can’t molecules in solids more freely?
5. How do molecules in liquids move?
6. Why is kinetic energy of molecules in gases large?
7. Which molecules possess the least kinetic energy?
film.
1. In liquids the molecules are loosely packed therefore they can move around easily within the
liquid.
2. The kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance is least in the solid state, more in the liquid
state and most in the gaseous state.
3. According to the kinetic theory of matter solids, liquids and gases consist of molecules.
4. In gases the molecules are free to move in any direction.
5. The kinetic theory of matter describes matter in terms of the motion of molecules or atoms.
6. The atoms in solids can’t move freely as they are closely packed and bound to each other
firmly.
4. Describe the following

•• the arrangement of molecules in solids, liquids and gases;
•• the peculiarities of molecular motion in solids, liquids and gases.

A. Read the text “Methods of molecular physics” and translate it in writing.
Methods of molecular physics
Molecular structure is studied mainly by three experimental methods: molecular
spectroscopy, diffraction methods, and resonance methods.
1. Spectroscopy can be done with visible and invisible light. So we have: optical spectroscopy
(with visible wavelengths), infrared spectroscopy, Raman method, microwave spectra.
The spectroscopic methods help us determine molecular
energies. For example, the microwave, the far infrared, and the
high-resolution Raman spectra are good for the determination of
rotational states. The linear vibrational energy levels are given by
the near infrared spectroscopy. The electronic energy levels are
obtained by optical, ultraviolet, and mass spectrometry. We can
also determine molecular moments of inertia and interatomic
separations by spectroscopy, in general. Spectroscopy is a good
means of determining the distribution of atoms inside a molecule.
2. Diffraction methods include X-ray diffraction, electron
First X-ray diffraction diffraction and neutron diffraction.
view of Martian soil a. X-ray diffraction is used to study crystals and molecular
structure of solids, especially materials made of atoms of large Z.
b. Electron diffraction is used to investigate gaseous molecules, solid body surfaces, and thin
layers (films) of solids. It is used wherever X-rays are useless.
c. Neutron diffraction is used to figure out the structure of molecules consisting of atoms of
low Z (e.g., hydrogen). This method is good for molecules of light atoms and hydrogen whose
structural parameters can thus be found.
3. Resonance methods include NMR, ESR, ENDOR and NQR.
a. NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) pertains to the magnetic resonance of the nuclear
spin. It gives information about the magnetic properties of the molecule.
b. ESR (electron-spin resonance) pertains to the measurement of the energy changes of the
electron spin in a strong magnetic field. This resonance occurs at frequencies ~ 104 MHz which
lie in the microwave region.
c. ENDOR (electron nuclear double resonance) is the combination of NMR and ESR.
d. NQR (nuclear quadrupole resonance) pertains to the interaction of the nuclear quadrupole
moment with the electric field gradient.
Other methods of molecular physics are the following: molecular beams, modern
radio-frequency spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, macroscopic measurements, classical
stereochemistry, LASER and MASER in applied molecular physics.
The resonance methods and the radio-frequency spectroscopy are modern methods to
study the fine structure of molecular nuclei, molecular structure, bonds, electric dipole and
quadrupole moments, intramolecular fields, electron clouds and charge distributions, etc.
The macroscopic measurements constitute another source of information. One can measure
macroscopic properties like dielectric constants, optical polarization, and molecular refraction.
Molecular beams and mass spectrometry can be used to study isolated molecules and controlled
collisions. They both are sensitive methods.
Modern techniques and advanced technology (e.g., LASER, radio-frequency technology,
sensitive spectrometers) help a lot towards the progress and development of experimental
molecular physics.

All the experimental methods give information about symmetries, but not all of them are
fit for informing us about molecular parameters. Spectral methods are the best for studying
molecular structure.
B. Do the tasks to the text “Molecular physics: Historical remark”.

1. Below you’ll find the problems this text might contain. Choose the most appropriate
problems to be mentioned in this text.
•• Definition of molecular physics;
•• enumeration of historical events or facts that led to the appearance of molecular physics;
•• names of scientists contributed to the development of molecular physics;
•• main concepts and theories related to molecular physics.
2. After reading the text check whether your choice was correct.
3. Read the text “Molecular physics: Historical remark” and fulfill the tasks given
below.
Molecular physics: Historical remark

Molecular theory and the concept of the molecule appeared on the stage before the advent of
atomic theory in its modern scientific sense. Although the atomic idea started in the fifth century
B.C. in ancient Greece, it was not fully accepted until the molecular theory was first developed.
In ancient Greece, philosophers Democritus, Leucippus, and Epicurus believed in the
discontinuity of matter and its corpuscular structure. These philosophers were the first persons
to ever mention the word atom. They held out that matter was discontinuous. However, their
speculations were purely theoretical and philosophical. On the other hand, Aristotle ejected the
atomic idea, and so did the philosophers and scientists of the Middle Ages.
Centuries later the subject was brought up by Boyle who believed that matter consisted of
atoms. The first experimental attempt was made by the British chemist and naturalist Dalton.
He worked with gases and dealt with the subject of gas atoms.
However, the question of existence of atoms caused doubts first. The assertions were initially
welcomed with suspicion and unpopularity, because with the novel acceptance of the atomic
existence, some disaccord arose concerning chemical reactions. The issue was resolved by
Avogadro. The word molecule – as a scientific term – was first used by Avogadro in 1811. He
published articles and proposed his famous hypothesis: “For a given volume, and under the same
pressure and temperature conditions, all gases have the same number of molecules”.
Avogadro’s theory restored the defects of Dalton’s atomic theory, but at first it faced
indifference. The Italian chemist Cannizzaro, a proponent of the atomic theory, suggested a
full return to it, in 1858. But the development of the kinetic theory of gases strengthened the
molecular theory for good.
The first experimental observation of molecules was made by the French physicist Jean
Perrin in 1908. He observed the Brownian motions, that is, the motions of any tiny particles of
matter suspended in a medium.
The Brownian motion was first observed by Brown in 1827, but of course, not with gas
molecules. Brown observed them under the microscope, with tiny particles in water. As the
particles collide with each other, every one of them executes a random motion, following a
zigzag path.
After Perrin’s work, the corpuscular (molecular) structure of matter was eventually
considered seriously and without doubts any more.

1. Molecular theory appeared before … .
2. Greek philosophers believed … but their speculations were … .
3. The problem was brought up by Boyle who … .
4. The question of atoms existence … because some disaccord … .
5. The issue was solved … .
6. At first Avogadro’s theory … but the kinetic theory of gases … .
7. The first experimental observation of molecules was … who … .
8. Brown himself observed … .

6. Choose key sentences from the text to speak about the main events that led to
the appearance of molecular physics. Make use of the prompts given in exercise 3
(p. 16).

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 6
Thermodynamics
Nothing is more practical than a good theory.
Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Thermodynamics”. What do you know
about thermodynamics?
although [ɔːl'ðəʊ] microscopic [ maɪkrə'skɔpɪkl]
'
approach (v) [ə'prəʊʧ] overwhelmingly [ əʊvə 'welmɪŋlɪ]
'
assert (v) [ə'sɜːt] perpetual [pə'peʧuəl]
asymmetry [eɪ'sɪmətrɪ] quantitative ['kwɔntɪtətɪv]
diffusion [dɪ'fjuːʒ(ə)n] scale [skeɪl]
entropy ['entrəpɪ] spontaneously [spɔn'teɪnɪəslɪ]
equilibrium [ iːkwɪ'lɪbrɪəm] surroundings [sə'raʊndɪŋz]
'
essentially [ɪ'senʃ(ə)lɪ] thereby [ðɛə'baɪ]
extract (v) [ɪk'strækt] thermal conductivity ['θɜːm(ə)l kɔndʌk'tɪvɪtɪ]
'
failure ['feɪljə] thermodynamics [ θɜːməʊdaɪ'næmɪks]
'
hypothetical [ haɪpə'θetɪk(ə)l] value ['væljuː]
'
manufacture (v) [ mænjʊ'fækʧə] violate (v) ['vaɪəleɪt]
'
measurable ['meʒ(ə)rəbl] viscosity [vɪs'kɔsɪtɪ]

Concept, temperature, energy, thermometer, system, process, theory, entropy, mass, structure,
theorem, continental, atomic, thermodynamics, hypothetical, atomic, microscopic.
3. Below you will find a list of words and word combinations mentioned in the
texts “Thermodynamics” and “Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann”. Choose their Russian
equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) atomic collisions a) заряд
2) charge b) иметь дело с
3) conservation of energy c) составная часть, компонент
4) constituent d) столкновения атомов
5) to convert entirely e) распределение энергии
Unit 6. Thermodynamics 67
6) to deal with f) тепловое равновесие
7) energy distribution g) вечный двигатель
8) to lay the foundations h) полностью преобразовать
9) perpetual motion machine i) теория вероятности
10) quantitative measure j) теорема равномерного распределения энергии
11) steam engine k) заложить основы
12) theorem of equipartition of energy l) паровой двигатель
13) theory of probability m) сохранение энергии
14) thermal equilibrium n) количественная мера (мерило, критерий)
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the texts “Thermodynamics” and “Ludwig
Eduard Boltzmann”. Find their definitions in B and translate these words into
Russian.
A B
1) to assert a) property of a system that is a measure of its capacity for doing
2) to convert work
3) diffusion b) branch of physics that is concerned with the relationship between
4) energy heat and other forms of energy
5) entropy c) property of fluids by virtue of which they offer a resistance to flow
6) to exchange d) form of energy transferred between two bodies as a result of a
7) to extract difference in their temperatures
8) heat e) to obtain (a substance) from something by a special method
9) limitless f) to change from one form, use, etc into another
10) meaningful g) process by which fluids and solids mix intimately with one another
11) temperature h) measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat
12) thermal conductivity i) measure of the number of specific ways in which a thermodynamic
13) thermodynamics system may be arranged, often taken to be a measure of disorder,
14) viscosity or a measure of progressing towards thermodynamic equilibrium
15) work j) without end, limit or boundary
k) to state a fact or a belief forcefully and confidently
l) to give or receive one thing in place of another
m) measure of hotness or coldness
n) exertion of force overcoming resistance or producing molecular
change
o) significant, having meaning
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the texts “Thermodynamics” and
“Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann”. Pay attention to the suffixes and prefixes used to
form them.
possible probable to describe
to discover random measure
to perform particular meaning
to develop to investigate entire
limit to apply to invent
to conduct to distribute to recognize
order to differ to achieve
science use to behave
precise to conserve relation
physics to collide fail

only. Consult the text “Thermodynamics” if necessary.
1) to be a) the first law
2) to conserve b) the construction of a machine
3) to deal with c) a temperature scale
4) to define d) a complete description
5) to give e) energy
6) to increase f) the transfer of energy
7) to prevent g) in equilibrium
8) to violate h) over time
7. There are some words given in bold type in the texts “Thermodynamics” and
“Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann”. Choose their synonyms from the list below. The forms
of the words in the text may differ from those in the list.
move, shift to make, to construct to break to formulate
to raise conduct to define idea
accurately to acquire, to get matter involve
to carry out to transform inference distinct, definite
texts “Thermodynamics” and “Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann” and translate them.
to deal to convert
to correspond to lead
to be equal to tend
to apply to concentrate
to give rise applicable
in response to draw
 READING
check.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and
from one form to another. The key concept is that heat is a form of energy corresponding to a
definite amount of mechanical work.
The principal laws of thermodynamics are:
The zeroth law of thermodynamics. When two
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a
third system, the first two systems are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This property makes
it meaningful to use thermometers as the “third
system” and to define a temperature scale.
The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of
conservation of energy. The change in a system’s
internal energy is equal to the difference between
heat added to the system from its surroundings and
work done by the system on its surroundings.
The second law of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy must
be conserved in any process involving the exchange of heat and work between a system and its
surroundings. A machine that violated the first law would be called a perpetual motion machine
of the first kind because it would manufacture its own energy out of nothing and thereby run
forever. Such a machine would be impossible even in theory. However, this impossibility would
not prevent the construction of a machine that could extract essentially limitless amounts of
heat from its surroundings (earth, air, and sea) and convert it entirely into work. Although such
a hypothetical machine would not violate conservation of energy, the total failure of inventors
to build such a machine, known as a perpetual motion machine of the second kind, led to the
discovery of the second law of thermodynamics.
The second law of thermodynamics can be precisely stated in the following two forms, as
originally formulated in the 19th century by the Scottish physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
and the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, respectively. Heat does not flow spontaneously
from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature cannot be
converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed system, or heat energy per
unit temperature, increases over time toward some maximum value. Thus, all closed systems
tend toward an equilibrium state in which entropy is at a maximum and no energy is available
to do useful work. This asymmetry between forward and backward processes gives rise to what is
known as the “arrow of time”.
The third law of thermodynamics. The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in its most
stable form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero. This allows an absolute
scale for entropy to be established that, from a statistical point of view, determines the degree of
randomness or disorder in a system.

Although thermodynamics developed rapidly during the 19th century in response to the
need to optimize the performance of steam engines, the sweeping generality of the laws of
thermodynamics makes them applicable to all physical and biological systems. In particular,
the laws of thermodynamics give a complete description of all changes in the energy state of any
system and its ability to perform useful work on its surroundings.
Notes to the text

•• This property makes it possible to use thermometers… – Это свойство делает возможным
использование термометров…
•• A machine that violated the first law would be called a perpetual motion machine… – Машина,
которая нарушила бы первый закон, называлась бы вечный двигатель…
•• This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established… – Это позволяет установить
абсолютную шкалу энтропии…
1. Find logical mistakes in the sentences given below. Careful! Some sentences contain
true information.
1. Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat and energy.
2. The principal law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy.
3. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, the third system is in thermal equilibrium with them.
4. The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in a system’s energy is equal to the
heat added to the system from its surroundings.
5. The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy is conserved in any process involving
the exchange of heat and work between a system and its surroundings.
6. A machine that violated the first law would be called a perpetual motion machine of the first
kind because it would produce its own energy out of nothing. The machine would run forever.
7. The failure of inventors to build a perpetual motion machine led to the discovery of the
second law of thermodynamics.
8. The second law of thermodynamics can be precisely stated in the following way: heat flows
spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently, heat at a given
temperature can be converted entirely into work.
9. The entropy of a closed system decreases over time toward some value.
10. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in
its most stable form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.

1. What is thermodynamics? What does it deal with?
2. What does the zeroth law of thermodynamics state?
3. What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
4. What is а perpetual motion machine? Is it possible to create it?
5. How can the second law of thermodynamics be formulated?
6. Who formulated the second law of thermodynamics?
7. What happens to a closed system?
8. What is known as the “arrow of time”?
9. What does the third law of thermodynamics state?
10. Where can the laws of thermodynamics be applied?
1. The key concept is that heat is a form of energy corresponding to a definite amount of
mechanical work.
2. The first law of thermodynamics or the law of conservation of energy states that the change
in a system’s internal energy is equal to the difference between heat added to the system from
its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings.
3. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in
its most stable form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
4. Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in which entropy is at a maximum
and no energy is available to do useful work.
5. In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another
and from one form to another.
6. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
7. Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
8. Consequently, the entropy of a closed system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases
over time toward some maximum value.
9. The principal laws of thermodynamics are: the zeroth law of thermodynamics, the first law
of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy, the second law of thermodynamics,
and the third law of thermodynamics.
10. The second law of thermodynamics can be precisely stated in the following two forms, i.e.
heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently,
heat at a given temperature cannot be converted entirely into work.
11. Thus, the laws of thermodynamics give a complete description of all changes in the energy
state of any system and its ability to perform useful work on its surroundings.
 READING
ludwig eduard boltzmann
(Born Feb. 20, 1844, Vienna, Austria – died Sept. 5, 1906, Duino, Italy), is a physicist
whose greatest achievement was in the development of statistical mechanics, which explains
and predicts how the properties of atoms (such as mass, charge, and structure) determine the
visible properties of matter (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity,
and diffusion).
After receiving his doctorate from the University of Vienna in
1866, Boltzmann held professorships in mathematics and physics
at Vienna, Graz, Munich, and Leipzig.
In the 1870s Boltzmann published a series of papers in which
he showed that the second law of thermodynamics, which concerns
energy exchange, could be explained by applying the laws of
mechanics and the theory of probability to the motions of the
atoms. In so doing, he made clear that the second law is essentially
statistical and that a system approaches a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium (uniform energy distribution throughout) because
equilibrium is overwhelmingly the most probable state of a material

system. During these investigations Boltzmann worked out the general law for the distribution of
energy among the various parts of a system at a specific temperature and derived the theorem of
equipartition of energy (Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law). This law states that the average
amount of energy involved in each different direction of motion of an atom is the same. He
derived equation for the change of the distribution of energy among atoms due to atomic collisions
and laid the foundations of statistical mechanics. Statistical mechanics is a branch of physics
that combines the principles and procedures of statistics with the laws of both classical and
quantum mechanics, particularly with respect to the field of thermodynamics. It aims to predict
and explain the measurable properties of macroscopic systems on the basis of the properties and
behaviour of the microscopic constituents of those systems. Statistical mechanics interprets, for
example, thermal energy as the energy of atomic particles in disordered states and temperature
as a quantitative measure of how energy is shared among such particles. Statistical mechanics
draws heavily on the laws of probability so that it does not concentrate on the behaviour of every
individual particle in a macroscopic substance but on the average behaviour of a large number
of particles of the same kind.
Boltzmann was also one of the first continental scientists to recognize the importance of
the electromagnetic theory proposed by James Clerk Maxwell of England. Though his work on
statistical mechanics was strongly attacked and long-misunderstood, his conclusions were finally
supported by the discoveries in atomic physics that began shortly before 1900 and by recognition
that fluctuation phenomena, such as Brownian motion (random movement of microscopic
particles suspended in a fluid), could be explained only by statistical mechanics.
Notes to the text

Boltzmann was also one of the first continental scientists to recognize … – Больцман был
также одним из первых европейских ученых, который признал…
1. Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann is a physicist whose greatest achievement … .
2. After receiving his doctorate from the University of Vienna in 1866 … .
3. In the 1870s Boltzmann published a series of papers in which he showed … .
4. During his investigations Boltzmann worked out … .
5. Boltzmann derived an equation for … .
6. Boltzmann laid the foundations … .
7. Statistical mechanics is a branch of physics that combines … .
8. Statistical mechanics draws … .
9. Boltzmann was also one of the first continental scientists … .

1. What is the greatest achievement of Boltzmann?
2. What does statistical mechanics explain?
3. What did Boltzmann work out?
4. What does this law state?
5. What does statistical mechanics combine?
6. What does statistical mechanics interpret?
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the texts “Thermodynamics” and “Ludwig Eduard
Boltzmann”.
a) to give definitions of the following physical concepts:
•• thermodynamics;
•• heat;
•• thermal energy;
•• temperature;
•• thermodynamic equilibrium.
b) to formulate the zeroth (first, second, third) law of thermodynamics.
2. Choose key words and word combinations from the text “Ludwig Eduard
Boltzmann” to speak about Boltzmann’s contribution to physics.
3. Imagine you deliver a lecture on thermodynamics. Include all important facts from
the text “Thermodynamics” and add some more information if necessary. Use the
following mind map to speak on the problem suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Introduction to thermodynamics”
Pre-viewing tasks
Albert Einstein ['ælbət 'aɪnstaɪn] finite ['faɪnaɪt]
appreciate (v) [ə'priːʃɪeɪt] inevitably [ɪn'evɪtəblɪ]
availability [ə veɪlə'bɪlətɪ] interchangeably [ ɪntə'ʧeɪnʤəblɪ]
' '
consequence ['kɔnsɪkwəns] invariance [ɪn'vɛ(ə)rɪəns]
environment [ɪn'vaɪər(ə)nmənt] propagate (v) ['prɔpəgeɪt]
exchange [ɪks'ʧeɪnʤ] require (v) [rɪ'kwaɪə]
expand (v) [ɪk'spænd] reveal (v) [rɪ'viːl]

Heat, pressure, work, energy, concept, isolated (open) system, entropy, relatively, symmetry.

1) conduction a) количество
2) convection b) закон сохранения энергии
3) electromagnetic waves c) конвекция
4) heat transfer d) нарушать
5) law of conservation of energy e) проводимость
6) quality f) качество
7) quantity g) тепловое излучение
8) thermal equilibrium h) электромагнитные волны
9) thermal radiation i) перенос тепла
10) to violate j) тепловое равновесие

1) consistency a) to break or fail to comply with (a rule or formal
2) convection agreement)
3) to degrade b) way in which a substance holds together; thickness
4) finite or viscosity
5) to violate c) limited in size or extent
d) to reduce (energy) to a less readily convertible form
e) process by which heat travels through air, water, and
other gases and liquids
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the relationships between heat and
pressure.
2. An isolated system in thermodynamic terms is one that can exchange either material or energy
with its environment.
3. An open system is one that can exchange neither material nor energy with its environment.
4. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy level.
5. Temperature is a measure of heat; heat is energy in motion.
6. Conduction involves the transfer of heat energy from molecule to molecule within a material
or between materials that are in contact.
7. Thermal radiation requires a medium to propagate.
8. Thermodynamics is governed by three main laws.
9. All laws of physics, including the laws of thermodynamics, are time invariant in many different
ways.

1. What is thermodynamics?
2. What is an isolated system in thermodynamic terms?
3. What is an open system?
4. What is temperature (heat)?
5. What is meant by the flow of heat?
6. What process is known as heat transfer or heat exchange?
7. What way can it happen?
8. What does conduction involve?
9. When does convection occur?
10. What is thermal radiation?
11. What laws is thermodynamics governed by?
12. What does the zeroth law state?
13. What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
14. What does the equation e = mc2 reveal?
15. What does the second law of thermodynamics state?
16. What is entropy?
17. What does the third law of thermodynamics state?
18. What is called Noether’s theorem? What does it state?
19. What is the concept of symmetry in time referred to?
20. Are all laws of physics time invariant? Explain it.
film.
1. All laws of physics, including the laws of thermodynamics, are time invariant in two different
ways.
2. Conduction involves the transfer of heat energy from molecule to molecule within a material
or between materials that are in direct physical contact.
3. An isolated system in thermodynamic terms is one that can exchange neither material nor
energy with its environment.
4. The zeroth law states that when two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, the first two systems are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
5. An open system is one that can exchange both material and energy with its environment.
6. The process by which thermal energy moves is known as heat transfer or heat exchange.
7. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system
never changes.
8. Radiation (more correctly thermal radiation) is the transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves.
9. The second way relates to the time frame in which physical interactions take place.
10. The concept of symmetry in time is often referred to as time invariance.
11. The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to cool a body to a temperature
of absolute zero – that is to remove all of its heat – by any finite process.
12. The first way relates to the laws consistency over time.
13. It can happen in three different ways: conduction convection and radiation.
14. Convection occurs when heated molecules themselves move from location to location.
15. Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with the relationships between heat,
pressure, work, and energy.
16. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy level in the substances particles.
17. The second law of thermodynamics states that the amount of energy available to do work in
an isolated system decreases over time.
18. Thermodynamics is governed by four main laws.
4. Formulate the laws of thermodynamics and give your own examples to illustrate
them.

A. Read the texts “Temperature I” and “Entropy I” and translate them into
Russian.
Temperature I
Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any of several
arbitrary scales and indicating the direction in which heat energy will spontaneously flow – i.e.,
from a hotter body (one at a higher temperature) to a colder body (one at a lower temperature).
Temperature is not the equivalent of the energy of a thermodynamic system; e.g., a burning
match is at a much higher temperature than an iceberg, but the total heat energy contained in
an iceberg is much greater than the energy contained in a match. Temperature, like pressure or
density, is called an intensive property – one that is independent of the quantity of matter being
considered – as distinguished from extensive properties such as mass or volume.
Three temperature scales are in general use today. The Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale is used
in the United States and a few other English‑ speaking countries. The Celsius (°C) temperature
scale is standard in virtually all countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement, and
it is widely used in the sciences. The Kelvin (K) scale, an absolute temperature scale (obtained by
shifting the Celsius scale by − 273.15° so that absolute zero coincides with 0 K), is recognized as
the international standard for scientific temperature measurement. In certain fields of engineering,
another absolute temperature scale, the Rankine scale, is preferred over the Kelvin scale. Its unit of
measure − the degree Rankine (°R) − equals the Fahrenheit degree, as the kelvin equals one Celsius
degree. A scale rarely used in recent years is the Réaumur (°Re) temperature scale.
Entropy I
In thermodynamics, entropy (usual symbol S) is a measure of the number of specific ways
in which a thermodynamic system may be arranged, often is taken as a measure of disorder,
or a measure of progressing towards thermodynamic equilibrium. The entropy of an isolated
system never decreases, because isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermodynamic
equilibrium, which is the state of maximum entropy.
The change in entropy (ΔS) was originally defined for a thermodynamically reversible process as
dQrev
∆S = ∫ ,
T
which is found from the uniform thermodynamic temperature (T) of a closed system dividing
an incremental reversible transfer of heat into that system (dQ). The above definition is
sometimes called the macroscopic definition of entropy because it can be used without regard
to any microscopic picture of the contents of a system. In
thermodynamics, entropy is more generally useful and it has
several other formulations. Entropy was discovered when it was
a quantity that behaves as a function of state, as a consequence
of the second law of thermodynamics. Entropy is an extensive
property, but the entropy of a pure substance is usually given as
an intensive property − either specific entropy (entropy per unit
mass) or molar entropy (entropy per mole).
The absolute entropy (S rather than ΔS) was defined
later, using either statistical mechanics or the third law of
thermodynamics. Thermodynamic system
In the modern microscopic interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics, entropy is
the amount of additional information needed to specify the exact physical state of a system, if
thermodynamic specification is given. Understanding the role of thermodynamic entropy in
various processes requires understanding how and why that information changes as the system
evolves from its initial condition. It is often said that entropy is an expression of the disorder, or
randomness of a system, or of our lack of information about it. The second law is now often seen
as an expression of the fundamental postulate of statistical mechanics via the modern definition
of entropy. Entropy has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, which has a unit of
joules per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units.
B. Read the text “Entropy II” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Entropy II
Entropy is the measure of a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable
for doing useful work. As work is obtained from ordered molecular motion, the amount of entropy
is also a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness, of a system. The concept of entropy
provides deep insight into the direction of spontaneous change for many everyday phenomena.
Its introduction by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius in 1850
is a highlight of 19th – century physics.
The idea of entropy provides a mathematical way to encode
the intuitive notion of which processes are impossible, even though
they would not violate the fundamental law of conservation of
energy. For example, a block of ice placed on a hot stove surely
melts, while the stove grows cooler. Such a process is called
irreversible because no slight change will cause the melted water to
turn back into ice while the stove grows hotter. In contrast, a block
of ice placed in an ice-water bath will either thaw a little more
or freeze a little more, depending on whether a small amount of
heat is added to or subtracted from the system. Such a process is
reversible because only an infinitesimal amount of heat is needed
to change its direction from progressive freezing to progressive
thawing. Similarly, compressed gas confined in a cylinder could
either expand freely into the atmosphere if a valve were opened
(an irreversible process), or it could do useful work by pushing a moveable piston against the
force needed to confine the gas. The latter process is reversible because only a slight increase in
the restraining force could reverse the direction of the process from expansion to compression.
For reversible processes the system is in equilibrium with its environment, while for irreversible
processes it is not.
To provide a quantitative measure for the direction of spontaneous change, Clausius introduced
the concept of entropy as a precise way of expressing the second law of thermodynamics. The
Clausius form of the second law states that spontaneous change for an irreversible process in an
isolated system (that is, one that does not exchange heat or work with its surroundings) always
proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy. For example, the block of ice and the stove
constitute two parts of an isolated system for which total entropy increases as the ice melts.

1. Entropy is the measure of a system’s … that is unavailable for doing useful work.
2. The amount of entropy is also a … , or randomness, of a system.
3. The idea of entropy provides … .

4. Compressed gas confined in a cylinder could either … .
5. To provide a quantitative measure for the direction of spontaneous change, Clausius
introduced … .
6. The Clausius form of the second law states … .

3. Choose key sentences from the text to speak about the main events that led to the
appearance of molecular physics. Make use of the prompts given in exercise 3 (p. 16).

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 7
Brownian Motion
These motions were such as to satisfy me … that they
arose neither from currents in the fluid, nor from its gradual
evaporation, but belonged to the particle itself.
Robert Brown
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Brownian Motion”. What do you know
about this physical phenomenon?
brownian ['brəʊnɪən] kinetic [k(a)ɪ'netɪk]
cancellation [ kænsə'leɪʃ(ə)n] merely ['mɪəlɪ]
'
convenient [kən'viːnɪənt] obviously ['ɔbvɪəslɪ]
crucial ['kruːʃ(ə)l] oscillation [ ɔsɪ'leɪʃ(ə)n]
'
diehard ['daɪhɑːd] pendulum ['pendjʊləm]
dye [daɪ] qualitative ['kwɔlɪtətɪv]
eminent ['emɪnənt] suspend (v) [sə'spend]
exact [ɪg'zækt] swinging ['swɪŋɪŋ]
exhibit (v) [ɪg'zɪbɪt] vibration [vaɪ'breɪʃ(ə)n]
2. Guess what the following terms mean.
Vibration, amplitude, frequency, particle, molecule, force, kinetic theory, Brownian motion,
matter, atomic size.
“Brownian motion”. Choose their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) Avogadro’s number a) направление
2) bombardment b) движение молекул
3) to cancel out c) обнаруживать, проявлять
4) cancellation d) скорость колебания
5) direction e) молекулярная природа вещества
6) to exhibit f) рассеивание
7) molecular nature of matter g) бомбардировка
8) movement of molecules h) число Авогадро

9) rate of oscillation i) результирующие/равнодействующие силы
10) resulting forces j) уравновешивать, нейтрализовать
11) scattering k) взаимная компенсация/уничтожение
4. The words given in A are used in the text “Brownian motion”. Choose their
A B
1) amplitude a) one of the constituents of an atom
2) to cancel b) inquiry into or inspection of something
3) to deduce c) number of repetitions (in a given time)
4) distance d) statement of a rule, fact, etc. especially one in signs or numbers,
5) examination as in mathematics
6) frequency e) maximum extent of a vibration or oscillation,measured from the
7) formula position of equillibrium
8) motion f) to reach a conclusion about something by reasoning
9) particle g) single movement to and from when equilibrium has been disturbed
10) pendulum h) weighted rod hung from a fixed point so that it swings freely
11) to suspend i) particular movement
12) vibration j) (of solid particles in fluids) be or remain in place
k) measure of space between two points, places, etc.
l) to neutralize, to make up for
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Brownian motion”. Pay
to vibrate to bombard theory
to examine obvious to observe
to move to discover care
to direct mere atom
molecule to cancel science
only. Consult the text “Brownian motion” if necessary.
1) to cause Einstein’s theory
2) to confirm diehards
3) to convince vibration
4) to describe a theoretical analysis
5) to make the kinetic theory
6) to observe an examination
7) to publish an effect
8) to work out the motion
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Brownian motion”. Choose
their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may differ
to occur to verify to hang clearly
accurate to connect to foretell investigation
to show to persuade prominent to strike
to neutralize simply usual substance
Unit 7. Brownian motion 81

text “Brownian motion” and translate them.
to be named to settle
to happen to be due
to relate smth according
 READING
Robert Brown
Born: 21 December 1773
Monstose, Scotland
Died: 10 June 1858 (aged 84)
London, England
Nationality: Scottish
Fields: Botany
Known for: Brownian motion
Brownian motion
Brownian motion is named after the Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, who discovered it in
1827. He was making a routine examination under a microscope of some pollen grains suspended
in water when he noticed they were all vibrating. [Vibration is a movement first in one direction
and then back again in the opposite direction. It is exhibited, for
example, by a swinging pendulum. Random vibrations are exhibited
by the molecules in matter. Any simple vibration is described
by three factors: its amplitude, or size; its frequency or rate of
oscillation; and the phase, or timing of the oscillations relative to
some fixed time]. At first Robert Brown thought this was because
they were alive, but the same thing happened with small particles
of dye that were obviously dead.
The smaller particles moved around more than the larger ones
and there was no sign at all that they would ever settle down. We
now know that this motion is due to the bombardment of the particles by molecules of water (or
any other liquid or gas in which they are suspended). The bombardment
takes place from all directions and normally the resulting forces on the
particle cancel out. With a very small particle, the number of molecules
hitting it will also be smaller. Exact cancellation of the forces is therefore
less likely to occur, making the particle move.
The movement of molecules was quite unknown when Brown made
his discovery. This had to wait till Maxwell had worked out the kinetic
theory about 40 years later. Relating the kinetic theory to Brownian
motion had to wait another 35 years, when in 1905, Einstein published a
theoretical analysis of Brownian motion. He saw it as a crucial test of the
kinetic theory, even of the atomic/molecular nature of matter. Previous

discussions of the phenomenon had all been qualitative – Einstein
demonstrated that careful observation of Brownian motion could reveal
the actual size of molecules, that is, find Avogadro’s number. Einstein
worked out all the mathematical details. His formula predicted the
distance the particles would move in a certain time according to their
size. He was even able to relate this to the size of the molecules causing
the motion.
Soon after, experiments confirmed Einstein’s theory and gave good
values of molecular and atomic sizes. Even though the atomic theory
of matter was 100 years old by this time, there were still a few eminent
scientists who thought that atoms were merely a convenient fiction. Einstein’s analysis of
Brownian motion finally convinced even the last remaining diehards that molecules really
did exist, for here was the first time that their effect could be directly observed rather than
deduced.
Notes to the text

•• Exact cancellation of the forces is therefore less likely to occur… – … Поэтому маловероят
но, что произойдет полная компенсация (аннулирование) сил…
•• With a very small particle… – В случае очень маленькой частицы…
•• … their effect could be directly observed rather than deduced. – … их влияние скорее можно
было бы наблюдать, чем выводить математически.
1. Choose the correct ending a, b or c.
1. Brownian motion is named after the …
a) Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.
b) British physicist James Clerk Maxwell.
c) Scottish botanist Robert Brown.
2. Random vibrations are exhibited by …
a) neutrons.
b) molecules.
c) atoms.
3. Any simple vibration is described by …
a) its size.
b) its frequency.
c) its size, frequency and the phase.
4. Brownian motion …
a) is caused by the bombardment of particles by gas molecules.
b) is due to the bombardment of particles by molecules of any liquid or gas.
c) results from the bombardment of particles by molecules of any liquid.
5. The bombardment takes place …
a) from one direction.
b) from opposite directions.
c) from all directions.

6. The movement of molecules was …
a) thoroughly studied when Brown made his discovery.
b) completely unknown when Brownian motion was discovered.
c) a well-known phenomenon at the end of the 18th century.
7. Einstein …
a) made a number of experiments to prove Brown’s theory.
b) made a theoretical analysis of Brownian motion.
c) confirmed the kinetic theory of gases.
8. Brownian motion helped …
a) to find Avogadro’s number.
b) to calculate the size of particles.
c) to prove the existence of molecules.
9. Einstein …
a) developed a theory that explained the dependence of the molecule size on the distance the
molecule would move.
b) created a formula that connected the distance particles would move in a certain period of
time and their size.
c) calculated the size of molecules.

1. When was Brownian motion discovered?
2. What did Robert Brown notice during the examination of pollen grains?
3. What is vibration?
4. What kind of vibration is exhibited in matter?
5. How can one describe a simple vibration?
6. What causes Brownian motion?
7. Why doesn’t exact cancellation of forces occur?
8. Were scientists aware of the movement of molecules before Brown made his discovery?
9. Who worked out the kinetic theory?
10. What did Einstein think about Brownian motion?
11. What did Einstein demonstrate?
12. What did Einstein’s mathematical calculations help to do?
13. What did Einstein’s analysis of Brownian motion prove?
1. The bombardment takes place from all directions and normally the resulting forces on the
particle cancel out.
2. His formula predicted the distance the particles would move in a certain time according to
their size.
3. Brownian motion is named after the Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, who discovered it in
1827.
4. A simple vibration is described by three factors: its amplitude, frequency and the phase.
5. Brown examined pollen grains suspended in water when he noticed they were all vibrating.
6. Random vibrations are exhibited by the molecules in matter.
7. Vibration is a movement first in one direction and then back again in the opposite direction.
8. Brownian motion is due to the bombardment of the particles by molecules of water (or any
other liquid or gas in which they are suspended).
9. The movement of molecules was quite unknown when Brown made his discovery.

10. In 1905 Einstein published a theoretical analysis of Brownian motion.
11. Einstein demonstrated that careful observation of Brownian motion could reveal the actual
size of molecules.
12. Soon after, experiments confirmed Einstein’s theory and gave good values of molecular and
atomic sizes.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Brownian motion” to
•• describe Robert Brown’s experiment;
•• give the definition of vibration;
•• speak about Einstein’s contribution to the study of molecules (particles) motion.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of molecular
motion. You were asked to deliver a report on Brownian motion. Use the
information from the text “Brownian motion” and the mind map given below to
speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Brownian motion”
Pre-reading tasks
alter (v) ['ɔːltə] particle ['pɑːtɪk(ə)l]
hollow ['hɔləʊ] phenomenon [fɪ'nɔmɪnən]
isolated ['aɪsəleɪtɪd] resultant [rɪ'zʌltənt]

liquid ['lɪkwɪd] simultaneously [ sɪm(ə)l'teɪnɪəslɪ]
'
medium ['miːdɪəm] solution [sə'luːʃ(ə)n]
molecule ['mɔlɪkjuːl] suspend (v) [sə'spend]
Isolated particles, phenomenon, unequal bombardment, solution, molecule, zigzag motion,
impact, exact manner.

1) to alter the direction a) темный фон
2) black background b) равнодействующая (результирующая) сила
3) experimental evidence c) с помощью
4) light source d) движение молекул
5) low-power microscope e) источник света
6) molecular motion f) изменить направление
7) resultant force g) экспериментальные доказательства
8) surrounding medium h) микроскоп с малым увеличением
9) with the help of i) окружающая среда

1) force a) substance, surroundings, in which smth exists or through
2) medium which smth moves
3) molecule b) liquid that results from the process of dissolving a solid or
4) phenomenon a gas in liquid
5) particle c) thing that appears to or is perceived by the senses
6) solution d) smallest unit into which a substance can be divided without
a change in its chemical nature
e) pressure or influence exerted at a point, tending to cause
movement
f) one of the constituents of an atom
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Robert Brown observed the motion of pollen grains in the gas.
2. The zigzag motion is caused by bombardment between particles and atoms of the surrounding
medium.
3. If a number of molecules hit a very large particle, this particle will stop moving.
4. If a hollow cube is filled with particles and illuminated with a light source, these particles will
be black in contrast to the bright background.
5. If a hollow cube filled with gas molecules is placed under a low-power microscope, one can
observe Brownian motion.

1. What type of motion is called Brownian motion?
2. Where can Brownian motion be observed?
3. Why is the resultant force on the particle equal to zero?

4. What happens if a number of molecules hit a very small particle suspended in the solution?
5. What does the resultant force change?
6. Why does the zigzag motion take place?
3. Arrange the jumbled sentences in the logical order to sum up the contents of the film.
1. This zigzag motion is due to unequal bombardment between the suspended particles and the
molecules of the surrounding medium.
2. If molecules hit a very small particle, their number is less and they do not hit this particle from
all sides.
3. As this particle moves, the direction of the resultant force changes.
4. As a result, there is a resultant force.
5. Robert Brown observed constant motion of fine pollen grains suspended in water.
6. If an isolated large particle suspended in the solution is hit by a number of molecules, the
resultant force on the particle is zero.
7. Similar phenomenon was also observed for particles in liquids and gases.
8. This resultant force alters the direction of the particle.
9. This results in a zigzag motion.
4. Describe Brownian motion with the help of an experiment.
A. Read the text “Avogadro’s law” and translate it in writing.
Avogadro’s law
А provisional statement оf this important law, which will require some modification to put it
into exact form, is that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules. If this law is accepted, we may determine the relative weights of the
molecules of the gases by comparing the weights of equal volumes at the same temperature and
pressure. In order to put these comparisons оn а numerical scale, the next step is obviously to
select some substance as а reference standard, and chemists by common consent have adopted 32
as the “molecular weight” of oxygen. Since they employ the gram as а unit оf weight, 32 grams
of oxygen is therefore accepted as а “gram-molecular weight”, or а gram molecule.
On account of the extensive use of this term, it has bееn abbreviated to “mole”, which is
written without а period. It is nоt аn abbreviation оf the word “molecule”, but а separate new
word meaning gram-molecular weight or formula weight.
А gram-molecular weight оf а gas is that the weight оf it which
occupies the same volume as 32 grams оf oxygen at the same
temperature and pressure. If we define а gram-molecular volume оf
gas as the volume occupied bу 32 grams оf oxygen, we may then define
the gram-molecular weight of any gas as that weight which fills а gram-
molecular volume. At 1 atm pressure а gram-molecular volume оf gas
is 22.4 liters at 0 °С, and we may, оf course, compute the weight оf
а gram-molecular volume from the weight оf any convenient volume.
Аvogadro’s law is an example of а “limiting law” which becomes
more nearly exact as the pressure at which the gases are compared is
reduced but which may bе largely in еrrоr аt high pressures or near
the condensation point оf а gas. For “permanent” gases аt 1 atm and

ordinary temperatures the number of molecules per unit volume is the same within about 1 percent.
But the fractional expansion for а given pressure decrease at constant temperature is not quite the same
for аll gases, and therefore precise molecular weights may bе determined through Avogadro’s law only
at low pressures. We may now state Avogadro’s law in а workable and exact form: equal volumes of
gases аt the same temperature and the same very low pressure contain the same number of molecules.
The necessity for this form of statement may be illustrated by the ratio of the density of N2O
1.9782 0.9855 1
to that of oxygen at 0 °С which is = 1.3844 for the gases at 1 atm and = 1.380 at
1.4289 0.7142 2
atm. The limit that this ratio of densities at equal pressures approaches as the pressure approaches
zero is 1.3765. Hence, 32.000 ⋅ 1.3765 = 44.020 is the molecular weight of N2O at such a low
pressure that Avogadro’s law is exact.
B. Read the text “Brownian motion” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Brownian motion
Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid due to their collisions with
other atoms or molecules. Brownian motion is also known as pedesis, which comes from the Greek
word for “leaping”. Even though a particle may be large compared with the size of atoms and
molecules in the surrounding medium, it can be moved by the impact with many tiny, fast-moving
masses. Brownian motion may be considered a macroscopic (visible)
picture of a particle influenced by many microscopic random effects.
Brownian motion takes its name from the Scottish botanist Robert
Brown, who observed pollen grains moving randomly in water. He
described the motion in 1827, but was unable to explain it. While
pedesis takes its name from Brown, he was not actually the first person
to describe it. The Roman poet Lucretius described the motion of dust
particles around the year 60 BC, which he used as evidence of atoms.
The transport phenomenon remained unexplained until 1905,
when Albert Einstein published a paper where he explained that
Brownian motion the pollen was moved by the water molecules in the liquid. As with
on a sphere Lucretius, Einstein’s explanation served as indirect evidence of the
existence of atoms and molecules. Keep in mind, at the turn of the
20th century; the existence of such tiny units of matter was only a matter of theory. In 1908, Jean
Perrin experimentally verified Einstein’s hypothesis, which earned Perrin the 1926 Nobel Prize
in Physics “for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter”.
The mathematical description of Brownian motion is a relatively simple probability
calculation, of importance not just in physics and chemistry, but also to describe other statistical
phenomena. The first person to propose a mathematical model for Brownian motion was
Thorvale N. Thiele in a paper on the least squares method published in 1880.
A modern model is the Wiener process, named in honour of Norbert Wiener, who described
the function of a continuous-time stochastic process. Brownian motion is considered a Gaussian
process and a Markov process with continuous path occurring over continuous time.

1. Brownian motion is the random … .
2. Brownian motion takes its name … .
3. Brown was not the first… as the Roman poet Lucretius described … .
4. The transport phenomenon remained … .
5. In 1908 Jean Perrin … .

6. The mathematical description … .
7. The first person to propose … .
8. A modern model is … .


1. Isaac Newton was inspired to think about gravity by watching an apple fall.
True False
2. When a racket hits a ball, the force exerted by the racket is greater than the force
exerted by the ball.
True False
3. Planetary scientists are mostly physicists.

True False
4. Heavier objects fall more rapidly than light objects.

True False
5. The first Nobel Prize winner in physics was Wilhelm Röntgen.

True False
6. Space-time involves four dimensions.

True False
7. Albert Einstein's theories of relativity have been proven correct.

True False

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 8
magnetism
The only laws of matter are those that our minds must fabricate
and the only laws of mind are fabricated for it by matter.
James Clerk Maxwell
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “A Brief history of magnetism”. What
do you know about magnetism?
align (v) [ə'laɪn] ingenious [ɪn'ʤiːnɪəs]
curious ['kjʊərɪəs] inspire (v) [ɪn'spaɪə]
ensue [ɪn'sjuː] magnetite ['mægnɪtaɪt]
excitation [ eksɪ'teɪʃ(ə)n] obsolete ['ɔbs(ə)liːt]
'
ferrous ['ferəs] perpetual [pə'peʧuəl]
filings [faɪlɪŋz] resemblance [rɪ'zembləns]
2. The text below contains a number of terms. Guess what they mean.

Permanent magnet, magnetic levitation, demagnetizing field, electricity, electromagnetic
induction, electric (magnetic) field, magnetic resonance, diffraction technique, solid, phase
transition, magnetization.
“A brief history of magnetism”. Choose the Russian equivalents in the right-hand
column.
1) to align a) токонесущий провод
2) to alloy b) угловой момент, момент импульса
3) angular momentum c) плотность тока
4) circumferential field d) квантованный
5) to cool e) периферийное поле
6) current-carrying wire f) силовое поле
7) current density g) выравнивать, располагать на одной прямой
8) force field h) легировать, сплавлять
9) quantized i) закаливать, охлаждать

4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “A brief history of magnetism”. Find
their definitions in B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) to attribute a) event, discovery, change, etc. that marks a stage or turning point
2) to deflect b) statement of equality between two expressions by the sign
3) equation c) lasting for a short time only
4) to invent d) never-ending, going on for a long time or without stopping
5) landmark e) to create or to design something not existing before
6) perpetual f) likeness, similarity
7) resemblance g) to turn aside (from)
8) temporary h) to consider as a quality of, as being the result of, as coming from
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “A brief history of
magnetism”. Pay attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
to invent to discover spectroscopy
magnet count navigation
science previous to solve
to resemble to connect electric
temporary to generate to develop
power to apply to promise
only. Consult the text “A brief history of magnetism” if necessary.
1) to alloy a) an expansion
2) to attribute b) rare-earth elements with cobalt
3) to captivate c) horseshoe magnets
4) to change d) a field
5) to discover e) electromagnets
6) to launch f) the world
7) to produce g) a discovery
8) to replace h) the true connection
9) to represent i) the electromagnetic revolution
10) to witness j) minds
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “A brief history of magnetism”.
Choose their synonyms or antonyms from the list below. The forms of the words
in the text may differ from those in the list.
to suppose (syn) progress (syn) recent, current (ant)
use (syn) well-known (syn) temporary (ant)
answer (syn) to follow (syn) new, modern (ant)
to connect (syn) occurrence (syn) to exclude (ant)
text “A brief history of magnetism” and give their translation.
to lead solution to attribute
capable familiar to contribute
to dream equivalent to align
Unit 8. Magnetism 91
 READING
A brief history of magnetism
The history of magnetism is as old as the history of science. The magnet’s ability to attract
ferrous objects by remote control, acting at a distance, has captivated countless curious minds
over two millennia. To demonstrate a force field that can be manipulated by wish, you need only
two pieces of permanent magnet or one piece of permanent magnet and a piece of temporary
magnet such as iron. Weak permanent magnets are quite widespread in nature in the form of
rocks rich in magnetite. Priests and people in Sumer, ancient Greece, China and pre-Columbian
America were familiar with the natural magic of these magnets.
The discovery, attributed to Zheng Gongliang in 1064, was that iron could acquire
magnetization when cooled from red heat. Steel needles thus magnetized in the Earth’s field
were the first artificial permanent magnets. They aligned themselves
with the field when floated or suitably suspended. A short step led to
the invention of the navigational compass, which was described by
Sheng Kua around 1088. Reinvented in Europe a century later, the
compass enabled the great voyages of discovery, including the European
discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and the earlier
Chinese discovery of Africa by the admiral Cheng Ho in 1433.
People dreamt of perpetual motion and magnetic levitation. The
first European text on magnetism by Petrus Peregrinus describes a
perpetuum mobile. In his 1600 monograph De Magnet, which was
perhaps the first modern scientific text, William Gilbert identified the
source of the magnetic force which aligned the compass needle as the
Earth itself, rather than the stars as previously assumed. He suggested
that the Earth itself was a great magnet.
Magnetic research in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was mostly in the military
field. An important civilian advance, promoted by Daniel Bernoulli, was the invention in 1743
of the horseshoe magnet. This was to become magnetism’s most well-known archetype. The
horseshoe is an ingenious solution to the problem of making a reasonably compact magnet which
will not destroy itself in its own demagnetizing field. It has remained the icon of magnetism up to
the present day. Usually red, and marked with “North” and “South” poles, horseshoe magnets
are still represented in primary school science books all over the world, despite the fact that these
horseshoes have been quite obsolete for the past 50 years.
The obvious resemblances between magnetism and electricity led to a search for a deeper
connection between the two phenomena. It was in Denmark in 1820 that Hans-Christian Oersted
eventually discovered the true connection between electricity and magnetism by accident. He
demonstrated that a current-carrying wire produced a circumferential field capable of deflecting
a compass needle. Within weeks, Andre-Marie Ampere and Dominique-Francois Arago in Paris
wound wire into a coil and showed that the current-carrying coil was equivalent to a magnet.
The electromagnetic revolution was launched.
The remarkable sequence of events that ensued changed the world for ever. Michael Faraday’s
intuition that the electric and magnetic forces could be conceived in terms of all-propagating
fields was crucial. He discovered electromagnetic induction (1821) and demonstrated the
principle of the electric motor.
All this experimental work inspired James Clerk Maxwell’s formulation of a unified theory
of electricity, magnetism and light in 1864, which is summarized in his four famous equations.

These equations relate the electric and magnetic fields, E and B at a point in free space to the
distributions of electric charge and current densities, ρ and j in surrounding space.
A technical landmark in the early nineteenth century was William Sturgeon’s invention of
the iron-cored electromagnet in 1824. The horseshoe-shaped core was temporarily magnetized
by the magnetic field produced by current flowing in the windings. Electromagnets proved more
effective than the weak permanent magnets then available for excitation of electric motors and
generators.
One lesson from a study of the history of magnetism is that fundamental understanding of the
science may not be the basis for technological progress. Yet fundamental understanding helps.
Only since the rare-earth elements began being alloyed with cobalt and iron in new permanent
magnets from the late 1960s onwards has quantum mechanics contributed significantly to
magnetic materials development. The discovery of magnetic resonance methods in the 1940s
and 1950s and the introduction of powerful spectroscopic and diffraction techniques led to new
understanding of the magnetic and electronic structure of solids.
Recent decades have witnessed an immense expansion of magnetic applications. Advances
in permanent magnetism, magnetic recording and high-frequency materials lay the foundation
for much of the progress that has been made with computers, telecommunications equipment
and consumer goods that benefit most people on Earth. Permanent magnets have come back
to replace electromagnets in a billion tiny motors manufactured every year. Magnetic recording
sustains the information revolution and the Internet. There have been radical advances in earth
science, medical imaging and the theory of phase transitions that can be laid at the door of
magnetism. This long and promising history of magnetism can be shown as seven ages, which
are summarized in Table.
The seven ages of magnetism
Period Dates Icon Drivers Materials
Ancient period –2000–1500 Compass State, geomancers Iron, Iodes tone
Early modem age 1500–1820 Horseshoe magnet Navy Iron, Iodes tone
Electromagnetic age 1820–1900 Electromagnet Industry/infrastructure Electrical steel
Age of understanding 1900–1935 Pauli matrices Academic (Alnico)
High-frequency age 1935–1960 Magnetic resonance Military Ferrites
Age of applications 1960–1995 Electric screwdriver Consumer market Sm-Co, Nd-Fe-B
Age of spin electronics 1995– Read head Consumer market Multilayers
1. The natural magic of permanent magnets was known to people in …
a) ancient Rome.
b) Europe.
c) Asia.
d) Sumer, China and ancient Greece.
2. The first artificial permanent magnets were …
a) iron filings.
b) magnetized steel needles.
c) rocks rich in magnetite.
d) ferrous objects.
3. In William Gilbert’s opinion, …
a) the stars created the magnetic force.
b) any planet could cause the magnetic field.
c) the Earth itself was the source of the magnetic force which aligned the compass needle.
d) the Earth couldn’t influence the magnetic needle.
4. Horseshoe magnets …
a) were created by Hans-Christian Oersted.
b) are compact magnets which don’t destroy themselves in their own demagnetizing field.
c) are no longer given in school textbooks.
d) are usually blue and marked with “North” and “South” poles.
5. The true connection between electricity and magnetism was …
a) found out by Ampere.
b) established by Arago.
c) discovered by Oersted.
d) shown by Bernoulli.
6. Michael Faraday …
a) discovered electromagnetic induction.
b) demonstrated the first steam engine.
c) found out the connection between electricity, magnetism and light.
d) revealed the existence of the electric and magnetic forces.
7. Maxwell’s famous equations relate …
a) the electric field to the distribution of electric charge.
b) the electric and magnetic fields to the distributions of electric charge and current densities.
c) the magnetic field to the distribution of current density.
d) the electromagnetic field to the distribution of electric charge.
8. Electromagnets were …
a) more widespread than horseshoe magnets.
b) less effective than permanent magnets.
c) more useful than temporary magnets.
d) more effective than weak permanent magnets.
9. Magnetic materials development …
a) was considerably influenced by quantum mechanics.
b) was caused by quantum mechanics.
c) was connected with the discovery of magnetic resonance methods.
d) was related to the introduction of spectroscopic and diffraction techniques.
2. Make sure that you remember the dates (years) mentioned in the text.
1. Zheng Gongliang discovered that iron could acquire magnetization when cooled from red
heat in 1164/1064.
2. The navigation compass was described by Sheng Kua around 1088/1098.
3. In his 1610/1600 monograph William Gilbert identified the source of the magnetic force as
the Earth itself.
4. The horseshoe magnet was invented in 1743/1843.
5. The true connection between electricity and magnetism was revealed by Oersted in 1830/1820.
6. Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1820/1821.
7. Maxwell created a unified theory of electricity, magnetism and light in 1864/1868.
8. The iron-cored electromagnet was invented in 1824/1826.

1. What does one need to demonstrate the force field?
2. Can weak permanent magnets be found in nature? Where?
3. What was the first artificial permanent magnet?
4. What discoveries were made with the help of the navigational compass?
5. What did William Gilbert manage to find out? What conclusion did he draw?
6. In what field was magnetic research carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries?
7. Who invented the horseshoe magnet and what property does it have?
8. What did the resemblance between magnetism and electricity lead to?
9. What did Oersted demonstrate?
10. What did Ampere and Arago show?
11. What contribution did Faraday make?
12. What do Maxwell’s equations relate?
13. What was a technical landmark in the 19th century?
14. How did it happen that quantum mechanics contributed to magnetic materials development?
15. How did advances in the field of magnetism influence other fields of science and technology?
1. A short step led to the invention of the navigational compass that enabled the great voyages
of discovery.
2. In 1820 Oersted discovered the true connection between electricity and magnetism.
3. A crucial landmark in the field of magnetism in the 19th century was William Sturgeon’s
invention of the iron-cored electromagnet.
4. The property of the magnet to attract ferrous objects has captivated people for ages.
5. An important civilian advance was the invention of the horseshoe magnet by Daniel Bernoulli
in 1743.
6. Fundamental understanding of the science favours technological progress.
7. Permanent magnets are widely spread in nature.
8. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction and demonstrated the principle of
the electric motor.
9. Advances in magnetism, magnetic recording and high-frequency materials resulted in the
progress made with computers, telecommunications equipment and consumer goods.
10. J. C. Maxwell formulated a unified theory of electricity, magnetism and light which he
summed up in his 4 famous equations.
11. The first artificial permanent magnets were magnetized steel needles.
12. Ampere and Arago showed that the current-carrying coil was equivalent to a magnet.
13. In his monograph William Gilbert identified the source of the magnetic force as the Earth itself.
14. As regards magnetism, the discovery of magnetic resonance methods and the introduction of
powerful spectroscopic and diffraction techniques led to new understanding of the magnetic
and electronic structure of solids.
15. Magnetic research in the 17–18th centuries was carried out mainly in the military field.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “A brief history of magnetism” to describe
•• the first artificial permanent magnets;
•• the horseshoe magnet;
•• the iron-cored electromagnet;
•• discoveries and inventions of Hans-Christian Oersted, Andre-Marie Ampere, Michael
Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell;
•• recent magnetic applications.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of electricity and
magnetism. You were asked to deliver a report on the history of magnetism. Use
the information from the text “A brief history of magnetism” and the mind map
given below to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Electromagnetism: magnets and electricity”
Pre-viewing tasks
arrow ['ærəʊ] explore (v) [ɪk'splɔː]
charge [ʧɑːʤ] filings ['faɪlɪŋz]
chemical ['kemɪk(ə)l] flow (v) [fləʊ]
circular ['sɜːkjulə] insulator ['ɪnsjuleɪtə]
clockwise ['klɔkwaɪz] length [leŋθ]
compass ['kʌmpəs] measure (v) ['mɛʒə]
copper wire ['kɔpə 'waɪə] Oersted ['ɜːsted]
diagram ['daɪəgræm] stationary ['steɪʃ(ə)n(ə)rɪ]

electricity [ɪlek'trɪsɪtɪ] straight [streɪt]
electrostatic [ɪ lektrə'stætɪk] strength [streŋθ]
'
exert (v) [ɪg'zɜːt] temporary ['temp(ə)r(ə)rɪ]
experience (v) [ɪk'spɪərɪəns] variable ['veərɪəbl]

Magnetic (electrostatic field), shape, size, force of attraction (repulsion), direction of the field
(force), insulator, conductor, stationary charge, static electricity, chemical cell, electric current,
concentric circles, in series.

1) to affect the magnetic field a) заряженные объекты
2) anti-clockwise direction b) указывать в направлении
3) to apply a force c) токонесущий проводник
4) charged objects d) силовые линии поля
5) compass needles e) воздействовать на магнитное поле
6) current-carrying conductor f) источник питания
7) to experience a force g) силовое поле
8) field lines h) испытывать силу
9) field strength i) направление против часовой стрелки
10) force field j) напряженность поля
11) iron filings k) стрелки компаса
12) to measure current l) железные опилки
13) to point in the direction m) измерить ток
14) power supply n) переменный резистор
15) variable resistor o) прилагать силу

1) attraction a) substance that conducts heat or electric current
2) to charge b) tendency of bodies to repel each other
3) conductor c) power of pulling towards
4) current d) area or space round a magnet in which magnetic forces
5) force can be felt
6) insulator e) device for insulating, especially a device of porcelain
7) magnetic field used for supporting bare electric wires and cables
8) repulsion f) pressure or influence exerted at a point, tending to
cause movement
g) to fill, put a charge into
h) flow of electricity through something or along a wire
or cable
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Scientists began to look for links between electricity and magnetism in the 19th century.
2. The concept of a force field links electricity and magnetism.
3. A magnetic field is a region where the magnet can exert a force on conductors and insulators.
4. The shape and size of the magnetic field can be determined by means of field lines.
5. The field lines sometimes cross each other.
6. The magnetic field is strong where there are a lot of field lines.
7. There is an electrostatic field around charged objects and its direction is shown as the
direction of the force applied to a positively charged point placed in the field.
8. Magnetic and electric fields are similar. Magnetic fields exert a force on insulators while
electric fields exert a force on conductors.
9. All free-moving objects will be affected by a magnetic field only.
10. Oersted made a major discovery that the charges moving in the conductor created a field
that affected a magnet.
11. Oersted’s discovery showed the first link between electricity and magnetism.
12. The magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor differs from the magnetic field
around a magnet.
13. Scientists use the symbol A to represent the magnetic field and measure its strength in units
called Tesla.

1. What are the two ways to show the magnetic force field?
2. Where does a compass point?
3. What do compass needles experience and where do they point?
4. What is used to show the direction of the force?
5. How can one show the electrostatic force field pattern?
6. How can one show the direction of the electrostatic field?
7. Why will a free-moving magnet be affected by another magnet but not by a charged rod?
8. What happens to the electric field when the charges are moving in a conductor?
9. What can affect a free-moving magnet?
10. What produces a magnetic force field?
11. Is the magnetic field always present for bar magnets and conductors?
12. What is a temporary magnetic field?
film.
1. What do you know about the electrostatic force field?
2. So far we have analyzed the links between static electricity and magnetism. But what about
current electricity?
3. There is an electrostatic force field around charged objects.
4. When current passes through a conductor, it produces a magnetic field.
5. Magnetic fields and electric fields are not the same.
6. What happens to the electric field when the charges are moving in a conductor?
7. In the early 1800s scientists began to look for links between electricity and magnetism.
8. Oersted made a major discovery, i.e. the charges moving in the conductor created a force
field that affected a free-moving magnet.
9. To represent the electrostatic field we draw diagrams using field lines.
10. We can conclude that a charge moving through the conductor produces a magnetic field.
11. The one idea that links electricity and magnetism is the concept of a force field. What do we
mean by this idea?
12. Oersted showed the first link between current, electricity and magnetism.
13. There is a region of space where the magnet can exert a force on magnetic materials and this
region is called a magnetic field.

14. Magnetic fields exert a force on magnetic materials such as iron filings while electric fields
exert a force on insulators.
15. To show the magnetic force field we can draw the field lines around the bar magnet.
16. There are several ways to show the magnetic force field. One of them is to place a series of
free moving magnets around the magnet.
17. Now we will investigate the relationship between the electric current in a conductor and the
magnetic field around the conductor.
18. We show the direction of the field as going from the North Pole of the magnet to the South
Pole.
19. The magnetic field around the conductor only exists when electric current is passing through
it. This is a temporary magnetic field.
20. Scientists use the symbol B to represent the magnetic field and measure its strength in units
called Tesla, T.
21. The magnetic field around current-carrying conductors differs from the magnetic field
around a magnet.

•• the ways the narrator uses to show the links between electrostatics and magnetism;
•• the experiment made by Hans Oersted that showed the link between current electricity and
magnetism;
•• the experiment made by the narrator to show the relationship between the electric current
in the conductor and the magnetic field around the conductor.
A. Read the text “Electromagnetism” and translate it in writing.
Electromagnetism
Electricity appeared to its early investigators as an extraordinary phenomenon. Except for
the spectacle of lightning, the ordinary manifestations of nature, from the freezing of water to
the growth of a tree, seemed to have no relation to the curious behavior of electrified objects. We
know now that electrical forces largely determine the physical and chemical properties of matter
over the whole range from an atom to a living cell. For this understanding we have to thank the
scientists of the nineteenth century, Ampere, Faraday, Maxwell, and many others, who discovered
the nature of electromagnetism, as well as the physicists and chemists of the twentieth century
who explained the atomic structure of matter.
Classical electromagnetism deals with electric charges and currents and their interactions.
Here classical means simply “nonquantum”. The quantum law with its constant h is ignored in
the classical theory of electromagnetism, just as it is in ordinary mechanics. Indeed, the classical
theory was brought very nearly to its present state of completion before Planck’s discovery of
quantum effects in 1900. It has survived remarkably well. Neither the revolution of quantum
physics nor the development of special relativity dimmed the luster of the electromagnetic field
equations Maxwell wrote down 150 years ago.
Of course the theory was solidly based on experiment, and because of that was fairly secure
within its original range of application – to coils, capacitors, oscillating currents, and eventually
radio waves and light waves. But even this great success does not guarantee validity in another
domain, for instance, the inside of a molecule.
Two facts help to explain the continuing importance in modern physics of the classical
description of electromagnetism. First, special relativity required no revision of classical
electromagnetism. Historically speaking, special relativity grew out of classical electromagnetic
theory and experiments inspired by it. Maxwell’s field equations, developed long before the
work of Lorentz and Einstein, proved to be entirely compatible with relativity. Second, quantum
modifications of the electromagnetic forces have turned out to be unimportant down to distances
less than 10–12 meters, 100 times smaller than the atom. We can describe the repulsion and
attraction of particles in the atom using the same laws that apply to the leaves of an electroscope,
although we need quantum mechanics to predict how the particles will behave under those
forces. For still smaller distances, a fusion of electromagnetic theory and quantum theory, called
quantum electrodynamics, has been remarkably successful. Its predictions are confirmed by
experiment down to the smallest distances yet explored.
Notes to the text

•• … to dim the luster – … зд. затмить славу
•• … seemed to have no relation to… – … казалось, не имели никакого отношения к…
B. Read the text “Paramagnetism” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Paramagnetism
According to the modern theory of atomic structure, the orbits and spinsof the electrons in
most atoms are such that the magnetic moments cancel each other. For an electron moving in
one direction around an orbit, another will be moving in a similar orbit in the opposite direction,
and for one spinning one way, the other will have opposite spin.
In some substances, however, the magnetic moments of the electrons do not all cancel out so
that the atom as a whole has a magnetic moment µ. This is the case for several of the transition
elements in the periodic table like manganese, the rare earths and actinide elements, as well as
for their alloys and compounds.
If a bar specimen of such material is placed free to move in a magnetic field, it will turn and
line up with its axis parallel to the external field. The bar behaves like a permanent magnet with
an N pole at one end and an S pole at the other.
In the external field each elementary atomic dipole tends to line up with the field. Perfect
alignment, however, is hindered by the temperature vibrations of the atoms so that a partial
alignment produces a small but net magnetic moment. The degree of alignment is specified
by what is called the magnetization. The magnetization M of any specimen is defined as the
magnetic moment per unit volume.

In 1895 Pierre Curie discovered experimentally that the magnetization of a magnetic
substance is proportional to the external field strength B and inversely proportional to the
B
absolute temperature T. M = C where C is called the Curie constant. This relation is known
M
as Curie’s law. Increasing B provides stronger forces tending to align the elementary magnets,
while increasing the temperature increases the thermal vibrations to interfere with alignment.
Experimentally Curie’s law is found to hold true as long as B does not become too large. As
B increases and alignment increases, there comes a time when nearly all dipoles have aligned
themselves with the field, and the specimen approaches saturation.

1. According to modern theory of atomic structure … .
2. In some substances, the magnetic moments … .
3. If a bar specimen of such material is placed … .
4. In the external field each elementary atomic dipole … .
5. In 1895 Pierre Curie discovered … .
6. Experimentally Curie’s law holds true … .
of the prompts given in execise 3 (p. 16).

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 9
Electric field
and Electric current
If your hate could be turned into electricity,
it would light up the whole world.
Nikola Tesla
 WARM-UP
1. The texts you are going to read are headlined “Electric field” and “Electric
current”. What do you know about these physical phenomena?
accompany (v) [ə'kʌmpənɪ] photon ['fəʊtɔn]
associate (v) [ə'səʊʃɪeɪt] possess (v) [pə'zes]
conduct (v) [kən'dʌkt] project (v) [prə'ʤekt]
designate (v) ['dezɪgneɪt] quantum ['kwɔntəm]
excess [ɪk'ses] radiate (v) ['reɪdɪeɪt]
flux [flʌks] resistance [rɪ'zɪst(ə)ns]
impede (v) [ɪm'piːd] transverse [trænz'vɜːs]
inversely [ɪn'vɜːslɪ] vacuum ['vækjuːm]
objective [əb'ʤektɪv] variable ['vɛərɪəbl]
2. The texts below contain a number of terms. Guess what they mean.
Stationary charged body, magnetic (electromagnetic) field, permanent magnet, collision, scalar,
vector, electric force, inertialess charge, current, electric flux, (un)like charges, (non)uniform
field, strength of field (current), line of force, surface charge density, variable magnetic (electric)
field, insulator.

1) to attract a) на единицу заряда
2) conductor b) последний (из двух)
3) conversely c) отталкивать
4) cross-section d) обладать
5) to denote e) диэлектрик
6) flux f) напряженность
7) in terms of g) удельное сопротивление
8) insulator h) поперечное сечение

9) inversely i) поток
10) per unit charge j) обозначать
11) latter k) разноименные заряды
12) to possess l) на основе
13) to propagate m) сопротивление
14) to repel n) проводник
15) resistance o) обратно
16) resistivity p) распространять(ся)
17) strength q) наоборот
18) unlike charges r) притягивать
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the texts “Electric field” and “Electric
current”. Find their definitions in B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) to cancel a) resistance
2) charge b) amount by which smth. is more than smth. else, or more
3) constant than is expected or proper
4) conversely c) amount of electricity (to be) put into an accumulator,
5) to designate contained in a substance, etc.
6) distinct d) not varying in form, quality, etc.
7) excess e) different in kind, separate
8) to interact f) on the contrary
9) opposition g) (n) number or quantity that does not vary; (adj) going on
10) uniform all the time
h) to neutralize
i) to act on each other
j) to mark or point out clearly
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the texts “Electric field” and “Electric
current”. Pay attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
magnet to exist electric
to oppose continuous constant
practical dense separate
to define graphic to conduct
inertia to resist positive
negative object to direct
only. Consult the texts “Electric field” and “Electric current” if necessary.
1) to affect a) other forms of energy
2) to be b) with time
3) to convent into c) unaffected by temperature rise
4) to follow d) in excess
5) to interact with e) a magnetic field
6) to project f) resistance
7) to release g) charges and currents
8) to remain h) energy
9) to set up i) a path
10) to vary j) a field of electric force
Unit 9. Electric field and electric current 103

7. There are some words given in bold type in the texts “Electric field” and “Electric
current”. Choose their synonyms or antonyms from the list below. The forms of
the words in the texts may differ from those in the list.
mutual, common (syn) to designate (syn) nonuniform (ant)
new (syn) collision (syn) to decrease (ant)
to get (syn) stable, invariable (syn) unlike (ant)
to regard (syn) to assert, to declare (syn) to be in excess (ant)
to transform (syn) to call (syn) to attract (ant)
to modify, to alter (syn) important (syn) directly (ant)
to change (syn) separate (syn)
texts “Electric field” and “Electric current” and give their translation.
equal to set apart
to convert to concentrate to collide
opposition normal to depend
 READING
check.
Electric field
Each electric particle projects into space a field of electric force, and as the particles move
along a wire, the lines of force move with them. It is the motion of these lines of electric force
that sets up a magnetic field transverse to them. A variable electric field is always accompanied
by a magnetic field; and conversely, a variable magnetic field is accompanied by an electric
field. The joint interplay of electric and magnetic forces is what is called an electromagnetic
field and is considered to have its own objective existence apart from any electric charges or
magnets with which it may be associated. Examples are the photon, or quantum of light, and
the electromagnetic field radiated by an aerial.
Modern physics defines the electromagnetic field as a distinct form of matter possessing
definite properties: it is distributed continuously in space; in a vacuum it propagates at the speed
of light (300,000 km/sec); it interacts with charges and currents to convert itself into other forms
of energy (chemical, mechanical, etc.).

The theory of the electromagnetic field was stated by the Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell in his “Electricity and Magnetism”
published in 1873.
In the case of a stationary charged body the magnetic fields, built
up by the elementary charges constantly moving inside it cancel each
other, and there is practically no magnetic field. The same is true of
a stationary permanent magnet which only displays a magnetic field
and has no electric field. This condition enables us to investigate
electric and magnetic fields separately.
The electric field will be regarded as one of the aspects of the
electromagnetic field.
A measure of the strength of an electric field is given by the mechanical force per unit charge
experienced by a very small body placed in this field and is denoted by the letter E. By definition
F
E= .
q
If the strength of an electric field is the same both in magnitude and direction at any
point in space, the field is called uniform. It is relevant to note that quantities which have
both magnitude and direction are called vectors, as distinct from quantities which have only
magnitude and are called scalars. Typical vectors are
force, velocity, acceleration, while typical scalars are
temperature, quantity of matter, energy, power. Vectors
are shown graphically as arrows with their lengths
giving magnitude on a chosen scale and the arrows
themselves, direction.
An inertialess charge placed in an electric field will
follow a path called a line of force. The total number
of lines of electric force through a surface placed in an
electric field is called the electric flux and is denoted by
the letter N. For a surface S normal to the vector of a
uniform field of strength E, the flux is N = ES.
For a nonuniform field the flux is determined in a different way. A line of electric force
has already been defined. Placing a positive charge at different points in the field set up by a
positively charged spherical body, it is possible to obtain a set of such paths, or lines of electric
force. Obviously, any number of lines of electric force can be imagined in an electric field. In
order to represent its strength, there is a well-established convention to draw as many lines of
electric force through every square centimetre of area normal to the lines at a field point, as will
be equal to the field strength at that point. Consequently, the density of lines of force will give a
graphic idea of the field strength.

Like charges are known to repel one another. Therefore, on any conductor the electric charge
will concentrate only on its surface. The quantity of electricity per unit area is called the surface
charge density. It depends on the quantity of electric charge on a given body and on the shape
of the latter.
true information.
1. Each electric particle projects into space a field of electric force, and as the particles move
along a wire, the lines of force move with them.
2. A variable electric field is usually accompanied by a magnetic field; and conversely, a variable
magnetic field is usually accompanied by an electric field.
3. The joint interplay of electric and magnetic fields is called an electromagnetic field: it is
distributed in space and propagates at the speed of light.
4. The theory of the electromagnetic field was developed by Michael Faraday in 1823.
5. A measure of the strength of an electric field is given by the mechanical force per unit charge
and is denoted by the letter F.
6. If the strength of an electric field is the same in magnitude at any point in space, the field is
called uniform.
7. Quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called scalars.
8. The total number of lines of electric force through a surface placed in a magnetic field is
called the electric flux and is denoted by the letter S.
9. Like charges attract one another.
10. The surface charge density depends on the quantity of electric charge on a given body.
2. Use the information of the text to answer the following questions.

1. What is the electromagnetic field?
2. What are the properties of the electromagnetic field?
3. What condition enables us to investigate electric and magnetic fields separately?
4. What is the strength of an electric field?
5. What quantities are called vectors (scalars)?
6. What is the electric flux?
7. How can one determine the electric flux of a uniform field?
8. How is the strength of an electric field measured?
9. What is the surface charge density?
10. What does the surface charge density depend on?
1. Modern physics defines the electromagnetic field as a distinct form of matter possessing
definite properties.
2. The theory of the electromagnetic field was stated by the Scottish physicist James Clerk
Maxwell in 1873.
3. If the strength of an electric field is the same both in magnitude and direction at any point in
space, the field is called uniform.
4. An inertialess charge placed in an electric field will follow a path called a line of force.
5. The motion of these lines of electric force sets up a magnetic field transverse to them.

6. Typical vectors are force, velocity, acceleration, while typical scalars are temperature, quantity
of matter, energy, power.
7. The density of lines of force will give a graphic idea of the field strength.
8. When particles move along a wire, the lines of force move with them.
9. In the case of a stationary charged body the magnetic fields, built up by the elementary charges
constantly moving inside it cancel each other, and there is practically no magnetic field.
10. The joint interplay of electric and magnetic forces is called an electromagnetic field.
11. Quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vectors, as distinct from
quantities which have only magnitude and are called scalars.
12. The quantity of electricity per unit area is called the surface charge density.
13. Each electric particle projects into space a field of electric force.
14. A measure of the strength of an electric field is given by the mechanical force per unit charge
experienced by a very small body placed in this field and is denoted by the letter E.
15. The total number of lines of electric force through a surface placed in an electric field is called
the electric flux and is denoted by the letter N.
 READING
Electric current
If two metal spheres on insulating supports are charged with unlike electricity (say, sphere A
positively and sphere B negatively) and connected by a metal conductor, electrons will flow from
B, where they are in excess, to A where they are lacking. The flow of electrons in a conductor is
called an electric current.
If sphere A is continuously charged with positive electricity and sphere B with negative
electricity, there will be a continuous flow of electric current in the conductor. While in motion
along a conductor, electrons collide with other electrons, atoms or molecules. As a result of
these impacts, energy is released in the form of heat,
and the motion of electrons along the conductor is
impeded. This opposition to the motion of electrons
along the conductor is known as the electrical
resistance of the conductor.
There are several factors that affect resistance.
Resistance varies with the atomic structure or
nature of the conducting material. Good conducting
materials such as silver, copper, and aluminium have
low resistance. Cast iron and nichrome (an alloy of
iron, nickel, and copper) are considered to be the
examples of poorer conducting materials.
The resistance of most metals varies directly with temperature. The resistance of metals
increases with increasing temperature, while that of liquids and carbon decreases. There are
several metals, however, such as manganin, constantan, nickeline, etc., whose resistance remains
practically unaffected by temperature rise.
The resistance of a conductor increases in direct proportion with its length. That is, temperature
being constant, the resistance will be doubled if the length of the conductor is doubled.
The resistance of the conductor varies inversely with its cross-section area.

The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. The resistance in ohms of a conductor 1 metre
long and 1 mm2 in cross-section is called resistivity and is designated by the Greek letter ρ (rho).
The resistance of a conductor can be found from the equation
ρl
R= ,
s
where R – resistance of the conductor in ohms; ρ – resistivity of the conductor, ohm-mm2-m;
l – length of the conductor in metres; S – cross-section area of the conductor in mm2.
The change in the resistance of a conductor per ohm of the initial resistance and per degree
change of temperature is termed the temperature coefficient of resistance and is designated by
the letter α:
R − R0
α= t ,
R0 (t − t0 )
where R0 – initial resistance of the conductor; Rt – final resistance of the conductor; t0 – initial
temperature of the conductor; t – final temperature of the conductor.
1. What is called an electric current?
2. What is resistance?
3. What factors affect electrical resistance?
4. What is resistivity?
5. How can the resistance of a conductor be determined?
6. What is the ohm?
7. What materials have low resistance?
8. How does the resistance of conductors change with their length, cross-section area and
temperature?
9. How can the resistance of a conductor be found?
10. What is the temperature coefficient of resistance?
1. The flow of electrons in a conductor is called an electric current.
2. There are several factors that affect resistance.
3. The resistance of most metals varies directly with temperature.
4. If temperature is constant, the resistance will be doubled if the length of the conductor is
doubled.
5. If two metal spheres on insulating supports are charged with unlike electricity and connected
by a metal conductor, electrons will flow from B, where they are in excess, to A where they
are lacking.
6. The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm.
7. The resistance of a conductor increases in direct proportion with its length.
8. As a result of these impacts, energy is released in the form of heat, and the motion of electrons
along the conductor is impeded.
9. The resistance in ohms of a conductor 1 metre long and 1 mm2 in cross-section is called
resistivity and is designated by the Greek letter p (rho).

10. Resistance varies with the atomic structure or nature of the conducting material.
11. The change in the resistance of a conductor per ohm of the initial resistance and per degree
change of temperature is termed the temperature coefficient of resistance and is designated
by the letter α.
12. The resistance of the conductor varies inversely with its cross-section area.
13. This opposition to the motion of electrons along the conductor is known as the electrical
resistance of the conductor.
14. While in motion along a conductor, electrons collide with other electrons, atoms or
molecules.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the texts “Electric field” and “Electric current” to
•• give definitions of electric field, electric current, line of force, uniform field, nonuniform
field, electric flux, surface charge density, resistance;
•• name factors that effect resistance;
•• enumerate properties of the electromagnetic field.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of electricity. You
were asked to deliver a report. Using the information of the texts create mind maps
to speak about a) electric current, b) electric field.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Electricity and Circuits”
Pre-viewing tasks
advantage [əd'vɑːntɪʤ] label (v) ['leɪb(ə)l]
charge [ʧɑːʤ] lightning ['laɪtnɪŋ]
conductor [kən'dʌktə] measure (v) ['mɛʒə]
convert (v) [kən'vɜːt] nucleus ['njuːklɪəs]
copper ['kɔpə] originate (v) [ə'rɪʤ(ə)neɪt]
fabric ['fæbrɪk] release (v) [rɪ'liːs]
flash [flæʃ] remove (v) [rɪ'muːv]
handle (v) ['hænd(ə)l] switch [swɪʧ]
imbalance [ɪm'bæləns] volt [vɔlt]
insulator ['ɪnsjuleɪtə] voltage ['vəʊltɪʤ]

Proton, neutron, like charges, insulator, conductor, circuit, static electricity, battery, wire, flow,
charged particle, chemical (electrical) energy.

1) to attract a) короткое замыкание
2) battery cell b) отталкивать
3) to repel c) элемент батареи
4) outlet d) клемма
5) parallel circuit e) розетка
6) series circuit f) выключатель
7) short circuit g) притягивать
8) switch h) последовательная цепь
9) static electricity i) выключить
10) terminal j) параллельная цепь
11) to turn on k) статическое электричество
12) to turn off l) включить

1) attraction a) substance or device which does not readily conduct electricity
2) conductor b) power of pulling towards
3) electricity c) unit used to measure the force of an electric current
4) insulator d) material or device that conducts or transmits heat or electricity
5) repulsion e) form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles
6) volt f) tendency of bodies to repel each other
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Electricity is a flow of uncharged particles.
2. The nucleus contains two types of particles: protons and neutrons, which have no electric
charge.
3. A battery is a chemical device capable of converting stored electrical energy into chemical energy.
4. Most metals are not good conductors of electricity.
5. Plastic is a conductor.
6. It is impossible to construct circuits with two or more bulbs.
7. Parallel circuits always provide one path for the electricity to travel on.

1. What is electricity?
2. Where do charged particles originate from?
3. What is the structure of the atom?
4. How can one observe the attractive force?
5. What is static electricity?
6. What example of electricity is given in the film?
7. What is a battery?
8. What does the battery create?
9. What are conductors?
10. What metal is used in wires?
11. What safety warning is given in the film?
12. What is voltage?

13. What battery is safe to handle?
14. What happens if we connect a light bulb to a battery?
15. What is a switch?
16. How does it function?
film.
1. The nucleus contains two types of particles: protons, which have a positive electric charge,
and neutrons, which have no electric charge.
2. Electrons have a negative charge and they are attracted to the positively charged protons.
3. One of the most dramatic effects of electricity is a lightning strike.
4. These particles originate in the atom.
5. Batteries have two terminals or ends labeled plus and minus.
6. Electricity is a flow of charged particles.
7. A battery is a chemical device capable of converting stored chemical energy into electrical
energy.
8. The chemistry of a battery creates a force that moves electrons out of the metal plate on the
negative end and attracts them to the metal bump on the positive end.
9. When electrons flow between two points, we call this electricity.
10. Electrons will start to move from minus to plus if the right kind of material is connected to
the battery.
11. Small charged particles called electrons exist outside of the nucleus.
12. Copper is the most common metal used in wires.
13. This reflects the negative and positive charges on electrons and protons.
14. Our light bulb does two things: it introduces some resistance into the circuit reducing the
flow of electrons so that the copper wires won’t get hot and it converts electrical energy into
light energy.
15. Parallel circuits always provide more than one path for the electricity to travel on.
16. Volts or voltage is a measure of the force moving the electrons.
17. Materials that allow electricity to travel through them are called conductors.
18. Connecting and disconnecting the wire creates a simple switch turning the light off and on.
4. Use the information from the film to

•• describe electricity, battery cell, parallel and series circuit, conductor, insulator;
•• enumerate the examples given by the narrator;
•• make a report.
A. Read the texts “Conventional current direction”, “Current versus drift speed”,
“The nature of charge flow”, “Electric field and the movement of charge”,
“Electric field, work, and potential energy” and translate them in writing.
Conventional current direction
The particles that carry charge through wires in a circuit are mobile electrons. The electric
field direction within a circuit is by definition the direction that positive test charges are
pushed. Thus, these negatively charged electrons move in the direction opposite the electric

field. But while electrons are the charge carriers in metal
wires, the charge carriers in other circuits can be positive
charges, negative charges or both. In fact, the charge carriers
in semiconductors, street lamps and fluorescent lamps are
simultaneously both positive and negative charges travelling
in opposite directions.
An early convention for the direction of an electric current
was established to be in the direction that positive charges
would move. The convention has stuck and is still used today.
The direction of an electric current is by convention the
direction in which a positive charge would move. Thus, the
current in the external circuit is directed away from the positive
terminal and toward the negative terminal of the battery.
Electrons would actually move through the wires in the opposite direction. Knowing that the
actual charge carriers in wires are negatively charged electrons may make this convention seem
a bit odd and outdated. Nonetheless, it is the convention that is used worldwide and one that a
student of physics can easily become accustomed to.
Current versus drift speed

Current has to do with the number of coulombs of charge that pass a point in the circuit per
unit of time. Because of its definition, it is often confused with the quantity drift speed. Drift
speed refers to the average distance traveled by a charge carrier per unit of time. Like the speed of
any object, the drift speed of an electron moving through a wire is the distance to time ratio. The
path of a typical electron through a wire could be described as a rather chaotic, zigzag path
characterized by collisions with fixed atoms. Each collision results in a change in direction of
the electron. Yet because of collisions with atoms in the solid network of the metal conductor,
there are two steps backwards for every three steps forward. With an electric potential established
across the two ends of the circuit, the electron continues to migrate forward. Progress is always
made towards the positive terminal. Yet the overall effect of the countless collisions and the high
between-collision speeds is that the overall drift speed of an electron in a circuit is abnormally
low. A typical drift speed might be 1 meter per hour. That is slow!
One might then ask: How can there be a current on the order of 1 or 2 ampere in a circuit
if the drift speed is only about 1 meter per hour? The answer is: there are many, many charge
carriers moving at once throughout the whole length of the circuit. Current is the rate at which
charge crosses a point on a circuit. A high current is the result of several coulombs of charge
crossing over a cross section of a wire on a circuit. If the charge carriers are densely packed into
the wire, then there does not have to be a high speed to have a high current. That is, the charge
carriers do not have to travel a long distance in a second, there just has to be a lot of them passing
through the cross section. Current does not have to do with how far charges move in a second
but rather with how many charges pass through a cross
section of wire on a circuit.
To illustrate how densely packed the charge carriers
are, we will consider a typical wire found in household
lighting circuits – a 14-gauge copper wire. In a 0.01
cm-long (very thin) cross-sectional slice of this wire,
there would be as many as 3.51 ⋅ 10 20 copper atoms.
Each copper atom has 29 electrons; it would be unlikely
that even the 11 valence electrons would be in motion

as charge carriers at once. If we assume that each copper
atom contributes just a single electron, then there would be
as much as 56 coulombs of charge within a thin 0.01-cm
length of the wire. With that much mobile charge within
such a small space, a small drift speed could lead to a very
large current.
To further illustrate this distinction between drift speed
and current, consider this racing analogy. Suppose that
there was a very large turtle race with millions and millions
of turtles on a very wide race track. Turtles do not move very
fast – they have a very low drift speed. Suppose that the race
was rather short – say 1 meter in length – and that a large
percentage of the turtles reached the finish line at the same time – 30 minutes after the start
of the race. In such a case, the current would be very large – with millions of turtles passing a
point in a short amount of time. In this analogy, speed has to do with how far the turtles move
in a certain amount of time; and current has to do with how many turtles cross the finish line in
a certain amount of time.
The nature of charge flow

Once it has been established that the average drift speed of an electron is very, very slow, the
question soon arises: Why does the light in a room or in a flashlight light immediately after the
switch is turned on? Wouldn’t there be a noticeable time delay before a charge carrier moves from
the switch to the light bulb filament? The answer is NO! And the explanation of why reveals a
significant amount about the nature of charge flow in a circuit.
As mentioned above, charge carriers in the wires of electric circuits are electrons. These
electrons are simply supplied by the atoms of copper (or whatever material the wire is made
of) within the metal wire. Once the switch is turned
to on, the circuit is closed and an electric potential
difference is established across the two ends of the
external circuit. The electric field signal travels at
nearly the speed of light to all mobile electrons within
the circuit, ordering them to begin marching. As the
signal is received, the electrons begin moving along a
zigzag path in their usual direction. Thus, the flipping of the switch causes an immediate response
throughout every part of the circuit, setting charge carriers everywhere in motion in the same
net direction. While the actual motion of charge carriers occurs with a slow speed, the signal
that informs them to start moving travels at a fraction of the speed of light.
The electrons that light the bulb in a flashlight do not have to first travel from the switch
through 10 cm of wire to the filament. Rather, the electrons that light the bulb immediately
after the switch is turned to on are the electrons that are present in the filament itself. As
the switch is flipped, all mobile electrons everywhere begin marching; and it is the mobile
electrons present in the filament whose motion are immediately responsible for the lighting of
its bulb. As those electrons leave the filament, new electrons enter and become the ones that
are responsible for lighting the bulb. The electrons are moving together much like the water in
the pipes of a home move. When a faucet is turned on, it is the water in the faucet that emerges
from the spigot. One does not have to wait a noticeable time for water from the entry point to
your home to travel through the pipes to the spigot. The pipes are already filled with water and
water everywhere within the water circuit is set in motion at the same time.

The picture of charge flow being developed here
is a picture in which charge carriers are like soldiers
marching along together, everywhere at the same rate.
Their marching begins immediately in response to the
establishment of an electric potential across the two
ends of the circuit. There is no place in the electrical
circuit where charge carriers become consumed or used up. While the energy possessed by
the charge may be used up (or a better way of putting this is to say that the electric energy
is transformed to other forms of energy), the charge carriers themselves do not disintegrate,
disappear or otherwise become removed from the circuit. And there is no place in the circuit
where charge carriers begin to pile up or accumulate. The rate at which charge enters the external
circuit on one end is the same as the rate at which charge exits the external circuit on the
other end. Current – the rate of charge flow – is everywhere the same. Charge flow is like the
movement of soldiers marching in step together, everywhere at the same rate.
Electric field and the movement of charge

Perhaps one of the most useful yet taken-for-granted accomplishments of the recent centuries
is the development of electric circuits. The flow of charge through wires allows us to cook our
food, light our homes, air-condition our work and living space, entertain us with movies and
music and even allows us to drive to work or school safely.
One of the fundamental principles that must be understood in
order to grasp electric circuits pertains to the concept of how an
electric field can influence charge within a circuit as it moves from
one location to another. Here electric force was described as a non-
contact force. A charged balloon can have an attractive effect upon
an oppositely charged balloon even when they are not in contact.
The electric force acts over the distance separating the two objects.
Electric force is an action-at-a-distance force.
Action-at-a-distance forces are sometimes referred to as
field forces. The concept of a field force is utilized by scientists
to explain this rather unusual force phenomenon that occurs in
the absence of physical contact. The space surrounding a charged
object is affected by the presence of the charge; an electric field is established in that space.
A charged object creates an electric field – an alteration of the space or field in the region that
surrounds it. Other charges in that field would feel the unusual alteration of the space. Whether
a charged object enters that space or not, the electric field exists. Space is altered by the presence
of a charged object; other objects in that space experience the strange and mysterious qualities
of the space. As another charged object enters the space and moves deeper and deeper into the
field, the effect of the field becomes more and more noticeable.
Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is defined as the direction that a positive
test charge would be pushed when placed in the field. Thus, the electric field direction about
a positive source charge is always directed away from the positive source. And the electric field
direction about a negative source charge is always directed toward the negative source.
Electric field, work, and potential energy

Electric fields are similar to gravitational fields – both involve action-at-a-distance forces.
In the case of gravitational fields, the source of the field is a massive object and the action-at-a-
distance forces are exerted upon other masses. When gravity does work upon an object to move

it from a high location to a lower location, the object’s total amount of mechanical energy is
conserved. However, during the course of the falling motion, there was a loss of potential energy
(and a gain of kinetic energy). When gravity does work upon an object to move it in the direction of
the gravitational field, then the object loses potential energy. The potential energy originally stored
within the object as a result of its vertical position is lost as the object moves under the influence
of the gravitational field. On the other hand, energy would be required to move a massive object
against its gravitational field. A stationary object would not naturally move against the field and
gain potential energy. Energy in the form of work would have to be imparted to the object by an
external force in order for it to gain this height and the corresponding potential energy.
The important point to be made by this gravitational analogy is that work must be done by
an external force to move an object against nature – from low potential energy to high potential
energy. On the other hand, objects naturally move from high potential energy to low potential
energy under the influence of the field force. It is simply natural for objects to move from high
energy to low energy; but work is required to move an object from low energy to high energy.
In a similar manner, to move a charge in an electric field against its natural direction of
motion would require work. The exertion of work by an external force would in turn add potential
energy to the object. The natural direction of motion of an object is from high energy to low
energy; but work must be done to move the object against nature. On the other hand, work would
not be required to move an object from a high potential energy location to a low potential energy
location. When this principle is logically extended to the movement of charge within an electric
field, the relationship between work, energy and the direction that a charge moves becomes more
obvious.
Consider the diagram above in which a positive source charge is creating an electric field
and a positive test charge being moved against and with the field. In Diagram A, the positive test
charge is being moved against the field from location A to location B. Moving the charge in this

direction would be like going against nature. Thus, work would be required to move the object
from location A to location B and the positive test charge would be gaining potential energy in
the process. This would be analogous to moving a mass in the uphill direction; work would be
required to cause such an increase in gravitational potential energy. In Diagram B, the positive test
charge is being moved with the field from location B to location A. This motion would be natural
and not require work from an external force. The positive test charge would be losing energy in
moving from location B to location A. This would be analogous to a mass falling downward; it
would occur naturally and be accompanied by a loss of gravitational potential energy. One can
conclude from this discussion that the high energy location for a positive test charge is a location
nearest the positive source charge; and the low energy location is furthest away.
The above discussion pertained to moving a positive test charge within the electric field
created by a positive source charge. Now we will consider the motion of the same positive test
charge within the electric field created by a negative source charge. The same principle regarding
work and potential energy will be used to identify the locations of high and low energy.
In Diagram C, the positive test charge is moving from location A to location B in the
direction of the electric field. This movement would be natural – like a mass falling towards
Earth. Work would not be required to cause such a motion and it would be accompanied by a loss
of potential energy. In Diagram D, the positive test charge is moving from location B to location
A against the electric field. Work would be required to cause this motion; it would be analogous
to raising a mass within Earth’s gravitational field. Since energy is imparted to the test charge in
the form of work, the positive test charge would be gaining potential energy as the result of the
motion. One can conclude from this discussion that the low energy location for a positive test
charge is a location nearest a negative source charge and the high energy location is a location
furthest away from a negative source charge.
As we begin to discuss circuits, we will apply these principles regarding work and potential
energy to the movement of charge about a circuit. Just as we reasoned here, moving a positive
test charge against the electric field will require work and result in a gain in potential energy. On
the other hand, a positive test charge will naturally move in the direction of the field without
the need for work being done on it; this movement will result in the loss of potential energy.
Before making this application to electric circuits, we need to first explore the meaning of the
concept electric potential.
B. Read the text “Electric charge” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Electric charge
The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is made up of
atoms which have positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons surrounding them.
Charge is quantized as a multiple of the electron or proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them (Coulomb’s
law) and the electric field and voltage produced by them. One Coulomb of charge is the charge
which would flow through a 120 watt light bulb (120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of one
Coulomb each separated by a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons!
The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is measured in Amperes.
In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps appropriate to point
out that we use simplified sketches and constructs to introduce concepts, and there is inevitably
much more to the story. No significance should be attached to the circles representing the proton
and electron, in the sense of implying a relative size, or even that they are hard sphere objects,
although that’s a useful first construct. The most important opening idea, electrically, is that they
have a property called “charge” which is the same size, but opposite in polarity for the proton
and electron. The proton has 1836 times the mass of the electron, but exactly the same size
charge, only positive rather than negative. Even the terms “positive” and “negative” are arbitrary,
but well-entrenched historical labels. The essential implication of that is that the proton and
electron will strongly attract each other, the historical archetype of the cliché “opposites attract”.
Two protons or two electrons would strongly repel each other. Once you have established those
basic ideas about electricity, “like charges repel and unlike charges attract”, then you have the
foundation for electricity and can build from there.
From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from detailed microscopic
experiments, we know that the proton and electron have the same magnitude of charge. All
charges observed in nature are multiples of these fundamental charges. Although the standard
model of the proton depicts it as being made up of fractionally charged particles called quarks,
those fractional charges are not observed in isolation – always in combinations which produce
+/– the electron charge.
An isolated single charge can be called an “electric monopole”. Equal positive and negative
charges placed close to each other constitute an electric dipole. Two oppositely directed dipoles
close to each other are called an electric quadrupole. You can continue this process to any
number of poles, but dipoles and quadrupoles are mentioned here because they find significant
application in physical phenomena.
One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of electric charge. No
known physical process produces a net change in electric charge.

1. The unit of electric charge … .
2. Ordinary matter is made up of … which have positively charged … and negatively charged …
surrounding them.
3. The influence of … is characterized in terms of the … between them (Coulomb’s law) and the
… and … produced by them.
4. The rate of flow of electric charge is called … and is measured in … .
5. The proton has 1836 times the mass of the … , but exactly the same size … , only positive
rather than … .
6. We know that the proton and electron have the same … .
7. An isolated single charge can be called an … .
8. Two oppositely directed dipoles close to each other are called … .
9. One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is … .


Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 10
Michael Faraday
The secret is comprised in three words – work, finish, publish.
Michael Faraday
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Michael Faraday”. What do you know
about this outstanding British physicist?
alloy ['ælɔɪ] electrolysis [ ɪlek'trɔlɪsɪs]
'
although [ɔːl'ðəʊ] initially [ɪ 'nɪʃ(ə)lɪ]
apprentice (v) [ə'prentɪs] needle [niːdl]
career [kə'rɪə] purely ['pjuəlɪ]
cathode ['kæθəʊd] stationary ['steɪʃ(ə)n(ə)rɪ]
chloride ['klɔːraɪd] sulphate ['sʌlfeɪt]
coil [kɔɪl] turbine ['tɜːbaɪn]
copper ['kɔpə] winding ['waɪndɪŋ]
diamagnetism [ daɪə'mægnɪtɪz(ə)m] wire ['waɪə]
'
electricity [ ɪlek'trɪsɪtɪ]
'
2. The text “Michael Faraday” contains a number of terms. Guess what they mean.
Permanent (stationary) magnet, galvanometer, substance, chloride, sulphate, conductor,
diffusion, anode, cathode, optical glass, electric discharge, current, deflection.

1) charge a) полюс
2) circuit b) стрелки
3) coil of wire c) разлагать
4) to decompose d) вызывать, индуцировать
5) electric discharge e) давление
6) electromotive force f) напряженность магнитного поля
7) to induce g) расплавленное состояние
8) magnetic field strength h) электродвижущая сила
9) molten state i) электрическая цепь
10) needles j) электрический разряд
Unit 10. Michael Faraday 119

11) pole n) заряд
12) pressure o) медная обмотка
13) winding of copper p) катушка с обмоткой, соленоид
4. The words given in A are used in the text “Michael Faraday”. Choose their
A B
1) alloy a) particular kind of matter
2) current b) process of reaching conclusions by using one’s reason
3) diamagnetism c) a method of deflecting an electron beam using electromagnets
4) electrolysis d) not moving or changing
5) electromagnetic e) the algebraic sum of the potential differences acting in a circuit
deflection f) a property of substances that have a negative magnetic susceptibility
6) electromotive force so that the relative permeability is less than that of a vacuum
7) experiment g) bringing about an electric or magnetic state in a body by proximity
8) generator of an electrified or magnetized body
9) induction h) mixture of metals, esp. a metal of low value mixed with a metal of
10) reasoning higher value
11) stationary i) machine or apparatus that generates electricity, steam, gas, vapour, etc.
12) substance j) test or trial carried out carefully in order to study what happens or
gain new knowledge
k) separation of a substance into its chemical parts by electric current
l) flow of electricity through smth or along a wire or cable
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Michael Faraday”. Pay

origin to persist to discover to wind
success distinct initial to found
to differ to deflect to relate to describe
electric to conduct to connect to move
only. Consult the text “Michael Faraday” if necessary.
1) to be unacquainted with a) the principle
2) to begin b) experiments
3) to carry on c) electric machines
4) to consist in d) investigations
5) to devise e) batteries
6) to discover f) a dozen of lectures
7) to employ g) mathematical symbols
8) to learn h) the art of bookbinding
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Michael Faraday”. Choose
their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in this text may differ
to stay, to continue to demand to assign, to nominate
persistent to produce, to make to expand, to enlarge
to invent, to create to use, to apply to inspire, to support
to be busy, to be involved to dissolve, to liquefy

text “Michael Faraday“ and give their translation.
to be interested to be unacquainted to consist
to make use to carry aside
in connection to turn one’s attention identical
 READING
Michael Faraday
Born: 22 September 1791
Newington Butts, Surrey, England
Died: 25 August 1867 (aged 75)
Hampton Court, Surrey, England
Resident: England
Nationality: British
Known for: Faraday’s law of induction Faraday paradox Faraday cup

Electrochemistry Faraday rotator Faraday wheel
Faraday effect Faraday efficiency effect Faraday wave
Faraday’s law of force Faraday constant Faraday cage
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Michael Faraday
Although for certain purposes we still employ batteries to a limited extent to generate electric
current, the usual procedure used today is by electromagnetic induction. Great generators in our
power stations, driven by powerful turbines, operate through the relative movement of conductors
and magnets on the principle discovered by that remarkable man, Michael Faraday in 1831.
Michael Faraday was born in 1791, in a small village near London. He was the son of a
blacksmith. Being required to assist his mother in providing for the family, he was engaged in 1804
as an errand boy to a bookseller and in the following year he was apprenticed to his employer to
learn the art of bookbinding. Faraday made good use of his spare time by reading some of the
books that passed through the shop. He was particularly interested in works on science and in
connection with his reading he began performing simple experiments.
Aside from his own reading, Faraday’s only scientific education consisted in a dozen of
lectures on natural philosophy and four lectures on chemistry by Humphry Davy in 1812. It
was Davy who helped Faraday to become an assistant at the laboratory at the Royal Institute.
A few months later, at the age of twenty-two Michael Faraday was appointed to a post at the
Royal Institution at 25 shillings a week. Thus, he started on that remarkable career which lasted
for nearly half a century, during which he laid the foundation for the electrical age. He became
a skilful experimenter and an enthusiastic lecturer.
Being encouraged by Davy, Faraday began original investigations, initially in chemistry and
then in electricity. From 1816 to 1819 he published 37 papers. Faraday became interested in
electromagnetism in 1821 and made some experiments. Though they were unsuccessful, the
phenomenon excited Faraday’s interest and he decided to study it. First, he read what had been

done by others and repeated many experiments. In the course of these experiments, he observed
that, when the magnetic pole was brought near the wire, “the effort of the wire is always to pass
off at right angles from the pole, indeed to go in a circle around it”. On passing a current through
the wire, it revolved continuously around the magnet. This was the first electric motor.
Faraday's Laboratory at the Royal Institution (1870 engraving)
In 1831, after years of patient and persistent experiments, Faraday discovered the
electromagnetic induction. We can read in his “Laboratory Notes” how, day by day, he carried
on different experiments with wire and coils, permanent bar magnets and magnetic needles
with varying results. On October 17, 1831, he discovered that if he connected a coil of wire to a
galvanometer and inserted a magnet into the coil, he obtained a deflection on the galvanometer.
The coil consisted of eight windings of copper wire each 27 feet long, the windings being
connected in parallel. When he was inserting one end of the magnet into the coil, he noticed
that the deflection of the galvanometer continued only for a short time and stopped as soon
as the magnet was completely inserted. No current was generated while the magnet remained
stationary. When it was taken away, there was a second galvanometer deflection but this time in
the reverse direction. In both cases, however, there was a current only during the time when the
magnet was moving.
Following this discovery, Faraday devised and tried various electric machines to test and
extend his newly discovered principle. But his interest was always in pure science. Being
unacquainted with mathematical symbols and methods, Faraday always sought to explain his
discoveries and to extend his researches by purely physical reasoning.
Faraday next turned his attention to proving that
“Electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical
in its nature.” He found, for example, that electricity
from a frictional machine deflected a galvanometer and
caused chemical decomposition just as did electricity
produced by chemical action. This led him into the field
of electrolysis. He found that many substances, such as
chlorides and sulphates, are nonconductors when solid
but are good conductors when melted, and in the molten
state they are decomposed by the passage of current. To

clarify description of his experiments, he introduced the terms “electrode”, “anode”, “cathode”,
“ion”, etc.
Faraday investigated the diffusion of gases through solids, diamagnetism distinction between
anode and cathode in the electric discharge through gases at low pressure, alloys of steel and
optical glass.
Faraday was one of the greatest figures in the history of experimental physics.
1. Choose the best ending a, b or c.
1. The usual procedure to generate electric current is …
a) to employ batteries.
b) realized by means of electromagnetic induction.
c) to burn coal.
2. Generators operate on the principle discovered by …
a) Maxwell.
b) Bernoulli.
c) Faraday.
3. Faraday’s scientific education consisted in lectures on …
a) chemistry and natural philosophy.
b) physics and chemistry.
c) biology and natural philosophy.
4. Faraday began original investigations initially in …
a) physics and then in electricity.
b) chemistry and then in electricity.
c) physics and then in chemistry.
5. Faraday …
a) succeeded in making experiments in electromagnetism.
b) did not make experiments in the field of electromagnetism.
c) was interested in electromagnetism but his experiments were unsuccessful.
6. Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction …
a) after inventing the galvanometer.
b) after making a large number of experiments.
c) after devising different electric machines.
7. Faraday carried on experiments with …
a) various electric devices.
b) wire and coils.
c) a galvanometer.
8. Current is generated …
a) when the magnet is taken away.
b) remains stationary.
c) when the magnet is moving.
9. The study of chemical decomposition led Faraday to the field of …
a) magnetism.
b) electrolysis.
c) electricity.

10. Chlorides and sulphates are good conductors when …
a) solid.
b) liquid.
c) melted.
11. Faraday introduced different terms such as …
a) “magnet”, “galvanometer”, etc.
b) “alloy”, “electric discharge”, etc.
c) “cathode”, “anode”, “ion”, etc.

1. Where was Faraday born?
2. What was his father?
3. Did Faraday have a chance to get any education?
4. What was his first job?
5. When did he read books?
6. Whose lectures did he attend?
7. What role did Davy play in Faraday’s scientific career?
8. In what fields did Faraday perform experiments?
9. Did unsuccessful experiments in electromagnetism discourage Faraday?
10. What did Faraday discover in 1831?
11. What experiment did he make to discover electromagnetic induction?
12. How did Faraday explain his discoveries?
13. What experiment did he make to prove that electricity is identical in its nature?
14. What terms did he introduce into the English scientific language?
15. Who continued studying electricity and magnetism?
1. At the age of 22 Michael Faraday was appointed to a post at the Royal Institution.
2. Faraday became interested in electromagnetism in 1821 and made some experiments.
3. Aside from his own reading, Faraday’s only scientific education consisted in a dozen of
lectures on natural philosophy and four lectures on chemistry by Humphry Davy in 1812.
4. Being unacquainted with mathematical symbols and methods, Faraday always sought to
explain his discoveries and to extend his researches by purely physical reasoning.
5. No current was generated while the magnet remained stationary.
6. To clarify description of his experiments, he introduced the terms “electrode”, “anode”,
“cathode”, “ion”, etc.
7. Faraday made a great contribution both to chemistry and physics.
8. Great generators in our power stations, driven by powerful turbines, operate through the
relative movement of conductors and magnets on the principle discovered by Michael
Faraday in 1831.
9. In 1831, after years of patient and persistent experiments, Faraday discovered the
electromagnetic induction.
10. Thus, he started on that remarkable career which lasted for nearly half a century, during
which he laid the foundation for the electrical age.
11. In 1804 he was engaged as an errand boy to a bookseller.
12. There was a current only during the time when the magnet was moving.
13. Michael Faraday was born in 1791, in a small village near London.

14. He was particularly interested in works on science and in connection with his reading he
began performing simple experiments.
15. Though these experiments were unsuccessful, the phenomenon excited his interest and he
decided to study it.
16. Faraday made use of his spare time by reading some books that passed through the shop.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Michael Faraday” to
•• describe Faraday’s education and scientific career;
•• name Faraday’s discoveries and inventions.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to Faraday’s discoveries and his
contribution to science. Use the information from the text “Michael Faraday” and
the mind map given below to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Michael Faraday. Biography”
Pre-viewing tasks
appoint (v) [ə'pɔɪnt] Humphry Davy ['hʌmfrɪ 'deɪvɪ]
apprentice [ə'prentɪs] plaque [plɑːk]
apprenticeship [ə'prentɪsʃɪp] sensitive ['sensɪtɪv]
bookbinding ['buk baɪndɪŋ] subsequently [sʌb'siːkwəntlɪ]
'
contribute (v) [kən'trɪbjuːt] tomb [tuːm]
dispel (v) [dɪ'spel]

Electromagnetism, electrochemistry, cable, principle, external, equipment, electromagnetic
rotation, induction, motor, generator.

1) electric generator a) клетка Фарадея
2) electric motor b) микроволновая печь
3) electric transformer c) электрический мотор
4) electromagnetic induction d) МРТ
5) dynamo e) электромагнитная индукция
6) Faraday cage f) электрический трансформатор
7) microwave oven g) электрический генератор
8) MRI h) динамо-машина

1) cable a) machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical
2) dynamo b) quick to detect or respond to slight changes, signals or
3) electromagnetism influences
4) Faraday cage c) grounded metal screen surrounding a piece of equipment
5) MRI (magnetic resonance to exclude electrostatic and electromagnetic influences
imaging) d) phenomenon of the interaction of electric currents or fields
6) sensitive and magnetic fields
e) insulated wires having a protective causing and used for
transmitting electricity or telecommunication signals
f) method by which medical staff can get a picture of soft parts
inside a patient’s body, using a powerful magnetic field
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Michael Faraday was a British physicist and chemist who greatly contributed only to the
scientific field of electromagnetism.
2. Faraday received a fundamental education.
3. Faraday gave four lectures for the British chemist Humphry Davy.
4. In the 1820’s he Faraday published his work on electromagnetic induction.
5. Faraday later used his principles to construct electric generator.
6. Faraday also developed cables, microwave ovens and MRI machines.
7. Faraday died in 1875 aged 67.

1. Where was Faraday born?
2. What fields did Faraday contribute to?
3. What education did he get?
4. What subjects were especially interesting for him?
5. Whose lectures did Faraday attend? What did it lead to?
6. What did Faraday publish in the 1820’s?

7. What did Faraday discover in 1831?
8. What did Faraday construct later?
9. What is the practical application of his discoveries?
10. When did he die?
film.
1. When he was 14, he became an apprentice to a local book binding business and spent most
of the next decade educating himself through the books he found in the shop.
2. Davy subsequently appointed Faraday as his secretary and was later made chemical assistant
at the Royal Institution.
3. Michael Faraday was a British physicist and chemist who greatly contributed to the scientific
fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
4. He also developed the Faraday cage.
5. In 1812, after his apprenticeship had ended he attended four lectures by the British chemist
Humphry Davy.
6. Faraday was born in south London to a poor family and he only received a basic education.
7. He died in 1867 aged 75.
8. In the 1820’s he published his work on electromagnetic rotation, which was the principle
behind the electric motor, and in 1831, he discovered electromagnetic induction.
9. He constructed the electric dynamo, which was the early model of today’s electric generator.
10. He was especially interested in scientific subjects.
11. Faraday was later made scientific adviser to Trinity House and professor of chemistry at the
Royal Military Academy in England.

•• Faraday’s apprenticeship;
•• Humphry Davy’s influence on Faraday’s scientific career;
•• Faraday’s discoveries and inventions in the field of electricity.
A. Read the text “Electricity and magnetism” and translate it in writing.
Electricity and magnetism
Faraday is best known for his work regarding electricity and magnetism. His first recorded
experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven ha’penny coins, stacked together
with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile
he decomposed sulfate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812).
In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Oersted discovered the
phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and the British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried,
but failed, to design an electric motor. Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two
men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called “electromagnetic rotation”. One
of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was
engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury
wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with

current from a chemical battery. These experiments and inventions
formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. In
his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his
work with either Wollaston or Davy. The resulting controversy within
the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and
may well have contributed to Faraday’s assignment to other activities,
which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic
research for several years.
One of Faraday’s 1831 experiments demonstrating induction.
The liquid battery (right) sends an electric current through the small
coil (A). When it is moved in or out of the large coil (B), its magnetic
field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by
Electromagnetic rotation
experiment of Faraday,
the galvanometer (G).
ca. 1821 From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his
laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials
and developing requisite experience. In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether
a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in
an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship. This
experiment followed similar work conducted with light and
magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results.
A
During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his
time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass,
C
borosilicate of lead, which he used in his future studies B
connecting light with magnetism. In his spare time, Faraday
continued publishing his experimental work on optics and
electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with
scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe
with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism. Two years after the death of Davy, in
1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction,
recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October 1831 he was “making many experiments with
the great magnet of the Royal Society”.
A diagram of Faraday’s iron ring-coil apparatus
Built in 1831, the Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet
(A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an
electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through
the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk
through the axle.

Faraday’s breakthrough came when he wrapped two
insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that
upon passing a current through one coil a momentary current
was induced in the other coil. This phenomenon is now D
known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus m
A
is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent B′ B
experiments, he found that if he moved a magnet through
a loop of wire an electric current flowed in that wire. The
current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary
magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing
magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James
Clerk Maxwell as Faraday’s law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations,
and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory. Faraday would
later use the principles he had discovered to construct
the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power
generators and the electric motor.
In 1832, he completed a series of experiments
aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of
electricity; Faraday used “static” batteries and
“animal electricity” to produce the phenomena of
electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism,
etc. He concluded that, contrary to the scientific
opinion of the time, the divisions between the various
“kinds” of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead
proposed that only a single “electricity” exists, and
the changing values of quantity and intensity (current
and voltage) would produce different groups of
phenomena.
Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed
that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty
space around the conductor. This idea was rejected
Faraday (right) and John Daniell (left), by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live
founders of electrochemistry to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition
by the scientific community. Faraday’s concept of
lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric
and magnetic fields; that conceptual model was crucial for the successful development of the
electromechanical devices that dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the
19th century.
B. Read the text “Faraday’s Law of Induction” and fulfill the tasks given
below.
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s law of induction, in physics, is a quantitative relationship between a changing
magnetic field and the electric field created by the change, developed on the basis of experimental
observations made in 1831 by the English scientist Michael Faraday.
The phenomenon called electromagnetic induction was first noticed and investigated by
Faraday; the law of induction is its quantitative expression. Faraday discovered that, whenever

the magnetic field about an electromagnet was made to grow and collapse by closing and opening
the electric circuit of which it was a part, an electric current could be detected in a separate
conductor nearby.
Moving a permanent magnet into and out of a coil of wire also induced a current in the wire
while the magnet was in motion. Moving a conductor near a stationary permanent magnet caused
a current to flow in the wire, too, as long as it was moving.
So, any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to
be “induced” in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated.
The change can be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward
or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative
to the magnet, etc.
Faraday visualized a magnetic field as composed of many lines of induction, along which
a small magnetic compass would point. The aggregate of the lines intersecting a given area is
called the magnetic flux. The electrical effects were thus attributed by Faraday to a changing
magnetic flux. Some years later the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell proposed that the
fundamental effect of changing magnetic flux was the production of an electric field, not only
in a conductor (where it could drive an electric charge) but also in space even in the absence
of electric charges.
Maxwell formulated the mathematical expression relating the change in magnetic flux
to the induced electromotive force (E or emf). This relationship, known as Faraday’s law of
induction (to distinguish it from his laws of electrolysis), states that the magnitude of the emf
induced in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux that cuts across
the circuit. If the rate of change of magnetic flux is expressed in units of webers per second, the
induced emf has units of volts. Faraday’s law is one of the four Maxwell equations that define
electromagnetic theory.

1. Faraday’s law of induction, in physics, is a … between a changing … and the … .
2. The phenomenon called … was first noticed and investigated by Faraday.
3. Moving a permanent magnet … and … of a coil of wire also induced a … in the wire while
the magnet was in motion.
4. Any change in the … environment of a coil of wire will cause a … (emf) to be “induced” in
the coil.
5. The change can be produced by changing the … , moving a magnet … or … from the coil,
moving the coil … or … of the magnetic field, rotating the coil … to the magnet, etc.
6. Faraday visualized a magnetic field as composed of many … , along which a small magnetic
compass would point.
7. James Clerk Maxwell proposed that the fundamental effect of changing … was the production
of an … , not only in a … (where it could drive an electric charge) but also in space even in
the absence of electric charges.
8. Maxwell formulated the … expression relating the change in … to the induced …
(E or emf).
9. This relationship, known as … (to distinguish it from his laws of electrolysis), states that the
magnitude of the … induced in a circuit is proportional to the … of the magnetic flux that
cuts across the circuit.
10. If the rate of change of magnetic flux is expressed in units of … per second, the induced emf
has units of … .

of the prompts given in exercise 3 (p. 16).

Electricity: Short Circuits & Direct Currents
?
What's the difference between an electrical conductor and an insulator?
Who invented the battery?
Feel your cells burn as you recharge your mental battery by answering the questions
in this quiz.
1. Electricity that reaches our homes through cables is called:

current electricity static electricity
lightning insulation
2. Who invented the battery?

Thomas Edison Pierre Curie
Albert Einstein Alessandro Volta
3. Where would you not find a cell phone tower?

atop a building on a signpost
in a tree underground
4. Which of the following is not an electrical conductor?

copper glass
steel aluminum
5. Which of the following materials is an insulator?

copper coin aluminum wire
steel paperclip rubber sole
6. A lead acid battery stores what kind of electricity ?

static direct current (DС)
alternating current (AC) virtual
7. What do we call a material that heat or electricity can move through?

conjunction component
conductor confusion
8. Who discovered the law of electrolysis?

Atessandro Volta Michael Faraday
Samuel Morse James Watt

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 11
Optics
The world is my country, science is my religion.
Christiaan Huygens
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Optics”. What do you know about
optics?
aberration [ æbə'reɪʃ(ə)n] minute [maɪ'njuːt]
'
appreciably [ə'priːʃəblɪ] oscillation [ ɔsɪ'leɪʃ(ə)n]
'
associate (v) [ə'səʊʃɪeɪt] polarization [ pəʊl(ə)raɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n]
'
coherent [kəʊ'hɪər(ə)nt] procedure [prə'siːʤə]
corpuscular [kɔː'pʌskjulə] quantum ['kwɔntəm]
design [dɪ'zaɪn] radiant ['reɪdɪənt]
disturbance [dɪ'stɜːb(ə)ns] spatial ['speɪʃ(ə)l]
duality [dju(ː)'ælɪtɪ] subsequent ['sʌbsɪkwənt]
interference [ ɪntə'fɪər(ə)ns] treatise ['triːtɪz]
'
major ['meɪʤə] yield (v) [jiːld]

Physical (geometrical) optics, lens, coherent optical system, reflection, wave motion, dispersion,
diffraction, interference, electrical circuit, holography, electromagnetic wave, electric charge,
discrete unit.

1) communication channel a) луч лазера
2) focal length b) процесс формирования изображения
3) frequency c) оптическое волокно
4) image-forming process d) канал связи
5) laser beam e) распространение света
6) the law of reflection f) передавать информацию
7) loss of energy g) фотоэлектрический эффект
8) optical data processing h) частота
Unit 11. Optics 133

9) optical fiber i) корпускулярно-волновой дуализм
10) photoelectric effect j) закон отражения
11) propagation of light k) обработка оптических данных
12) to transmit information l) фокусное расстояние
13) wave-particle duality m) потеря энергии
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “Optics”. Find their definitions in
A B
1) finding(s) a) to send out (to broadcast a programme received from
2) laser another station)
3) light b) of time, existing in time
4) photon c) transmitted by radiation
5) property d) device for generating, amplifying and concentrating light
6) radiant waves into an intense beam in one specific direction
7) to relay e) what has been learnt as the result of inquiry
8) spatial f) of space, in relation to space, existing in space
9) temporal g) that which makes things visible
10) wave h) unit of quantity of energy in light
i) motion by which heat, sound, light, radio, etc. is spread
or carried
j) special quality that belongs to something
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Optics”. Pay attention to
the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
to found to emerge to disturb
frequent to comprehend theory
corpuscle to apply to interfere
appreciable space focus
primary geometry optics
to know to behave
only. Consult the text “Optics” if necessary.
1) to behave a) a telescope
2) to carry b) formulas
3) to construct c) information
4) to deal with d) light
5) to describe e) optical data processing
6) to devise f) the foundations of optics
7) to establish g) a treatise
8) to govern h) light to wave motion
9) to include i) a theory
10) to make use of j) like a wave
11) to propose k) a tool
12) to provide l) the behavior of optical systems
13) to publish m) the nature of light
14) to relate n) the properties of lenses

7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Optics”. Choose their
synonyms or antonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text
may differ from those in the list.
interest (syn) to shift, to move (syn) to omit (ant)
vibration (syn) to account for (syn) minor (ant)
progress (syn) to dominate (syn) current (ant)
often (syn) hypothesis (syn) huge (ant)
to emerge (syn) previous (ant) incomplete (ant)
text “Optics” and give their translation.
to deal to couple to relate something … something
to lead to usher to be concerned
to do to extend to consist
to succeed to give rise
 READING
Optics
Optics is concerned with the production and propagation of light, the changes that it
undergoes and produces, and other phenomena closely associated with it. There are two major
branches of optics: physical and geometrical. Physical optics deals primarily with the nature and
properties of light itself. Geometrical optics has to do with the principles that govern the image-
forming properties of lenses, mirrors, and other devices that make use of light. It also includes
optical data processing, which involves the manipulation of the information content of an image
formed by coherent optical systems.
The ancient Greeks and Arabs had some knowledge of the nature and properties of light.
The foundations of the science of optics, however, were not established until the 17th century.
During the early 1600s Galileo Galilei constructed the first telescope that could be used for
astronomical observation. In the 1650s the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat succeeded
in deriving the law of refraction. By the end of the century the
Dutch mathematician-physicist Christiaan Huygens provided
a mechanical explanation of reflection and refraction in his
treatise on light. He also formulated a theory on the nature of
light in which he related light to wave motion. In 1704 Isaac
Newton published his Optics, which included a comprehensive
study of refraction, dispersion, diffraction, and polarization and
a theoretical description of the corpuscular nature of light (i.e.,
light as consisting of moving particles). Newton’s views, especially
his particle theory of light, came to dominate scientific thought for
over a century, completely overshadowing Huygens’ contributions.
During the early 1800s Thomas Young, an English physician
and physicist, studied the phenomenon of interference and
found that it could only be explained if light consisted of waves.
Young’s findings revived the wave theory of light. This conception
held sway among the next several generations of investigators,
Unit 11. Optics 135

including the British physicist James Clerk
Evidence Supporting Particle Nature of Light. Maxwell, whose electromagnetic theory
Physics had yet to explain the following as of 1900: of light (1864) is generally considered the
• Atomic Spectra foremost achievement of classical optics.
Characteristic Color Pattern According to Maxwell’s theory, light and
• Blackbody Radiation various other forms of radiant energy are
Absorption and Emission of Energy propagated in the form of electromagnetic
• Photoelectric Effect waves – i.e., disturbances generated by the
Photoemission of Electrons oscillation or acceleration of an electric
charge and characterized by the temporal and
spatial relations associated with wave motion.
The groundwork for modern optics was laid by the introduction of quantum theory at the
turn of the century. The theory, proposed in 1900 by Max Planck of Germany, explained that
radiant energy is emitted in discrete units, or quanta. In 1905 Albert Einstein extended this idea
of light and demonstrated that, in the photoelectric effect, light behaves as though all of its energy
were concentrated in minute particles later called photons. Einstein’s finding, coupled with the
electromagnetic theory, led to the present-day view that light behaves like waves in certain situations
and like particles in others. The subsequent development of quantum mechanics, largely from 1925
to 1935, yielded a systematic explanation of this fundamental wave-particle duality of light.
Advances in physical optics were paralleled by rapid progress in geometrical optics. Lenses
of high quality had been produced for telescopes and microscopes since the late 1700s, and in
1841 the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss published his treatise on geometrical
optics. In it he detailed the concept of the focal length and cardinal points of a lens system and
devised formulas for calculating the position and size of the image formed by a lens of a given
focal length. A little over a decade later, Gauss’s theoretical work was extended to the calculation
of the five principal aberrations of a lens, thus establishing the basis for the formal procedures of
lens design that were used for the next 100 years.
Two major developments, the emergence of communication and information theory in the
1950s and the invention of the laser in the early 1960s, ushered in a new era in optics. The initial
tie between optics and communications arose because of the many analogies that exist between
the two areas and because of the similar mathematical methods used to formally describe the
behaviour of electrical circuits and optical systems. Since the invention of the lens as an imaging
device the description of the optical system that forms the image has always been a matter of
much concern. Information about an object is relayed and presented as an image. In this sense,
an optical system can be considered a communication channel and be analyzed as such.
The manipulation of the content of an image by means of optical systems using coherent
light became a subject for serious study in the 1950s. The laser provided an ideal tool for optical
data processing and communication. It gave rise to significant advances in holography.
Moreover, the laser is a very efficient means of
transmitting audio and video information. As the
frequency of laser light is appreciably higher than Light – Wave or Particle.
that of radio waves, for example, a laser beam can Evidence Supporting Wave Nature of Light:
carry substantially more information. Furthermore, • Reflection
since a laser beam is highly directional, it is able to • Refraction
transmit information with very little interference and
• Diffraction
over long distances. In long-distance communication
applications lasers are frequently used in conjunction • Interference
with optical fibers, which makes it possible to Where did we observe these phenomena?
transfer laser light from one relay station to the next • Polarization
with almost no loss of energy.

1. Optics …
a) is concerned with the nature and properties of light.
b) is related to different optical systems.
c) deals with the production and propagation of light, the changes it undergoes and causes.
d) is connected with the principles that govern the image-forming properties of optical
systems.
2. The foundations of optics …
a) were established in the 17th century.
b) were laid by ancient Greeks.
c) were formulated by Huygens.
d) were determined by Newton.
3. Thomas Young …
a) studied polarization.
b) found out that interference could be explained if light consisted of particles.
c) investigated diffraction.
d) researched the phenomenon of interference.
4. James Clerk Maxwell …
a) worked out the basics of geometrical optics.
b) developed the electromagnetic theory of light.
c) thought that light is a stream of particles.
d) explained the Newton rings.
5. Albert Einstein …
a) revived the corpuscular theory of light.
b) explained that light is emitted in discrete units, or quanta.
c) proposed the quantum theory of light.
d) postulated the principle of wave-particle duality of light.
6. The German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss …
a) made a remarkable contribution to physical optics.
b) wrote a treatise on geometrical optics.
c) calculated the length of a lens focus.
d) introduced the concept of the focal length.
7. The invention of the laser …
a) provided audio and video information transmission.
b) ushered in a new era in optics.
c) gave rise to significant advances in physical optics.
d) made it possible to transfer light over long distances but with some energy loses.
2. Make sure that you remember the dates (years) mentioned in the text.
1. The foundations of optics were established in the 17th/18th century.
2. Galileo Galilei constructed the first telescope in the early/late 1600s.
3. Isaac Newton published his treatise Optics in 1704/1714.
4. James Clerk Maxwell developed his electromagnetic theory of light in 1874/1864.
5. Max Planck proposed his theory in 1900/1910.
6. Albert Einstein discovered the photoelectric effect in 1910/1905.
Unit 11. Optics 137

7. The German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss published his treatise on geometrical optics
in 1841/1741.
8. The laser was invented in the early1950s/1960s.

1. What is optics?
2. What does geometrical (physical) optics study?
3. What did Galileo Galilei construct?
4. What did Pierre de Fermat manage to do?
5. What did Huygens explain?
6. What phenomena were investigated in Newton’s Optics?
7. What contribution did Thomas Young make?
8. How did Maxwell interpret light?
9. What theory was proposed by Max Planck?
10. What effect did Albert Einstein discover? What did he think of light?
11. What progress was made in geometrical optics?
12. What developments ushered in a new era in optics?
13. How can one explain ties existing between optics and communications?
14. What became possible after the invention of the laser?
1. Christian Huygens explained reflection and refraction and formulated the wave theory of
light.
2. The foundations of optics were laid in the 17th century.
3. Optics divides into geometrical optics and physical optics.
4. Galileo Galilei constructed the first telescope for conducting astronomical observation.
5. Optics is the science studying the production and propagation of light, the changes that it
undergoes and different phenomena connected with it.
6. Rapid progress in geometrical optics was made due to the creation of lenses of high quality.
7. The groundwork for modern optics was laid by the introduction of quantum theory and the
discovery of the photoelectric effect.
8. Physical optics deals with the nature and properties of light itself.
9. A new era in optics was ushered in after two major developments one of which was the
invention of laser.
10. Geometrical optics studies the principles that govern the image-forming properties of devices
that make use of light.
11. Isaac Newton gave a theoretical description of the corpuscular nature of light in his treatise
Optics.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Optics” to
•• give definitions of physical optics and geometrical optics;
•• name discoveries and inventions made by Galileo Galilei, Pierre de Fermat, Christian
Huygens, Isaac Newton, Thomas Young, James Clerk Maxwell, Max Planck, Albert
Einstein, Carl Friedrich Gaus.

2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of optics. You
were asked to deliver a report on the development of optics. Use the information
from the text “Optics” and the mind map given below to speak on the theme
suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “The history of light: waves and photons”
Pre-viewing tasks
1. Mind the pronunciation of the following proper names.
Alhazen [ælhəzən] Galileo [ gælɪ'leɪəʊ]
'
Arago ['ærəgəʊ] Hertz [hɜːts]
Broglie ['brɔglɪ] Huygens ['haɪgənz]
Copernicus [kə'pɜːnɪkəs] Jupiter ['ʤuːpɪtə]
Descartes ['deɪkɑːt] Kepler ['keplə]
Earth [ɜːθ] Malus [mə'luː]
Einstein ['aɪnstaɪn] Maxwell ['mæks wel]
'
Euclid ['juːklɪd] Newton ['njuːt(ə)n]
Fizeau [fɪ'zɔː] Planck [plæŋk]
Foucault [fuː 'kəʊ] Romer ['rəʊmə]
Fresnel ['freɪn(ə)l] Young [jʌŋ]
Unit 11. Optics 139

Artificial light, vision, reflection, refraction, observation, measurement, geometric optics,
orbital dimension, wave, vibration, transparent medium, stream of particles, surface, diffraction,
polarization, interference, wave nature of light, rotating mirror, frequency, interaction, matter,
infinite speed, intensity.
3. Find Russian-English equivalents.

1) to calculate the speed of light a) световые лучи
2) to conduct an experiment b) увеличить интенсивность
3) to deepen knowledge c) прямолинейные нити (волокна)
4) to develop equipment d) углублять знания
5) to estimate time e) выдалбливать
6) to gouge f) подтвердить теорию
7) to increase intensity g) выдвигать законы преломления и отражения
8) to launch a debate h) определить время
9) luminous rays i) вычислить скорость света
10) to put forth the laws of refraction j) начинать обсуждение
and reflection k) искать решение
11) rectilinear threads l) разработать оборудование
12) to search for solution m) проводить эксперимент
13) to support one’s theory
Post-viewing tasks
1. Match the names of scientists mentioned in the film and the discoveries or
contributions they made.
1) Alhazen a) established the law of refraction and searched for a
2) Arago solution to the problems of geometric optics
3) Broglie b) made some experiments and showed a new
4) Rene Descartes phenomenon: a metal plaque lit by ultraviolet light
5) Einstein emits electricity
6) Euclid c) proposed to make an experiment to compare the
7) Foucault and Fizeau speed of light in water and in air
8) Galileo d) put forth the laws of reflection and refraction.
9) Hertz e) thought that light is a wave
10) Huygens f) created a telescope and discovered thousands of stars
11) Maxwell g) announced that light is composed of quanta later
12) Newton called photons in 1905
13) Ole Romer h) studied the movement of Jupiter’s satellites and
estimated the time for light to pass through the
Earth’s orbit
i) considered light as a stream of particles
j) developed laboratory equipment for determining the
speed of light
k) created his famous electromagnetic theory in 1865
l) stated the wave-particle duality of light in 1924
m) represented light as luminous rays

1. What was the first artificial light?
2. When did electric light appear?
3. What did Euclid believe in?
4. What was Alhazen’s idea about the eye function?
5. What did Galileo want to do and why did his attempts fail?
6. What did Rene Descartes believe in?
7. Did Ole Romer calculate the speed of light? Why?
of the film.
1. The speed of light is infinite.
2. In Huygens’ opinion, in case of refraction the speed of light waves increases if they penetrate
the surface of water.
3. It was Young who explained gravitation.
4. Fresnel and Arago proved the corpuscular nature of light.
5. Maxwell considered light an electric wave.
6. The photoelectric effect is easily understood if light is considered a wave.
7. Light usually manifests itself as a wave.
1. In Newton’s opinion, light is a stream of particles.
2. Rene Descartes believed that light spreads instantly.
3. Light possesses both wave and corpuscular nature as stated by Broglie in 1924.
4. In 1865 Maxwell proposed his famous unified theory of light, electricity and magnetism.
5. Man has always wanted to extend his abilities past sunset.
6. Einstein treated light as photons, particles without mass.
7. Electricity appeared around 1900.
8. Ole Romer studied the movement of Jupiter’s satellites.
9. Huygens thought that light is a wave.
10. Alhazen introduced a new science based on observation, experimentation and measurement.
11. The first artificial light was fire.
12. In the early 19th century Young, Malus, Fresnel and Arago discovered the phenomena of
diffraction, interference and polarization which proved the wave nature of light.
13. Euclid represented light as luminous rays.
14. Galileo passed from geometric optics to instrumental optics.
5. Describe discoveries and contributions made by the following scientists to the

development of light theory:
•• Alhazen;
•• Galileo Galilei;
•• Rene Descartes;
•• Ole Romer;
•• Christiaan Huygens;
•• Isaac Newton;
•• François Arago;
•• James Clerk Maxwell;
•• Heinrich Rudolf Hertz;
•• Albert Einstein.
Unit 11. Optics 141

 READING
A. Read the text “Dispersion and polarization” and translate it in writing.
Dispersion and polarization
In his 1666 experiment Newton discovered what is now called dispersion or dispersive
refraction. He showed that a light beam is bent, or refracted, as it passes from one medium to
another, for example, from air into glass. The nature of the two media as well as the wavelength
of the light involved determines the degree of refraction, with shorter
wavelengths bending more than longer wavelengths. Dispersion
produces coloured flashes of light in a faceted diamond, primary
and secondary rainbows in drops of water in the atmosphere, and a
variety of halos and arcs around the Sun and Moon in ice crystals in
thin clouds.
Dispersion has its origin in absorption. Even a colourless,
transparent substance, such as glass, absorbs electromagnetic
radiation in the ultraviolet and in the infrared. It is a combination
of these two effects that produces dispersion. Only a vacuum has no
Optics includes study absorption and, therefore, no dispersion.
of dispersion of light A rope can be snapped so that a wave movement travels from one
end to the other; the motion of the wave can be from side to side, up
and down, or in any direction perpendicular to the rope. Similarly, an unpolarized light wave
travels in a single direction but vibrates in random directions perpendicular to its travel. When a
light wave vibrates in only one direction, it is called polarized.
Light can be polarized in passing through certain substances that block out all waves except those
vibrating in a particular direction. Polarized white light can interact with various doubly refracting
materials to produce colour. This technique is often used to view rocks or structural models; the
colours produced are then studied to determine mineral composition or to analyse stress.
Notes to the text

•• … with shorter wavelengths bending more than longer wavelengths. – … причем волны более
кототкой длины отклоняются больше, чем волны с большей длиной волны.
•• It is a combination of these two effects that produces dispersion. – Именно сочетание этих
двух эффектов создает дисперсию.
B. Read the text “Fibre optics” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Fibre optics
Fibre optics is the science of transmitting data, voice, and images by the passage of light
through thin, transparent fibres. In telecommunications, fibre optic technology has virtually
replaced copper wire in long-distance telephone lines, and it is used to link computers within
local area networks. Fibre optics is also the basis of the fibrescopes used in examining internal
parts of the body (endoscopy) or inspecting the interiors of manufactured structural products.
The basic medium of fibre optics is a hair-thin fibre that is sometimes made of plastic but
most often of glass. A typical glass optical fibre has a diameter of 125 micrometres. This is actually
the diameter of the cladding, or outer reflecting layer; the core, or inner transmitting cylinder,
may have a diameter as small as 10 mcm. Through a process known as total internal reflection,

light rays beamed into the fibre can propagate within
the core for great distances with little attenuation, or
reduction in intensity. The degree of attenuation over
distance varies according to the wavelength of the
light and to the composition of the fibre. When glass
fibres were introduced in the early 1950s, the presence
of impurities restricted their employment to the short
lengths sufficient for endoscopy. In 1966 electrical
engineers K. C. Kao and G. A. Hockham suggested using
fibres for telecommunication, and within two decades Using Fiber-Optics in Sensors
glass fibres were produced. As a result, infrared light
signals could travel through them for 100 km (60 miles) or more without having to be boosted by
repeaters. Plastic fibres are cheaper to produce and more flexible than glass fibres, but their greater
attenuation of light restricts their use to much shorter links within buildings or automobiles.
Notes to the text

… without having to be boosted by repeaters. – … без необходимости усиления посредством
ретрансляторов.

1. Fibre optics is the science of … .
2. The basic medium of fibre optics … .
3. A typical glass optical fibre has … .
4. Light rays beamed into … .
5. When glass fibres were introduced … .
6. In 1966 … .
7. Plastic fibres are … .

1. White is a colour.
True False
2. The Hayflick limit refers to the speed at which light can travel.
True False
3. There are hundreds of colours in a rainbow.

True False
4. Compact fluorescent bulbs are more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

True False
Unit 11. Optics 143

5. Zodiacal light has something to do with dust.
True False
6. LED stands for light-emitting diode.

True False
7. Each colour of light has its own wavelength.

True False
8. Sound travels faster than light.

True False

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 12
Reflection and refraction

The conquest of learning is achieved
through the knowledge of languages.
Roger Bacon
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Reflection and refraction”.
absorb (v) [əb'zɔːb] medium ['miːdɪəm]
angle ['æŋg(ə)l] microscopic [ maɪkrə'skɔpɪk]
'
associate (v) [ə'səʊʃɪeɪt] multiple ['mʌltɪp(ə)l]
bounce (v) [bauns] oblique [ə'bliːk]
boundary ['baund(ə)rɪ] opaque [ə'peɪk]
curved ['kɜːvd] parabolic [ pærə'bɔlɪk]
'
diffuse [dɪ'fjuːs] polycrystalline [pɔlɪ'krɪst(ə)laɪn]
exhibit (v) [ɪg'zɪbɪt] rough [rʌf]
fiber [faɪbə] smooth [smuːð]
incident ['ɪnsɪd(ə)nt] specular ['spekjulə]
index ['ɪndeks] spherical ['sferɪk(ə)l]
indices [ɪndɪsiːz] transparent [træn'spær(ə)nt]
major ['meɪʤə] wavefront [weɪv'frʌnt]
Reflection, absorption, wavelength, specular (mirror-like) reflection, diffuse reflection,
electromagnetic (sound) wave, refractive index, incident ray, normal, point of incidence,
constant, specific gravity, frequency, wave phase velocity, transmission (optical, transparent)
medium.

1) curved surface a) закон отражения
2) flat surface b) поликристаллический материал (вещество)
3) glass sheet c) плоская поверхность
4) the law of reflection d) лист стекла
5) metallic coating e) оптическая среда
Unit 12. Reflection and refraction 145

6) multiple reflection f) отражение света
7) opaque substance g) сейсмические волны
8) optical medium h) искривленная поверхность
9) polycrystalline material i) металлическое покрытие
10) the reflection of light j) непрозрачное вещество
11) seismic waves k) многократное отражение
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “Reflection and refraction”. Find
their definitions in B and translate these words into Russian.
A B
1) to alter a) to continue to have or hold something
2) fraction b) to act or move in a way or direction opposite or contrary to the usual
3) image c) to move or cause to move in a circle round an axis or centre
4) to retain d) to allow (heat, light, sound, electricity, or other energy) to pass
5) to reverse through a medium
6) to rotate e) outside part or uppermost layer of something
7) surface f) to make or become different in some respect; to change in character,
8) to transmit appearance, etc.
g) optical appearance or counterpart produced by light from an object
reflected in a mirror or refracted through a lens
h) small or tiny part, amount, or proportion of something
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Reflection and refraction”.
Pay attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
to reflect to absorb to transmit to invent
selective typical actual to relate
metal to remain to observe to differ
to propagate to conserve common to coat
only. Consult the text “Reflection and refraction” if necessary.
1) to alter a) along the normal
2) to change b) the nature of the interface
3) to depend on c) the wave phase velocity
4) to follow d) the surface
5) to form e) the invention of lenses
6) to lead to f) light
7) to reflect g) images
8) to strike h) speed
9) to travel i) from the law of reflection
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Reflection and refraction”.
Choose their synonyms or antonyms from the list below. The forms of the words
various (syn) to suppose (syn) to hit (syn)
to go (syn) to show (syn) stable (syn)
variation (syn) to enlarge (syn) regularity (ant)
to happen (syn) to embrace (syn) smooth (ant)
to create (syn) idea (syn) to magnify (ant)
matter (syn) example (syn) to increase (ant)

8. The words given below are used with certain prepositions. Find these words in the
text “Reflection and refraction” and give their translation.
to originate to consist to be equal
to return due to interact
to depend normal relation
 READING
Reflection and refraction
Reflection
All substances have the power to reflect light (to a greater or lesser degree), to turn it back
into the medium from which it came. Light that is not reflected is either absorbed (in an opaque
substance) or transmitted (in an optical medium). Most ordinary substances reflect light
selectively, certain wavelengths (colors) being reflected, while the others are absorbed.
Reflection between two different media is so that the wavefront returns into the medium
from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water
waves. It follows from the law of reflection that for specular reflection the angle at which the
wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected. Mirrors exhibit specular
reflection.
Reflection of light is either specular (mirror-like) or diffuse
(retaining the energy, but losing the image) depending on the
nature of the interface.
A mirror provides the most common model for specular light
reflection, and typically consists of a glass sheet with a metallic
coating where the reflection actually occurs. Reflection also occurs
at the surface of transparent media, such as water or glass.
In fact, reflection of light may occur when light travels from a
medium with a large refractive index to a medium with a smaller
refractive index. In the most general case, a certain fraction of the
light is reflected from the interface, and the remainder is refracted.
Specular reflection forms images. Reflection from a flat surface
forms a mirror image, which appears to be reversed from left to
right because we compare the image we see to what we would see if we were rotated into the
position of the image. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be
magnified or demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power. Such mirrors may have surfaces
that are spherical or parabolic.
Diffuse reflection
When light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic) material it bounces off in all directions
due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material (e.g. the grain
boundaries of a polycrystalline material, or the cell or fiber boundaries of an organic material)
and by its surface, if it is rough. Thus, an ‘image’ is not formed. This is called diffuse reflection.
The exact form of the reflection depends on the structure of the material. The light sent to our
eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that this is
our primary mechanism of physical observation.

Laws of reflection
If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular
or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of
the incidence lie in the same plane.
2. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the
reflected ray makes to the same normal.
3. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.
Refraction is the change in the direction of propagation of a wave due to a change in its
transmission medium.
Refraction is mainly governed by the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but any type of wave can
refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves pass from one medium
into another or when water waves move into water of a
different depth.
In optics, refraction is a phenomenon that occurs
when light travels from a medium with a given refractive
index to a medium with another at an oblique angle.
At the boundary between the media, the wave phase
velocity is altered, usually causing a change in direction.
Its wavelength increases or decreases but its frequency
remains constant. For example, a light ray will refract
as it enters and leaves glass, assuming there is a change
in refractive index. A ray travelling along the normal
(perpendicular to the boundary) will change speed,
but not direction. Refraction still occurs in this case.
Understanding of this concept led to the invention of
lenses and the refracting telescope.
The index of refraction measures the optical density
of a medium. The optical density has no causal relation with the physical density (specific gravity)
of a substance, although it is usually true that substances with a high specific gravity have a high
index of refraction. This is especially true with various types of the same substance, such as glass.
But there are many cases where a substance of relatively low specific gravity has a high index of
refraction, for example the diamond, which has one the highest known indices of refraction of
any optical medium.
true information.
1. All substances have the power to reflect light (to a greater or lesser degree), to turn it back into
the medium from which it came.
2. Light can either be absorbed or reflected by a substance.
3. Reflection between two similar media is so that the wave front returns into the medium from
which it originated.
4. Diffuse reflection means losing energy.
5. Reflection of light may not occur when light travels from a medium with a large refractive
index to a medium with a smaller refractive index.

6. If the reflecting surface is very rough, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular
reflection.
7. Refraction is mainly governed by the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
8. Refraction is a phenomenon that occurs only if light passes from a medium with a larger
index of refraction into a medium with a smaller refraction index.
9. The index of refraction measures the optical density of a medium.
10. It is usually true that substances with a high specific gravity have a low index of refraction.

1. Do all substances reflect light?
2. In what substances is light absorbed?
3. In what medium is light transmitted?
4. Do most ordinary substances reflect light selectively?
5. What is reflection?
6. What does the law of reflection state?
7. What kinds of reflection are there?
8. What is specular reflection? What does it form?
9. What is diffuse reflection?
10. What is refraction? Explain the mechanism.
11. What does the index of refraction measure?
1. Reflection of light is either specular (mirror-like) or diffuse (retaining the energy, but losing
the image) depending on the nature of the interface.
2. Specular reflection at a curved surface forms an image which may be magnified or
demagnified; curved mirrors have optical power.
3. Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of a wave due to a change in its
transmission medium.
4. The optical density has no causal relation with the physical density (specific gravity) of a
substance, although it is usually true that substances with a high specific gravity have a high
index of refraction.
5. When light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic) material it bounces off in all directions
due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material and by its
surface, if it is rough.
6. In optics, refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when light travels from a medium with a
given refractive index to a medium with another at an oblique angle.
7. Refraction is mainly governed by the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
8. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.
9. All substances have the power to reflect light.
10. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the
reflected ray makes to the same normal.
11. The index of refraction measures the optical density of a medium.
12. Most ordinary substances reflect light selectively, certain wavelengths (colors) being reflected,
while the others are absorbed.
13. This is called diffuse reflection.
14. Specular reflection forms images.
15. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the
incidence lie in the same plane.
16. The laws of reflection.

 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Reflection and refraction” to
•• give definitions of reflection and refraction;
•• describe specular reflection and diffuse reflection;
•• formulate laws of reflection.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of “Reflection
and refraction”. You were asked to deliver a report on the “Reflection and
refraction”. Using the information of the text create a mind map to speak on the
theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
A. Watch the film “Reflection”
Pre-viewing tasks
absorb (v) [əb'zɔːb] perceive (v) [pə'siːv]
angle ['æŋg(ə)l] polish (v) ['pɔlɪʃ]
basically ['beɪsɪklɪ] pretend (v) [prɪ'tend]
circle ['sɜːk(ə)l] reflection [rɪ'flekʃ(ə)n]
context ['kɔntekst] rough [rʌf]
correspond (v) [ kɔrɪ'spɔnd] scatter (v) ['skætə]
'
determine (v) [dɪ'tɜːmɪn] smooth [smuːð]
distant ['dɪst(ə)nt] strike (v) [straɪk]
emit (v) [ɪ'mɪt] wavelength ['weɪvleŋθ]
frequency ['friːkwənsɪ] zoom (v) [zuːm]
magnify (v) ['mægnɪfaɪ]

Reflection, surface, light, wavelength, frequency, parallel, scale, straight, angle, graphic.

1) bright spot a) зеркально подобный
2) diffuse reflection b) гладкий, ровный; скользкий (о поверхности)
3) except for c) падающий луч
4) in other words d) за исключением; кроме
5) incident ray e) точечный источник (напр. света)
6) microscopic f) другими словами
7) mirror-like g) диффузное отражение, рассеянное отражение
8) point source h) микроскопический
9) smooth i) светлое пятно

1) to absorb a) become aware or conscious of (something); come to realize or understand
2) to determine b) deflect or diffuse (electromagnetic radiation or particles)
3) to emit c) take in or soak up (energy or a liquid or other substance) by chemical or
4) to magnify physical action
5) to perceive d) produce and discharge (something, esp. gas or radiation)
6) to scatter e) increase or intensify
f) establish exactly by research or calculation
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. All surfaces absorb all of the light that strikes them and reflect all light.
2. The sunlight that we call white light really consists of only white light.
3. Whenever you have light coming in and striking something, the incoming light rays are called
incident rays, so “incident” is just an antonym for “incoming”.
4. The incoming rays are basically parallel, but when they strike the surface, the surface may
appear rough, but most surfaces are really smooth on a microscopic scale.
5. The incoming light rays, the different rays striking different parts of the surface, are hitting
different facets here at different angles, all of these light rays are going to get reflected in the
same directions.

1. What is reflection?
2. Do all surfaces reflect light?
3. What colour is the sun light? What does the white light consist of?
4. What are incident light rays?
5. Are surfaces of objects smooth or rough?
6. What is diffuse reflection?
7. What is specular reflection?
8. What examples are given in the film to illustrate specular and diffuse types of reflection?
9. What kind of reflection do we have in case the sun light strikes the water surface?
1. The light that is the particular wavelength or particular frequency that corresponds to red is
reflected off and that enters your eye, when you look at it the red light comes into your eye
and you perceive the ball is red.
2. And so the incoming light rays, the different rays striking different parts of the surface, are
hitting different facets here at different angles, so some of these light rays are going to get
reflected in some directions, some are going to get reflected in others.
3. And the sunlight reflecting off of the water is another example of specular reflection that we’re
all familiar with.
4. For example, the color for one thing, if you have a red ball sitting here, the reason you perceive
that is red, is because the light shining on it say the sunlight is shining on it.
5. The Sun is very distant and in this context you can think of it as a point source and the
incoming rays are basically parallel, but when they strike the surface, the surface may appear
smooth, but most surfaces are really rough on a microscopic scale.

6. Whenever you have light coming in and striking something, the incoming light rays are called
incident rays, so “incident” is just a synonym for “incoming”.
7. If the surface really is smooth though on a microscopic scale, like a polished piece of silver
or smooth glass, then the incoming rays which are all basically parallel get reflected in a
parallel fashion.
8. All the other colors are being absorbed.
9. Some surfaces absorb most or all of the light that strikes them and some reflect all or part of
that light and the way in which a surface reflects light determines how it looks to us.
10. The sunlight that we call white light really consists of light of all different colors.
4. Describe the examples the narrator uses to explain reflection and its types.
B. Watch the film “Refraction”

Pre-viewing tasks
approach (v) [ə'prəʊʧ] orientation [ ɔːrɪen'teɪʃ(ə)n]
'
arrow ['ærəʊ] perpendicular [ pɜːp(ə)n'dɪkjulə]
'
bend (v) [bend] picture (v) ['pɪkʧə]
cause (v) [kɔːz] rectangle ['rektæŋg(ə)l]
curvature ['kɜːvəʧə] refraction [rɪ'frækʃ(ə)n]
curve [kɜːv] representation [ reprɪzen'teɪʃ(ə)n]
'
emerge (v) [ɪ'mɜːʤ] roughly ['rʌflɪ]
empty ['emptɪ] snag (v) [snæg]
individual [ ɪndɪ'vɪdjuəl] straw [strɔː]
'
magnification [ mægnɪfɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n] transparent [træn'spær(ə)nt]
'
measure (v) ['meʒə] vacuum cleaner ['vækjuːm 'kliːnə]
occur (v) [ə'kɜː] variety [və'raɪətɪ]

Graphic, surface, size, material, diagram, direction, normal, angle, light, speed, constant,
universe, vacuum, beam, laser, photon, parallel, relative.

1) angle of incidence a) прямоугольник
2) angle of refraction b) луч света, световой луч
3) beam of light c) угол падения
4) diagram d) угол преломления
5) Doppler effect e) схема, график, диаграмма, графическое изображение,
6) due to схематическое изображение
7) fundamental constants f) прозрачный свет
8) light ray g) гармоническая волна, синусоидальная волна
9) rectangle h) скорость света
10) sine wave i) благодаря; вследствие; в результате; из-за
11) sound waves j) звуковые волны

12) speed of light k) фундаментальные постоянные
13) transparent light l) волновой фронт, фронт волны
14) to slow down m) замедлять
15) wavefront n) эффект Доплера
o) оптический пучок, пучок света, световой пучок

1) angle of incidence a) to shape or force (something straight) into a curve or angle
2) angle of refraction b) the angle which an incident line or ray makes with a
3) diagram perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence
4) Doppler effect c) any oscillation, such as a sound wave or alternating current,
5) refraction whose waveform is that of a sine curve
6) sine wave d) the fact or phenomenon of light, radio waves, etc. being
7) to bend deflected in passing obliquely through the interface between one
8) Universe medium and another or through a medium of varying density
e) the angle made by a refracted ray with a perpendicular to the
refracting surface
f) all existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos
g) an increase (or a decrease) in the frequency of sound, light,
or other waves as the source and observer move towards (or
away from) each other. The effect causes the sudden change
in pitch noticeable in a passing siren, as well as the red shift
seen by astronomers
h) a simplified drawing showing the appearance, structure, or
workings of something; a schematic representation
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Both the bending and the change in size are due to the reflection.
2. When light travels from one material to another it never bends.
3. A bending of light when it travels from one material to another is called the reflection.
4. The angle of incidence is commonly represented by the letter “r” and the angle of refraction
is commonly represented by the letter “i”.
5. The speed of light is a constant and that’s the only fundamental constant of the Universe.
6. Light typically speeds up so when it goes into the glass it speeds up and that speeding causes
it to bend.
7. If you want to understand why refraction occurs, why the light slows down when it enters the
glass that’s most easily seen if you draw the sine wave.
8. Refraction is the bending of light when it goes from one material to another and it happens
because of the change in speed: light goes at the same speed in different materials and the
change in speed from one material to another causes the bending.

1. What does the speaker use to illustrate refraction?
2. Does the straw have the same orientation when you look at it through the glass or through
the water?

3. What is refraction?
4. What example is given in the film to explain why refraction occurs?
5. What is the angle of incidence and what is the angle of refraction? How are they formed and
represented?
6. How can one represent a light wave?
7. How is light represented if we want to explain refraction?
8. How does the speaker explain refraction using wavefronts?
9. What causes one end of the wave front to slow down and the other end to speed up?
10. What definition of refraction is given at the end of the film?
film.
1. We have a light ray striking the glass and when it enters the glass it bends.
2. Now the speed of light is a constant.
3. Light typically slows down, so when it goes into the glass it slows down and that slowing
causes it to bend.
4. Now we’re going to talk about refraction.
5. Sometimes people draw a little sine wave with an arrow on it like that is that the curve.
6. This is a glass of water with a straw in it and you can see the bend or the apparent bend.
7. In a vacuum and other materials light typically slows down, so when it goes into the glass it
slows down and that slowing causes it to bend.
8. The change in speed causes one end of that wave front to slow down when it enters the glass
causing it to bend and it causes one end of the wave front to speed up before the other as it
emerges from the glass causing it to bend back.
9. We get two angles and the angles are always measured relative to the normal.
10. The bending or the changing in direction is refraction.
4. Describe the examples the narrator uses to explain refraction.
A. Read the text “Types of reflection” and translate it in writing.
Types of reflection
Working principle of a corner reflector. Some surfaces exhibit retroreflection. The structure
of these surfaces is such that light is returned in the direction from which it came.
When flying over clouds illuminated by sunlight the region seen around the aircraft’s shadow
will appear brighter, and a similar effect may be seen from dew on the grass. This partial retro-
reflection is created by the refractive properties of the curved droplet’s surface and reflective
properties at the backside of the droplet.
Some animals’ retinas act as retro-reflectors, as this effectively improves the animals’ night
vision. Since the lenses of their eyes modify reciprocally the paths of the incoming and outgoing
light the effect is that the eyes act as a strong retro-reflector, sometimes seen at night when
walking in wild lands with a flashlight.
A simple retro-reflector can be made by placing three ordinary mirrors mutually
perpendicular to one another (a corner reflector). The image produced is the inverse of one
produced by a single mirror. A surface can be made partially retro-reflective by depositing a layer

of tiny refractive spheres on it or by creating small pyramid
like structures. In both cases internal reflection causes the
light to be reflected back to where it originated. This is used
to make traffic signs and automobile license plates reflect
light mostly back in the direction from which it came. In this
application perfect retro-reflection is not desired, since the
light would then be directed back into the headlights of an
oncoming car rather than to the driver’s eyes.
1. Multiple reflections. When light reflects off a mirror, one
image appears. Two mirrors placed exactly face to face give the
appearance of an infinite number of images along a straight
line. The multiple images seen between two mirrors that sit
at an angle to each other lie over a circle. The center of that circle is located at the imaginary
intersection of the mirrors. A square of four mirrors placed face to face give the appearance
of an infinite number of images arranged in a plane. The multiple images seen between four
mirrors assembling a pyramid, in which each pair of mirrors sits an angle to each other, lie over
a sphere. If the base of the pyramid is rectangle shaped, the
images spread over a section of a torus.
2. Complex conjugate reflection. Light bounces exactly back
in the direction from which it came due to a nonlinear optical
process. In this type of reflection, not only the direction of the
light is reversed, but the actual wave fronts are reversed as well.
A conjugate reflector can be used to remove aberrations from
a beam by reflecting it and then passing the reflection through
the aberration optics a second time.
3. Neutron reflection. Materials that reflect neutrons, for
example beryllium, are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear
weapons. In the physical and biological sciences, the reflection
An example of the law of reflection of neutrons off of atoms within a material is commonly used to
determine the material’s internal structure.
4. Sound reflection. When a longitudinal sound wave strikes a flat surface, sound is reflected
in a coherent manner provided that the dimension of the reflective surface is large compared
to the wavelength of the sound. Note that audible sound has a very wide frequency range (from
20 to about 17000 Hz), and thus a very wide range of wavelengths (from about 20 mm to 17 m).
As a result, the overall nature of the reflection varies according to the texture and structure
of the surface. For example, porous materials will absorb some energy, and rough materials
(where rough is relative to the wavelength) tend to reflect
in many directions ‑ to scatter the energy, rather than to
reflect it coherently. This leads into the field of architectural
acoustics, because the nature of these reflections is critical
to the auditory feel of a space.
5. Seismic reflection. Seismic waves produced by
earthquakes or other sources (such as explosions) may
be reflected by layers within the Earth. Study of the deep
reflections of waves generated by earthquakes has allowed
seismologists to determine the layered structure of the Earth.
Shallower reflections are used in reflection seismology to
study the Earth’s crust generally and in particular to prospect Sound diffusion panel
for petroleum and natural gas deposits. for high frequencies

B. Read the text “Wave theory and corpuscular theory” and fulfill the tasks
given below.
Wave theory and corpuscular theory
In Newton’s day, light was one phenomenon, besides gravitation, whose effects were apparent
at large distances from its source. Newton contributed greatly to the scientific knowledge of light.
His experiments revealed that white light is a composite of many colours, which can be dispersed
by a prism and reunited to again yield white light. The propagation of light along straight lines
convinced him that it consists of tiny particles which emanate at high or infinite speed from the
light source. The first observation from which a finite speed of light was deduced was made soon
thereafter, in 1676, by the Danish astronomer Ole Romer.
Observations of two phenomena strongly suggested that light propagates as waves. One
of these involved interference by thin films, which was discovered in England independently
by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke. The other had to do with the diffraction of light in the
geometric shadow of an opaque screen. The latter was also discovered by Hooke, who published
a wave theory of light in 1665 to explain it.
The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens greatly improved the wave theory and explained
reflection and refraction in terms of what is now called Huygens’ Principle. According to this
principle (published in 1690), each point on a wave front in the hypothetical ether or in an optical
medium is a source of a new spherical light wave and the wave front is the envelope of all the
individual wavelets that originate from the old wave front.
In 1669 another Danish scientist, Erasmus Bartholin, discovered the polarization of
light by double refraction in Iceland spar (calcite). This finding had a profound effect on the
conception of the nature of light. At that time, the only waves known were those of sound,
which are longitudinal. It was inconceivable to both Newton and Huygens that light could
consist of transverse waves in which vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Huygens gave a satisfactory account of double refraction by proposing that the asymmetry of the
structure of Iceland spar causes the secondary wavelets to be ellipsoidal instead of spherical in
his wave front construction. Since Huygens believed in longitudinal waves, he failed, however,
to understand the phenomena associated with polarized light. Newton, on the other hand, used
these phenomena as the bases for an additional argument for his corpuscular theory of light.
Particles, he argued in 1717, have “sides” and can thus exhibit properties that depend on the
directions perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Both Newton and Huygens contributed much to light theory further development of which
took place in the centuries to follow.

1. In Newton’s day, light was one phenomenon, besides … .
2. Newton contributed greatly to … .
3. His experiments revealed that … .
4. The propagation of light along straight lines convinced him that … .
5. The first observation from which a finite speed of light was deduced was made … .
6. Observations of two phenomena strongly suggested that light propagates … .
7. One of these involved … .
8. The other had to do with … .
9. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens greatly improved … and … and … is now called … .
10. According to this principle … .
11. In 1669 another Danish scientist, Erasmus Bartholin, discovered … .

12. At that time, the only waves known were … which are … .
13. It was inconceivable to both Newton and Huygens that light … .
14. Huygens gave a satisfactory account of double refraction by … .
15. Since Huygens believed in longitudinal … he failed … .
16. Newton, on the other hand, used … .
17. Both Newton and Huygens contributed much to … .


Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 13
Luminescence
When you change the way you look at things,
the things you look at change.
Max Planck
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Luminescence”. What do you know
about luminescence?
absorb (v) [əb'zɔːb] fungi ['fʌnʤaɪ]
advertising ['ædvətaɪzɪŋ] glow (v) [gləʊ]
alchemist ['ælkəmɪst] glowworm ['ɡləʊwɜːm]
appropriate [ə'prəʊprɪət] incandescent [ ɪnkæn'des(ə)nt]
'
arouse (v) [ə'raʊz] luminescence [ luːmɪ'nes(ə)ns]
'
Bologna [bə'lɔnjə] microcrystalline [maɪkrə(ʊ) 'krɪstəlaɪn]
calcium ['kælsɪəm] mixture ['mɪksʧə]
chemical ['kemɪk(ə)l] neon ['niːɔn]
discrete [dɪ'skriːt] phosphorescence [ fɔsf(ə) 'res(ə)ns]
'
dye [daɪ] phosphorus ['fɔsf(ə)rəs]
efficiency [ɪ'fɪʃ(ə)nsɪ] sulfate [sʌlfeɪt]
excitation [ eksɪ'teɪʃ(ə)n] sulfide [sʌlfaɪd]
'
exhibit (v) [ɪg'zɪbɪt] tissue ['tɪʃuː]
exposure [ɪk'spəʊʒə] ultraviolet [ʌltrə'vaɪələt]
fluorescent [flɔː'res(ə)nt] zinc [zıŋk]
Luminescence, phosphorescence, phosphorus, microcrystalline material, light emission, heat,
quantum state, electrical phenomena, organic substances, excitation energy, fluorescence,
inorganic phosphors, mixture, X-ray radiation.
3. Below you will find a list of terms mentioned in the text “Luminescence”. Choose
their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) cooling a) дискретное энергетическое состояние
2) discrete energy state b) одинаковая (подобная) кратность
3) durability c) повышение температуры

4) electron beam d) наиболее удаленные электроны
5) electronic transition e) комнатная температура
6) excited state f) электронный переход
7) ground state g) видимый свет
8) incandescent bodies h) невидимый маркер
9) invisible marker i) выход люминесценции
10) like multiplicity j) ультрафиолетовое излучение
11) luminescence efficiency k) светящийся за счет температурного излучения
12) outermost electrons (раскаленный до видимого свечения)
13) rise of temperature l) охлаждение
14) room temperature m) долговечность, выносливость
15) ultraviolet radiation n) электронный пучок
16) visible light o) основное состояние
p) возбужденное состояние
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “Luminescence”. Find their

definitions in B and translate them into Russian.
A B
1) emission a) change from one condition or set of circumstances to another
2) energy b) that can be seen, that is in sight
3) excitation c) state of a system in its lowest energy level
4) fluorescence d) light emission caused by electronic transitions between levels of
5) ground state different multiplicity
6) luminescence e) certain microcrystalline luminescent material
7) phosphor f) light emission connected with electronic transitions between
8) phosphorescence levels of like multiplicity
9) transition g) state of an atom or molecule when it has a higher energy level
10) visible than its ground state
h) emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool
i) capacity for/power of doing work
j) sending out or giving off light, heat, smell, etc.
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Luminescence”. Pay

attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
to excite crystal visible
to emit stable relative
to mix to transform electron
blue multiple to differ
to investigate practice science
to apply to cool to radiate
only. Consult the text if necessary.
1) to begin a) a mixture
2) to depend on b) investigations
3) to emit c) around the nuclei of the atoms
4) to exhibit d) metals
5) to heat e) a glow
Unit 13. Luminescence 159

6) to lift f) transitions
7) to orbit g) phosphors
8) to produce h) transformation of excitation energy into light
9) to transform i) atoms
10) to undergo j) light
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Luminescence”. Choose their
synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the text may differ from
those in the list.
to desire to characterize to show
origin enough suitable
to take place to name to denote
combination cold obviously
to explain to get to rely on
present-day increase amount
text “Luminescence” and give their translation.
in contrast with respect
to depend because
to result due
to apply
 READING
Luminescence
Luminescence is emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool. It is in
contrast to light emitted from incandescent bodies, such as burning wood or coal, molten iron,
and wire heated by an electric current. Luminescence may be seen in neon and fluorescent lamps,
television, radar, organic substances, certain pigments used in outdoor advertising, and also natural
electrical phenomena such as lightning. In all these phenomena, light emission does not result
from the material being above room temperature, and so luminescence is often called cold light.
Although lightning and the dim light of glowworms and of fungi have always been known to
mankind, the first investigations (1603) of luminescence began with a synthetic material, when
Vincenzo Cascariolo, an alchemist in Bologna, Italy, heated a mixture of barium sulfate and
coal; the powder obtained after cooling exhibited a bluish glow at night, and Cascariolo observed
that this glow could be restored by exposure of the powder to sunlight. The name lapis solaris, or
“sunstone”, was given to the material because alchemists at first hoped it would transform metals
into gold, the symbol for gold being the Sun. The pronounced afterglow aroused the interest of
many learned men of that period, who gave the material other names, including phosphorus,
meaning “light bearer”, which thereafter was applied to any material that glowed in the dark.
One of the first scientific investigations of the luminescence was performed in 1672 by Robert
Boyle, an English scientist.
Today, the name phosphorus is used for the chemical element only, whereas certain
microcrystalline luminescent materials are called phosphors. Cascariolo’s phosphor evidently

was a barium sulfide, the first commercially available
phosphor (1870) was “Balmain’s paint,” a calcium
sulfide preparation. In 1866 the first stable zinc
sulfide phosphor was described. It is one of the most
important phosphors in modern technology.
Luminescence emission occurs after an appropriate
material has absorbed energy from a source such as
ultraviolet or X-ray radiation, electron beams, chemical
reactions, and so on. The energy lifts the atoms of the
material into an excited state, and then, because excited Fluorescent minerals emit visible light
states are unstable, the material undergoes another when exposed to ultraviolet light
transition, back to its unexcited ground state, and the
absorbed energy is liberated in the form of either light or heat or both (all discrete energy states,
including the ground state, of an atom are defined as quantum states). The excitation involves
only the outermost electrons orbiting around the nuclei of the atoms. Luminescence efficiency
depends on the degree of transformation of excitation energy into light, and there are relatively few
materials that have sufficient luminescence efficiency to be of practical value.
The name luminescence has been accepted for all light emitting phenomena not caused by
a rise of temperature. With respect to organic molecules, the term phosphorescence means light
emission caused by electronic transitions between levels of different multiplicity, whereas the term
fluorescence is used for light emission connected with electronic transitions between levels of like
multiplicity. Although the inorganic phosphors are industrially produced in far higher quantities
(several hundred tons per year) than the organic luminescent materials, some types of the latter
are becoming more and more important in special fields of practical application. Paints and dyes
for outdoor advertising contain strongly fluorescing organic molecules. Their main shortcoming
is their relatively poor stability in light, because of which they are used mostly when durability is
not required. Organic phosphors are used as invisible markers of banknotes, identity cards, and
stamps and for fluorescence microscopy of tissues in biology and medicine. Their “invisibility”
is due to the fact that they absorb practically no visible light. The fluorescence is excited by
invisible ultraviolet radiation (black light). The practical value of luminescent materials lies in
their capacity to transform energy into visible light.
Notes to the text

•• In all these phenomena light emission does not result from the material being above room
temperature… – Во всех этих явлениях испускание света не является результатом того,
что материал имеет температуру выше комнатной…
•• … the symbol for gold being the Sun. – … причем символом золота является солнце.
•• The energy lifts the atoms of the material into an excited state… – Энергия приводит атомы
в возбужденное состояние…
1. Luminescence is emission of light by …
a) radioactive materials.
b) cool materials.
c) hot materials.
d) organic substances.

2. The first investigations of luminescence began with …
a) an organic material.
b) a polymer.
c) a synthetic material.
d) an inorganic material.
3. Alchemists hoped the “sunstone” would transform metals into …
a) silver.
b) copper.
c) gold.
d) zinc.
4. In modern technology one of the most important phosphors is …
a) barium sulfide.
b) calcium sulfide.
c) zinc sulfide.
d) manganese sulfide.
5. The absorbed energy is liberated in the form of …
a) ultraviolet radiation.
b) nuclear energy.
c) light or heat or both.
d) X-ray radiation.
6. The excitation involves …
a) only the outermost electrons.
b) both outermost and inner electrons.
c) inner electrons.
d) high-energy electrons.
7. The name luminescence is used …
a) for all light emitting phenomena not caused by a rise of temperature.
b) for light emitting phenomena that are due to a rise of temperature.
c) for light emission caused by electronic transitions.
d) for electron emission connected with transitions between levels of like multiplicity.
8. The term phosphorescence means light emission caused by electronic transitions between …
a) levels of different multiplicity.
b) levels of like multiplicity.
c) inner and outer levels.
d) different levels.
9. “Invisibility” of organic phosphors is due to the fact that they …
a) absorb energy from electron beams.
b) do not absorb visible light.
c) absorb some part of visible light.
d) do not emit energy.
10. The practical value of luminescent materials lies in their capacity to transform energy into …
e) heat.
a) radioactive emission.
b) visible light.
c) X-ray radiation.

1. What is luminescence?
2. Where may luminescence be seen?
3. Why is luminescence called cold light?
4. What experiments did Vincenzo Cascariolo make?
5. Why did alchemists give the material the name “lapis solaris”?
6. Who performed the first investigations?
7. What materials are called phosphors? What was the first phosphor?
8. When does luminescence occur?
9. What does excitation involve?
10. What does luminescence efficiency depend on?
11. What is phosphorescence?
12. What is fluorescence?
13. Where are organic phosphors used?
14. What is the practical value of luminescence?
1. The energy lifts the atoms of the material into an excited state, and then, because excited
states are unstable, the material undergoes another transition, back to its unexcited ground
state, and the absorbed energy is liberated in the form of either light or heat or both.
2. Luminescence is emission of light by certain materials when they are relatively cool.
3. The term phosphorescence means light emission caused by electronic transitions between
levels of different multiplicity.
4. The first investigations (1603) of luminescence began with a synthetic material.
5. Luminescence emission occurs after an appropriate material has absorbed energy from a
source such as ultraviolet or X-ray radiation, electron beams, chemical reactions, and so on.
6. The name “lapis solaris” or “sunstone” was given to the material because alchemists at first
hoped it would transform metals into gold, the symbol for gold being the Sun.
7. The excitation involves only the outermost electrons orbiting around the nuclei of the atoms.
8. One of the first scientific investigations of the luminescence was performed in 1672 by Robert
Boyle, an English scientist.
9. Although the inorganic phosphors are industrially produced in far higher quantities than
the organic luminescent materials, some types of the latter are becoming more and more
important in special fields of practical application.
10. In 1866 the first stable zinc sulfide phosphor was described. It is one of the most important
phosphors in modern technology.
11. The practical value of luminescent materials lies in their capacity to transform energy into
visible light.
12. The main shortcoming of paints and dyes for outdoor advertising is their relatively poor
stability in light, because of which they are used mostly when durability is not required.
13. Today the name phosphorus is used for the chemical element only, whereas certain
microcrystalline luminescent materials are called phosphors.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Luminescence” to
•• give definitions of luminescence, phosphorescence, fluorescence;
•• explain the difference between phosphorus and phosphor;
•• describe the investigations conducted by Vincenzo Cascariolo.

2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the problems of luminescence.
You were asked to deliver a report. Using the information of the text create a mind
map to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Laser”
Pre-viewing tasks
absorb (v) [əb'zɔːb] initiate (v) [ɪ'nɪʃɪeɪt]
Bohr [bɔː] install (v) [ɪn'stɔːl]
cause (v) [kɔːz] maintain (v) [meɪn'teɪn]
coherent [kəʊ'hɪər(ə)nt] monochromatic [ mɔnəkrə'mætɪk]
'
consequently ['kɔnsɪkwəntlɪ] occur (v) [ə'kɜː]
design [dɪ'zaɪn] orbit (v) ['ɔːbɪt]
discrete [dɪ'skriːt] perpendicular [ pɜːp(ə)n'dɪkjulə]
'
Einstein ['aɪnstaɪn] polarization [ pəʊl(ə)raɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n]
'
emit (v) [ɪ'mɪt] spontaneously [spɔn'teɪnɪəslɪ]
furthermore [ fɜːðə'mɔː] suffice (v) [sə'faɪs]
'
hydrogen ['haɪdrəʤ(ə)n] quantum ['kwɔntəm]

Emission, photon, frequency, device, liquid, solid, medium, media, beam.

1) chain reaction a) оптическая накачка
2) discrete value b) грань, дно (электронно-лучевой трубки), лицевая по
3) energy level верхность, поверхность (грань), лицевая сторона, то
4) face рец (напр., лазерного кристалла)
5) gain medium c) отражательная способность
6) ground state d) самопроизвольное излучение, спонтанное излучение,
7) mole спонтанное испускание, спонтанная эмиссия
8) optical pumping e) цепная реакция
9) population inversion f) быть достаточным, удовлетворять
10) random direction g) инверсия заселенности
11) reflectivity h) энергетический уровень
12) spontaneous emission i) грамм-молекула, моль
13) stimulated emission j) активная среда, активный ЭРЭ (напр. транзистор),
14) to suffice активное устройство (напр., усилитель)
k) случайное направление
l) вынужденное излучение
m) основное состояние (в многоуровневой системе)
n) дискретное значение

1) сhain reaction a) device that generates an intense beam of coherent monochromatic
2) emission light (or other electromagnetic radiation) by stimulated emission of
3) laser photons from excited atoms or molecules.
4) mole b) the SI unit of amount of substance, equal to the quantity containing
5) polarization as many elementary units as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12
6) reflectivity c) the property of reflecting light or radiation, especially reflectance as
measured independently of the thickness of a material
d) the process or phenomenon in which the waves of light or other
electromagnetic radiation are restricted to certain directions of
vibration, usually specified in terms of the electric field vector
e) the production and discharge of something, especially gas or radiation
f) a chemical reaction or other process in which the products themselves
promote or spread the reaction
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. The stimulated emission of light was a discovery by Einstein around 1816.
2. An electron may have only one discrete value of energy.
3. An electron can be excited to a lower energy level by absorbing a photon whose energy is
equal to the energy difference between the levels.
4. After a very short time the excited electron will go to the higher energy level by emitting a
photon equal to the energy difference.
5. The newly created photon has different face frequency polarization and direction from the
second photon.
6. The operation of lasers is based on the process of spontaneous emission.
7. A laser device is made up of one component.
8. A mirror with reflectivity of 10 % is installed at one end of the device.
9. We need to gas a liquid or a solid that serves as the gain medium and creates different photons.
10. The process of optical pumping can cause stimulated emission because there are two different
amounts of energy present.
11. The atom will spontaneously absorb a photon in a random direction as it relaxes to a lower
electronic state.
12. The photon hits the excited atom and causes a spontaneous emission because the photon has
the exact amount of energy to do that.
13. Not only photons emitted in a direction perpendicular to the mirrors will be reflected.
14. The refracted photons initiate a chain reaction to produce more and more photons of
different kinds for the mole.
15. For laser to work more atoms must be in an excited state than in higher energy states. This
is called population inversion.

1. Who discovered the stimulated emission of light? When?
2. What is called spontaneous emission? Describe the mechanism.
3. What is the operation of lasers based on?
4. What is laser device based on?

5. What process is called optical pumping?
6. Can the process of optical pumping cause stimulated emission? Why?
7. What do the reflected photons initiate?
8. Why are laser beams strongly coherent and monochromatic?
9. What is called population inversion?
1. An electron can be excited to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon whose energy is
equal to the energy difference between the levels.
2. The newly created photon has the same face frequency polarization and direction as the
second photon.
3. Another part we need is an energy source in order to use photons to raise electrons from a
lower energy level to a higher one.
4. The operation of lasers is based on the process of stimulated emission.
5. Electron may have other discrete values of energy.
6. The process of optical pumping cannot cause stimulated emission because there are two
different amounts of energy present
7. We need to gas a liquid or a solid that serves as the gain medium and creates identical photons.
8. After a short time another photon is absorbed.
9. A laser device is made up of several components.
10. The stimulated emission of light was a discovery by Einstein around 1916.
11. This is called spontaneous emission.
12. The hydrogen atom has only one electron.
13. Another mirror with the reflectivity of about 98 % must be installed at the other end of the
gain medium.
14. The photon hits the excited atom and causes a stimulated emission because the photon has
the exact amount of energy to do that.
15. The stimulated emission will be the result.
16. The atom and the electron are on the ground state.
17. First of all a mirror with reflectivity of 100 % is installed at one end of the device.
18. After a short period of time the electron jumps into energy level E1 without emission of a
photon.
19. The atom will spontaneously emit a photon in a random direction as it relaxes to a lower
electronic state.
20. Optical pumping that is emitting energy in the form of photons is used to raise the electron
into a higher energy level.
21. The reflected photons initiate a chain reaction to produce more and more photons of the
same kind for the mole.
22. Only photons emitted in a direction perpendicular to the mirrors will be reflected.
23. This is called population inversion.
24. For laser to work more atoms must be in an excited state than in lower energy states.
4. Use the information from the film to

•• describe spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, optical pumping, chain reaction,
population inversion, different types of lasers;
•• name the main fields of laser application;
•• enumerate the benefits one can get from the use of lasers;
•• make a report.

A. Read the text “Lasers” and translate it in Russian.
Lasers
The word “laser” is an acronym derived from “light amplification by the stimulated emission
of radiation”. In the 1950’s Dr. Prokhorov and Dr. Nikolai G. Basov, physicists at the P. N.
Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow, discovered ways to nudge electrons around atoms into
higher-energy states. Their findings led to the development of the maser, a device that emits
microwave radiation of a single wavelength. (Maser is an acronym for microwave amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation.)
When the maser techniques were adapted to the shorter wavelengths of light, the devices
became known as lasers.

Dr. Prokhorov and Dr. Basov, along with Dr. Charles H. Townes, who independently developed
a maser about the same time, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for their research.
Although the first such device to be constructed was the ammonia maser in 1954 it is the
lasers made subsequently which operate in the infrared, visible or ultraviolet regions of the
spectrum which have made a greater impact.
outer
full mirror housing getter start ring cathode
anode lead gas partial laser

reservoir mirror output
laser
casing
power cord
voltage converter
Laser radiation is emitted entirely by the process of stimulated emission, unlike the more
conventional sources of radiation, which emit through a spontaneous process. For induced
emission from the upper energy level n of the two-level system there must be a population
inversion between the two levels. The process by which such a population inversion is brought
about is known as pumping. A system, which may be gaseous, solid or liquid and in which a
population inversion has been created is referred to as an active medium. The active medium is
capable of acting as an amplifier of radiation falling on it. For every photon entering the active
medium, two photons are emitted from it.
Reflective High-intensity Ruby

cylinder flash lamp rod
Power
supply
Switch
Trigger 100 %-reflective 95 %-reflective Laser

electrode mirror mirror beam
Making an oscillator from an amplifier requires, in the language of electronics, positive

feedback. In lasers this is provided by the active medium being between two mirrors, both of
them highly reflecting but one rather less so in order to allow some of the stimulated radiation
to leak out and form the laser beam. The region bounded by the mirrors is called the laser cavity.
Various mirror systems are used but, consisting of two plane mirrors a distance d apart, is one
of the simplest. The reflecting surfaces of the mirrors are specially coated, with alternate layers

of high and low dielectric materials such as TiO2 and SiO2 to give almost total reflection at the
specific laser wavelength. The usual aluminium, silver or gold coatings are not sufficiently highly
reflecting. One of the mirrors is coated so as to allow 1 to 10 per cent of the radiation to emerge
as the laser beam.
Photons are generated initially in the cavity through spontaneous emission. Those that strike
the cavity mirrors at 90 degrees are retained within the cavity causing the photon flux to reach
a level which is sufficiently high to cause stimulated emission to occur, and the active medium
is said to lase.
Laser radiation has four very remarkable properties:
1. Directionality. The laser beam emerging from the output mirror of the cavity is highly
parallel, which is a consequence of the strict requirements for the alignment of the cavity mirrors.
Divergence of the beam is typically a few milliradians.
2. Monochromaticity. Whatever the nature of the active medium, the fact that the laser cavity
is resonant only for definite frequencies limits the wavelength range.
3. Brightness. This is defined as the power emitted per unit area of the output mirror per unit
solid angle and is extremely high compared with that of a conventional source. The reason for
this is that, the solid angle over which it is distributed is very small.
4. Coherence. Conventional sources of radiation are incoherent, which means that the
electromagnetic waves associated with any two photons of the same wavelength are, in general,
out of phase. The coherence of laser radiation is both temporal and spatial, the coherence
lasting for a relatively long time and extending over a relatively large distance. Coherence of
laser radiation is responsible for its use as a source of intense local heating, as in metal cutting
and welding, and for holography. Its military potential is being exploited particularly in guiding
missiles.
N. G. Basov M. Prokhorov Charles Hard Townes
Surgeons performing operations have found the laser as a surgical knife. There are suggestions
that laser beams may ultimately replace cables in telecommunications. Finally, a whole new area
of optics is being opened by lasers.
B. Read the text “Phosphorescence” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence, emission of light from a substance exposed to radiation and persisting as
an afterglow after the exciting radiation has been removed. Unlike fluorescence, in which the
absorbed light is spontaneously emitted about 10–8 second after excitation, phosphorescence
requires additional excitation to produce radiation and may last from about 10–3 second to days
or years, depending on the circumstances.

In fluorescence, an electron is raised from a certain baseline
energy known as the ground level to an excited level by a light
photon or other radiation. Transition of the electron back to the
ground level can occur spontaneously with radiation of the same
energy as that which was absorbed. According to electromagnetic
theory, the return is almost coincident, occurring within
10 –8 second or so. The case for phosphorescence is different.
In phosphorescence, interposed between the ground level
and the excited level is a level of intermediate energy, called a
metastable level, or electron trap, because a transition between
the metastable level and other levels is forbidden (highly
Phosphorescent bird figure improbable). Once an electron has fallen from the excited level
to the metastable level (by radiation or by energy transfer to the
system), it remains there until it makes a forbidden transition or until it is further excited
back to the transition level. This excitation may come about through thermal agitation of
the neighbouring atoms or molecules (called thermoluminescence) or through optical (e.g.,
infrared) stimulation. The time spent in the metastable level, or electron trap, determines the
length of time that phosphorescence persists.

1. Phosphorescence, emission of light from … and … .
2. Phosphorescence requires … .
3. In fluorescence, an electron is raised from … .
4. Transition of the electron back to the ground level can occur … .
5. According to electromagnetic theory, the return is … .
6. In phosphorescence … called a metastable level … .
7. This excitation may come about through … or … or … .

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 14
Atomic physics
A Physicist is just an atom’s way of looking at itself.
Niels Bohr
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “Atomic physics. The pre-atomic age”.
What do you know about this period in the history of atomic physics?
adherent [əd'hɪər(ə)nt] repudiation [rɪ pjuːdɪ'eɪʃ(ə)n]
'
ancient ['eɪnʃ(ə)nt] revival [rɪ'vaɪv(ə)l]
antiquity [æn'tɪkwɪtɪ] scholar ['skɔlə]
argue (v) ['ɑːgjuː] ultimately ['ʌltɪmətlɪ]
conduce (v) [kən'djuːs]
echo (v) ['ekəʊ] Aristotle [ ærɪ'stɔt(ə)l]
'
empire ['empaɪə] Cicero ['sɪsərəʊ]
era ['ɪərə] Democritus [dɪ'mɔkrɪtəs]
heresy ['herəsɪ] Epicurus [ epɪ'kjʊərəs]
'
inspire (v) [ɪn'spaɪə] Galen ['ɡeɪlən]
invisible [ɪn'vɪzəbl] Gassendi [ɡæ 'sendɪ]
maintain (v) [meɪn'teɪn] Leucippus [luː 'sɪpəs]
misguide (v) [mɪs'gaɪd] Luther ['luː θə]
naked ['neɪkɪd] Pythagoras [paɪ'θæɡərəs]
Renaissance [rə'neɪs(ə)ns] Seneca ['senɪkə]

Solid, atomic structure, concept, matter, size, to theorize, invention, air pump, particle, space,
proportion.
3. Below you will find a list of terms mentioned in the text “Atomic physics. The pre-
atomic age”. Choose their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column
1) atomic level a) невидимые элементы
2) barometer invention b) неразрушимые частицы материи (вещества)
3) concept of the atom c) изобретение барометра
Unit 14. Atomic physics 171

4) disintegration of matter d) атомный уровень
5) fundamental parts e) распад материи (вещества)
6) indestructible bits of matter f) подвижные частицы
7) moveable particles g) основные компоненты
8) unseen elements h) понятие атома
4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “Atomic physics. The pre-atomic
age”. Find their definitions in B and translate them into Russian.
1) adherent a) refusal to accept or acknowledge smth
2) ancient b) complex, with the latest improvements and refinements
3) to argue c) that cannot be destroyed
4) concept d) belonging to times long past; very old
5) indestructible e) supporter
6) to inspire f) general notion
7) to misguide g) to fill with creative power
8) repudiation h) bringing or coming back into use or knowledge
9) revival i) to express disagreement, to quarrel
10) sophisticated j) to give wrong or misleading information
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “Atomic physics. The pre-
atomic age”. Pay attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
to follow to destroy to approve
science to integrate to revive
atom ultimate essential
to vary to last to move
visible to discover respective
only. Consult the text if necessary.
1) to brave a) matter
2) to describe b) space
3) to discuss c) papal disapproval
4) to form d) a detailed system
5) to join e) atomism
6) to move through f) ancient works
7) to propose g) atoms
8) to translate h) a theory
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “Atomic physics. The pre-
atomic age”. Choose their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words
antique to offer
basic opinion
decay to originate in
to develop proof
disciple rebirth
idea resistance
to link rule

 READING
check.
Atomic physics. 
The pre-atomic age
Ancient Greek philosophers were the first known scientists to suggest that matter was made
up of small, unseen elements, a theory described as “atomism” by Democritus of Abdera in the
5th century ВС. Earlier philosophers, and mathematicians such as Pythagoras, had suggested that
regular solids were fundamental parts of the Universe, and Democritus’ teacher, Leucippus, had
introduced him to the idea of an atomic system. Democritus, however, elaborated on the earlier
concepts and proposed a more detailed system that inspired both followers and disbelievers.
Democritus’ ideas remained the most sophisticated concepts of atomic structure and indeed
maintained the concept of the atom itself until modern times.
Democritus’ theory was based on the principle that all matter is composed of atoms: solid
bits of matter of various sizes and shapes, but so small as to be invisible to the naked eye and
indestructible. The word “atom” comes from the Greek atomos, which means “cannot be cut.”
At an atomic level, atoms created by the disintegration of matter, moving through space, could
reform into new matter as atoms were joined together. In this fashion, all that was in the world
had been created.
While Democritus’ theory and his followers’ adaptations of it ultimately carried the concept
of the atom into the modern era, his own writings were lost in antiquity. Ironically, although
his theory was quoted in the writings of his follower Epicurus (themselves quoted and preserved
in a 2nd century AD Roman work), it was rather the detailed attacks of Aristotle (who did not
believe in atoms) in the 4th century AD that kept Democritus’ ideas alive. Aristotle’s arguments
were echoed by other ancient philosophers and men of science in antiquity, including Cicero,
Seneca, and Galen.
Based on the strength of Aristotle’s reputation, which lived on past the end of the Roman
Empire, his opposition to atomism also outlasted the ancient era. Arguing, among other things,
that Democritus had theorized that there was “no end of the Universe, since it was not created
by any outside power,” the Catholic Church regarded atomism as misguided at best, heresy
at worst.
Adherents of atomic theory rediscovered Democritus in the 13th century, as ancient works
saved by Arab scholars were translated into Latin. By the 15th century, some Renaissance scholars
braved papal disapproval for discussing atomism. It was not until the 16th century, however,
that the concept regained attention as attacks on Aristotle coincided with the repudiation of
Catholicism by Luther and others. As science developed in the late 16th and early 17th century,
Aristotelian beliefs began to crumble. The invention of the barometer and the air pump in 1634
and 1654 respectively demonstrated that vacuum, a concept Aristotle had condemned, did in
fact exist. If it did, then perhaps so, too, did atoms.
The French scientist Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) led the revival of atomism in 1649 when
he published Syntagmaphilosophiae Epicuri and argued for atoms, suggesting that they were
created by God and were solid, indestructible masses that move by the grace of God to form
groups that Gassendi called moleculae or corpuscular. Gassendi essentially parroted Democritus,
but by cleverly insisting that atoms were a gift from God, and a manifestation of His power,
Gassendi shifted atomism into an argument that the Church no longer opposed. By 1704, Isaac
Newton could write, therefore, that “It seems probable to me, that God in the beginning formed

matter in solid, hard, massy, impenetrable, moveable particles, of such sizes and figures, and
with such other properties, and in such proportion to space, as most conduced to the end to
which he formed them.”
Notes to the text

•• ... it was rather the detailed attacks of Aristotle (who did not believe in atoms) in the 4th century
AD that kept Democritus’ ideas alive. – … скорее обстоятельная критика Аристотеля
(который не верил в существование атомов) в 4 веке нашей эры сохранила идеи Демо
крита.
•• It was not until the 16th century, however, that the concept regained attention… – Однако
только в 16 веке это понятие вновь привлекло внимание…
1. Choose the best ending a, b, c or d to complete the sentences.
1. Ancient Greek philosophers …
a) were the first to suppose that matter was composed of small, unseen elements – atoms.
b) did not support Democritus’ atomic theory.
c) introduced the idea of an atomic system.
d) elaborated different concepts of atomic structure.
2. Democritus’ theory was based on the principle that …
a) all matter was composed of molecules.
b) atoms were fundamental parts of the universe.
c) all substances were made up of atoms.
d) solids consisted of atoms.
3. The word “atom” …
a) means an unseen element.
b) comes from the Latin word “atomos”.
c) was introduced by Aristotle.
d) takes its origin from Greek.
4. Democritus’ theory …
a) was lost.
b) was kept alive due to Aristotle’s attacks.
c) was not supported by other philosophers.
d) was quoted by Cicero, Sineca and Galen.
5. The Catholic Church …
a) disapproved of atomism.
b) regarded atomism as heresy.
c) supported atomism.
d) shared Aristotle’s ideas on atomism.
6. The invention of the barometer and the air pump …
a) disproved atomic theory.
b) confirmed the existence of vacuum.
c) supported Aristotelian beliefs.
d) led to spreading of Aristotle’s ideas.

7. Pierre Gassendi’s work …
a) refuted completely atomic theory.
b) resulted in the revival of atomism.
c) proved that molecules were a gift from God.
d) confirmed that atoms could be cut.
8. Isaac Newton …
a) considered that matter consisted of solid, destructible atoms.
b) was an adherent of Aristotle’s beliefs.
c) thought that God formed matter in particles of different sizes and properties.
d) created his own atomic theory.
2. Give answers to the following questions.

1. Who was the first to state that matter consists of atoms?
2. What role did Democritus play?
3. What are the main characteristics of atoms?
4. What is the origin of the word “atom”?
5. What happened to Democritus’ writings?
6. What helped to keep Democritus’ ideas alive?
7. Why did Aristotle’s beliefs outlast the ancient era?
8. What events led to the revival of atomic theory?
9. Why didn’t the Church oppose Gassendi’s views?
10. What did Isaac Newton think about the structure of matter?
1. Gassendi thought that atoms were created by God and were solid, indestructible masses.
2. Democritus’ theory was based on the principle that all matter consists of atoms.
3. Gassendi shifted atomism into an argument that the Сhurch no longer opposed.
4. Democritus’ writings were lost in antiquity but his ideas were kept alive due to Aristotle’s
attacks.
5. Ancient Greek philosophers thought that matter was made up of small unseen elements.
6. In the late 16th and early 17th century Aristotle’s beliefs began to crumble.
7. The Catholic Church regarded atomism as heresy.
8. Democritus elaborated on the earlier concepts and proposed a more detailed system.
9. The word “atom” comes from Greek and means “cannot be cut”.
10. Adherents of atomic theory rediscovered Democritus in the 13th century as ancient works
were translated into Latin.
11. The French scientist Pierre Gassendi led revival of atomism in 1649.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “Atomic physics. The pre-atomic age” to describe
Aristotle’s ideas and Democritus’ atomic theory.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to the development of atomic
physics at the preatomic age. You were asked to deliver a report. Using the
information of the text create a mind map to speak on the theme suggested.

 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “Structure of the Atom. The Earliest Models”
Pre-viewing tasks
apparatus [ æp(ə)'reɪtəs] Benjamin Franklin ['benʤəmɪn 'fræŋklɪn]
'
approach [ə'prəʊʧ] William Gilbert ['wɪljəm 'gɪlbət]
Aristotle ['arɪstɒt(ə)l] fault [fɔːlt]
arrangement [ə'reɪnʤmənt] indivisible [ ɪndɪ'vɪzəb(ə)l]
'
Roger Bacon ['rɔʤə 'beɪk(ə)n] mystery ['mɪst(ə)rɪ]
century ['senʧ(ə)rɪ] observation [ ɔbzə'veɪʃ(ə)n]
'
China ['ʧaɪnə] orthodox ['ɔːθədɔks]
collision [kə'lɪʒ(ə)n] Plato ['pleɪtəʊ]
Charles-Augustin de [ʧɑːlz ɔː'gʌstɪn də predict (v) [prɪ'dɪkt]
Coulomb 'kuːlɔm] propose (v) [prə'pəʊz]
John Dalton [ʤɔn 'dɔːlt(ə)n] Joseph Proust ['ʤəuzɪf pruːst]
Democritus [dɪ'mɔkrɪtəs] reign [reɪn]
eventually [ɪ'venʧuəlɪ] ultimate ['ʌltɪmət]
existence [ɪg'zɪst(ə)ns]
Experiment, model, matter, atom, concept, space, inversely, hydrogen, oxygen, chemical reaction.

1) void a) неделимый
2) indivisible b) философская идея
3) atomism c) к сожалению
4) philosophical idea d) пустота
5) evidence e) сопротивление
6) unfortunately f) атомизм
7) opposition g) данные, доказательство, свидетельство
8) formless h) превращение
9) experimentation i) бесформенный
10) transmutation j) траектория
11) path k) экспериментирование, проведение опытов
12) findings l) эксперимент с воздушным змеем
13) repulsion m) выводы
14) kite flying experiment n) закон Кулона
15) Coulomb’s law o) отталкивание
16) law of conservation of matter p) горение, сгорание, сжигание
17) combustion q) закон постоянных отношений
18) measurable r) закон сохранения материи
19) constant proportions s) метафизический
20) metaphysical t) измеряемый; измеримый

1) existence a) a completely empty space
2) mystery b) a theoretical approach that regards something as interpretable
3) void through analysis into distinct, separable, and independent
4) finding elementary components
5) atomism c) the fact or state of living or having objective reality
6) evidence d) the available body of facts or information indicating whether a
7) indivisible belief or proposition is true or valid
8) experimentation e) the act, process, or practice of experimenting
f) information discovered as the result of an inquiry or investigation
g) something that is difficult or impossible to understand or explain
h) unable to be divided or separated
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Democritus proposed that all of existence is comprised of one thing.
2. The word “atom” originates from the Greek word “atomos“ which means “invisible”.
3. The alchemists knew a lot about the atom.
4. Gilbert demonstrated that many different materials when rubbed have the ability to repel
small bits of matter.
5. Joseph Proust performed his famous kite flying experiment and showed that lightning is
electricity.
6. Coulomb formulated the law of conservation of matter.

1. What was proposed by the Greek scientist Democritus? Which two things did he mention?
2. What concept became known as atomism?
3. What properties did atoms have according to Democritus? Were his ideas philosophical?
4. What role was played by alchemists? What did they support?
5. What did William Gilbert demonstrate?
6. What did Benjamin Franklin perform in 1792? What did he show?
7. What did Coulomb establish in 1785? What does it state?
8. What law did Lavoisier formulate? What did he design? What did his experiments suggest?
9. What did Joseph Proust propose?
10. What laws led to the work of English chemist John Dalton?
1. Among other things, Gilbert demonstrated that many different materials when rubbed have
the ability to attract small bits of matter.
2. Like many others, Bacon was intimidated by Orthodox religion and decided not to publish
his findings.
3. The word atom originates from the Greek word “atomos” which means “indivisible”.
4. In 1785, Charles-Augustine de Coulomb established Coulomb’s law, which states in part that
the force between two electric charges varies inversely as the square of the distance between
their centers.

5. Finally, Joseph Proust proposed that the enormous variety of chemical compounds was made
up of a few simple kinds of building block matter or elements.
6. This concept became known as atomism.
7. Lavoisier formulated the law of conservation of matter.
8. The alchemists had a little to our understanding of the atom.
9. In 1792, Benjamin Franklin performed his famous kite flying experiment and showed that
lightning is electricity.
10. Democritus proposed that all of existence is comprised of two things atoms and the void.
4. Speak about discoveries made by the scientists mentioned in the film.
A. Read the text and translate it in writing.
further development of atomic theory
in the 19th century
By the early 19th century, atomism had re-entered scientific thought, particularly chemistry,
where it strongly influenced British philosopher and mathematician John Dalton (1766–1844). As
early as 1803, Dalton, after experimenting with gases, put forward a chemical atomic theory that
proposed a more sophisticated model than Democritus or Gassendi. Dalton’s theory, the basis of
modern atomic thinking despite some error, was that atoms combined to form chemical elements.
He believed that the atoms in any one element were identical in their masses (an error), but atoms
of different elements had different masses. He also believed that atoms could only combine in
small, whole-numbered rations (1:1, 2:3, etc.). Dalton based his argument that atoms of different
elements had different weights by experimenting with elements to obtain relative particle weight.
He was the first scientist to do so. His Table of the Elements, giving them standard symbols, was
another great Dalton’s achievement. Dalton’s laboratory work modernized “atomism” and inspired
later generations of chemists and other scientists to continue to probe atomic theory. One aspect
of that theory, unchanged since antiquity, would be the arena where the greatest breakthroughs
would come. That was the concept that atoms were unchangeable
and indestructible. Dalton continued the ancient argument, noting,
“we might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar
system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or
destroy a particle of hydrogen.” Future researchers, working with new
technology and concepts, would provide the tools to do so.
As the end of the 19 th century approached, the Marquis of
Salisbury, Robert Cecil, speaking to the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1894, listed the “unfinished business of
science” and posed questions about the atom, namely “whether it
is a movement, or a thing, or a vortex, or a point having inertia,
whether there is any limit to its divisibility, and if so, how that limit
is imposed, whether the long list of elements is final, or whether
any of them have any common origin, all these questions remain
surrounded by a darkness as profound as ever”.
X-ray of Albert von The first light to illuminate that darkness came from the
Kolliker’s hand cathode-ray tube. The cathode-ray tube was the initial child of the

development in 1855 of a mercury pump by Heinrich Geissler, which produced vacuum tubes
of high quality. Others, such as Sir William Crookes, discovered that when one end of a tube
was capped with metal, and a battery was hooked up to them, the airless space inside the tubes
glowed, passing from the negative plate, the cathode, to the positive plate, or the anode. When
the cathode and anode were placed inside the middle of a tube, and the end of the tube was closed
off with glass, the glow would become a beam or a ray.
German and British researchers, working with cathode-ray tubes, learned more about the
rays between 1858 and 1894. The rays bend when under the influence of a magnet; otherwise
they travel in straight lines. They are formed of particles of some sort of matter, which have a
charge. In 1874, James Johnstone Stoney, in calculating the charge, suggested that the unit of
charge be called an “electrine”. In 1891, he changed the name to “electron”.
Then, in 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, experimenting with covering
tubes with screens to determine the nature of the fluorescent light emanating from them, made
an amazing discovery. Even when blocked by cardboard, the tube produced a glow on a nearby
screen of chemical-coated black paper. Passing his hand in front of the tube to block the glow,
Rontgen discovered that it did not completely block it and, in the dim light, he could see his
bones through the flesh of his hand. A new type of ray not light was produced by the cathode-ray
tube, and the name Rontgen gave it the X-ray stuck.
B. Read the text “X-rays” and fulfill the tasks given below.
X-rays
X-rays are commonly produced by accelerating (or decelerating) charged particles; examples
include a beam of electrons striking a metal plate in an X-ray tube and a circulating beam of
electrons in a synchrotron particle accelerator or storage ring. In addition, highly excited atoms
can emit X-rays with discrete wavelengths characteristic of the energy level spacings in the
atoms. The X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum falls far outside the range of visible
wavelengths. However, the passage of X-rays through materials, including biological tissue, can
be recorded with photographic films and other detectors. The analysis of X-ray images of the
body is an extremely valuable medical diagnostic tool.
X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation. When interacting with matter, they are energetic
enough to cause neutral atoms to eject electrons. Through this ionization process the energy
of the X-rays is deposited in the matter. When passing through living tissue, X-rays can cause
harmful biochemical changes in genes, chromosomes, and
other cell components. The biological effects of ionizing
radiation, which are complex and highly dependent on the
length and intensity of exposure, are still under active study.
X-ray radiation therapies take advantage of these effects to
combat the growth of malignant tumours.
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by German physicist
Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen while investigating the effects
of electron beams in electrical discharges through low-
pressure gases. Röntgen found out that a screen coated with
a fluorescent material placed outside a discharge tube would
glow even when it was shielded from the direct visible and
ultraviolet light of the gaseous discharge. He deduced that an
invisible radiation from the tube passed through the air and
caused the screen to fluoresce. Röntgen was able to show that X-ray of human lungs

the radiation responsible for the fluorescence originated from the point where the electron beam
struck the glass wall of the discharge tube. Opaque objects placed between the tube and the screen
proved to be transparent to the new form of radiation; Röntgen dramatically demonstrated this
by producing a photographic image of the bones of the human hand. His discovery of so-called
Röntgen rays was met with worldwide scientific and popular excitement, and, along with the
discoveries of radioactivity (1896) and the electron (1897), it ushered in the study of the atomic
world and the era of modern physics.

1. X-rays are commonly produced by … examples include … .
2. Highly excited atoms can emit … with … .
3. The passage of X-rays through materials … can be recorded with … and … .
4. X-rays are a form of … .
5. When passing through living tissue, X-rays can … .
6. X-ray radiation therapies take advantage of … .
7. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by … while investigating … .
8. He deduced that … and caused … .
9. Röntgen was able to show that the radiation responsible for … .


Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

Unit 15
Atomic models
To the electron: May it never be of use to anyone.
J. J. Thompson
 WARM-UP
1. The text you are going to read is headlined “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’ model”. What
do you know about the atomic model proposed by Dalton?
alter (v) ['ɔːltə] entity ['entɪtɪ]
antiquity [æn'tɪkwɪtɪ] hypothesize (v) [haɪ'pɔθəsaɪz]
carbon dioxide ['kɑːbəndaɪ'ɔksaɪd] meteorologist [ miːtɪ(ə)'rɔləʤɪst]
'
conceive (v) [kən'siːv] nitrogen ['naɪtrəʤ(ə)n]
crudity ['kruːdɪtɪ] prior ['praɪə]
culminate (v) ['kʌlmɪneɪt] ratio ['reɪʃɪəʊ]
drawback ['drɔːbæk] tiny ['taɪnɪ]
elementary [ elɪ'ment(ə)rɪ] unique [juː'niːk]
'
empirical [ɪm'pɪrɪk(ə)l] weight [weɪt]
Atomic theory, matter, series of experiments, atomic composition, chemical reaction, elementary
particles, observation, experimentation, quantum theory, philosophical construct.
3. Below you will find a list of word combinations mentioned in the text “The Dalton
‘billiard ball’ model”. Choose their Russian equivalents in the right-hand column.
1) atomic weight a) эмпирический метод
2) atoms existence b) неделимые элементы
3) chemical compound c) существование атомов
4) complex structure d) нейтральный заряд
5) empirical fashion e) теория относительности
6) evidence-based approach f) химическое соединение
7) fixed ratio g) сложная структура
8) indivisible elements h) атомный вес
9) neutral charge i) подход, основанный на фактах (доказательствах)
10) relativity theory j) постоянное соотношение
Unit 15. Atomic models 181

4. The words given in A are mentioned in the text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’ model”.
Find their definitions in B and translate them into Russian.
A B
1) to absorb a) smth. made up of two or more combined parts
2) composition b) how heavy a thing is; this is expressed in some scale
3) compound c) to take in heat, light, knowledge, etc.
4) element d) relying on observation or experiment
5) empirical e) parts of which smth is made up
6) findings f) relation of one thing to another in quantity, size, etc.
7) particle g) what has been learnt as the result of inquiry
8) proportion h) substance which cannot be split up into a simpler form by
9) scientific ordinary chemical methods
10) weight i) one of the constituents of an atom
j) connected with / used in science
5. Find the derivatives of the following words in the text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’
model”. Pay attention to the suffixes or prefixes used to form them.
initial to compose to examine to contribute
philosophy chemist to exist relative
scientific to differ to conclude real
meteorology respect to discover
to observe experiment element
only. Consult the text if necessary.
1) to absorb a) as a standard
2) to become b) chemical compounds
3) to begin c) a complex structure
4) to come up with d) gases
5) to form e) one’s conclusions
6) to propose f) a theory
7) to reach g) elementary particles
8) to reveal h) a cornerstone
9) to subvide into i) the theory of atomic compositions
10) to take j) a series of experiments
7. There are some words given in bold type in the text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’
model”. Choose their synonyms from the list below. The forms of the words in the
text may differ from those in the list.
to arise hypothesis to lessen frame
to come to new, novel ultimately example
to improve incomparable owing to foundation
to imagine unlike to disclose gift
text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’ model” and give the translation.
to lead due to divide to be based
research to focus valid to come
to be composed to consist prior

 READING
The Dalton “billiard ball” model
Atomic theory, that is the belief that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible elements has
very deep roots. Initially, the theory appeared in thousands of years ago in Greek and Indian texts
as a philosophical idea. However, it was not embraced scientifically until the 19th century, when
an evidence-based approach began to reveal what the atomic model looked like.
It was at this time that John Dalton, an English chemist, meteorologist and physicist, began a
series of experiments which would culminate in him proposing the theory of atomic compositions
which thereafter would be known as Dalton’s Atomic Theory and would become one of the
cornerstones of modern physics and chemistry. Dalton came up with this theory as a result of his
research into gases.
In other words, elements combine at the atomic level in fixed ratios which naturally differ
based on the compounds being combined, due to their unique atomic weights.
The findings became the basis of Dalton’s Atomic Laws or Model, which focuses on five
basic theorems. The first states that elements, in their purest state, consist of particles called
atoms. Second, the atoms of a specific element are all the same, down to the very last atom.
Third, atoms of different elements can be torn apart by their atomic weights. Fourth, atoms
of elements unite to form chemical compounds. And finally, atoms can neither be created nor
destroyed in chemical reaction, only the grouping ever changes.
Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in
different proportions for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far better than it
absorbed nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity
of the gases’ respective particles.
In fact, it was this very observation that is believed to be the first time that Dalton hinted at
the supposed existence of atoms.
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type,
and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form
more complex structures (i.e. chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory
of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the
results in an empirical fashion.
Dalton also began studying atomic weights based on the mass ratios in which they combined,
with the hydrogen atom taken as the standard. However, Dalton was limited by the crudity of his
laboratory instruments. He also believed that the simplest compound between any two elements
is always one atom each.
Other discoveries both contradicted and refined Dalton’s theories. For instance, scientists
have since discovered that the atom once thought to be the smallest part of matter can in fact be
subdivided into even smaller elementary particles.
And whereas Dalton conceived atoms as a single entity
with no separation between positive, negative, and neutral
charges, subsequent experiments by J. J. Thomson, Ernest
Rutherford, and Neils Bohr revealed a more complex
structure of the atom. These theories were later validated by
observations made with the electron microscope. We also
know that atomic weight is a product of the structure of the
atoms themselves.

Hence, Dalton’s Atomic Model, in its purest form, is now only considered valid for chemical
reactions. However, this does not diminish Dalton’s contribution to modern science.
Prior to his time, the atom was little more than a philosophical construct passed down from
classical antiquity. Dalton’s groundbreaking work not only made the theory a reality but led to
many other discoveries, such as Einstein’s theory of relativity and Planck’s quantum theory – two
fields of study that form the basis of our modern understanding of the cosmos.
Notes to the text

•• It was at this time that John Dalton began a series of experiments… – Именно в это время
Джон Далтон начал серию экспериментов…
•• … it was this very observation that is believed to be the first time that Dalton hinted at
the supposed existence of atoms. – … именно во время этого наблюдения впервые, как
считают, Далтон предположил, что атомы существуют.
•• … with the hydrogen atom taken as the standard. – … причем атом водорода считался
эталоном.
•• … that the atom once thought to be the smallest part of matter… – … что атом, который,
как когда-то считали, является наименьшей частицей вещества…
1. Choose the best ending a, b, c or d to complete the sentences.
1. Atomic theory …
a) appeared in Latin texts hundreds of years ago.
b) arose as a philosophical idea in India.
c) was developed by Greek scientists.
d) arose in Greece and India.
2. John Dalton was …
a) a French chemist.
b) a German physicist.
c) an English chemist and physicist.
d) an Italian meteorologist.
3. John Dalton …
a) made a series of experiments in meteorology.
b) developed the theory of atomic compositions.
c) researched liquids and gases.
d) proposed the planetary model of the atom.
4. Dalton’s atomic model …
a) is founded on several laws.
b) is built on three basic principles.
c) focuses on two theories.
d) is based on five theorems.
5. The first theorem states that …
a) atoms of a specific element are all the same.
b) atoms of elements form chemical compounds.
c) elements in their purest state consist of atoms.
d) atomic weight can tear apart atoms of different elements.

6. Dalton’s atomic theory …
a) accounted for the reasons of water absorbing different gases in different proportions.
b) explained the dependence of absorption on complexity of particles.
c) explained why liquids absorb gases.
d) included information about the dependence of water absorption on mass and complexity
of its particles.
7. Dalton suggested that …
a) chemical elements can form simpler structures.
b) atoms can be altered or destroyed.
c) chemical elements are made up of atoms of the same type.
d) chemical compounds have a more complex structure.
8. Dalton …
a) reached his conclusions by reasoning.
b) tested his hypothesis experimentally.
c) drew conclusions on the basis of his experiments.
d) examined his results in an empirical fashion.
9. Other discoveries …
a) contradicted Dalton’s atomic model.
b) improved Dalton’s theory.
c) confirmed Dalton’s ideas.
d) both refined and disproved Dalton’s theories.
10. Dalton’s atomic model …
a) is still valid.
b) is considered correct in chemistry.
c) proves to be true in both chemistry and physics.
d) is only valid for chemical reactions.

1. Where did atomic theory appear?
2. Why wasn’t it considered scientific?
3. What theory did Dalton propose?
4. What kind of research did he do?
5. What is Dalton’s atomic model based on?
6. What does each of these five basic theorems state?
7. What else did he find out?
8. What did Dalton propose?
9. What facts disproved Dalton’s atomic model?
10. What did Dalton’s work lead to?
up the contents of the text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’ model”.
1. He also believed that his theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different
proportions.
2. Now Dalton’s model is considered valid only for chemical reactions.
3. Subsequent discoveries both contradicted and improved Dalton’s ideas.
4. In the 19th century John Dalton proposed the theory of atomic compositions, later known as
Dalton’s Atomic Theory.

5. Dalton’s work led to many other discoveries such as Einstein’s theory of relativity and
Planck’s quantum theory.
6. Initially, atomic theory appeared in Greek and Indian texts as a philosophical idea.
7. Dalton proposed that each chemical element is made up of atoms of a single type.
8. Dalton’s Model is based on 5 basic theorems.
9. He reached his conclusions experimentally.
10. Dalton thought that atoms were a single entity, while experiments by E. Rutherford and
N. Bohr revealed a more complex structure of the atom.
 SPEAKING
1. Use the information from the text “The Dalton ‘billiard ball’ model” to
•• formulate five basic theorems;
•• name findings that became the basis of Dalton’s Atomic Model.
2. You are a guest speaker at the conference devoted to Dalton’s contribution to

atomic physics. You were asked to deliver a report. Using the information of the
text create a mind map to speak on the theme suggested.
 VIDEO VIEW
Watch the film “The structure of the atom. Smaller than the smallest”
Pre-viewing tasks
absorb (v) [əb'zɔːb] mosaic [məʊ'zeɪɪk]
conclude (v) [kən'kluːd] pores (pl) [pɔːrz]
convert (v) [kən'vɜːt] pour (v) [pɔː]
curiosity [ kjuərɪ'ɔsɪtɪ] Proust [pruːst]
'
diaphragm ['daɪəfræm] ratio ['reɪʃɪəʊ]
evacuate (v) [ɪ'vækjueɪt] rearrange (v) [ riːə'reɪnʤ]
'
extend (v) [ɪk'stend] scholarly ['skɔləlɪ]
fluorescent [flɔː'res(ə)nt] sink (v) [sɪŋk]
glue [gluː] smallness [smɔːlnɪs]
imply (v) [ɪm'plaɪ] squeeze (v) [skwiːz]
indivisible [ ɪndɪ'vɪzəb(ə)l] J. J. Thompson ['tɔms(ə)n]
'
Dalton ['dɔːlt(ə)n] ultimate ['ʌltɪmət]
Faraday ['færədeɪ] Crookes [kruks]
R. Millikan ['mɪlɪkən]
Matter, chemist, gas, space, observation, basic, formula, hydrogen, oxygen, terminal, technique,
pressure, vacuum, cathode, path, gravity.

1) atomic theory a) методика, метод, прием (способ), техника (методика)
2) discharge tube b) стеклянная трубка
3) glass tube c) научные идеи
4) law of definite proportions d) закон кратных отношений
5) law of multiple proportions e) газоразрядная трубка, разрядная трубка
6) oil droplet f) скорость
7) plate g) атомизм, атомистика
8) rate h) пластина
9) scholarly ideas i) закон постоянства состава
10) technique j) капелька нефти (в газе)

1) atom a) any of numerous subatomic constituents of the physical
2) glow world that interact with each other, including electrons,
3) indivisible neutrinos, photons, etc.
4) matter b) (in physics) that which occupies space and possesses rest
5) microscopic mass, especially as distinct from energy
6) particle c) so small as to be visible only with a microscope
d) the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist
e) a steady radiance of light or heat
f) unable to be divided or separated
Post-viewing tasks
of the film.
1. Dalton thought some kinds of gas particles were heavier.
2. Dalton’s theories implied that matter was made up of individual particles without spaces
between.
3. Dalton concluded that the atoms of one element can be converted into the atoms of another
element; atoms in chemical reactions are either created or destroyed.
4. If each element is a particular kind of atom, then these atoms combine, in fixed numbers to
form what Faraday called compound atoms.
5. Dalton used electricity to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen.
6. Faraday agreed with Dalton’s theories about atoms.
7. William Crookes designed atomic model.
8. In 1897 J. J. Thompson designed more complex vacuum tubes.
9. In 1907 R. A. Millikan established that not all electrons are identical by determining their
minimum charge.
10. Over thousands of experiments Crookes found the smallest single discrete rate of change.

1. What is the structure of the atom? How do you understand “smaller than the smallest”?
2. What led Dalton to the chemical atomic theory? What did he observe? Why?
3. What did Dalton’s theory imply?
4. What did Dalton conclude?

5. What did Dalton’s ideas suggest?
6. What is called compound atom?
7. What does the Law of Multiple Proportions state?
8. Why did M. Faraday use electricity? What did he decide?
9. Did M. Faraday agree with Dalton’s theory about atoms?
10. What did M. Faraday manage to find?
11. What did M. Faraday do in another experiment?
12. What did J. J. Thomson design in 1897? How did it work?
13. What is the fundamental particle of all matter?
14. What did R. A. Millikan establish in 1907?
15. What did R. A. Millikan find through his experiments?
16. What did J. J. Thomson provide? What did he propose?
1. Dalton’s theories implied that matter was made up of individual particles with spaces
between.
2. Faraday did not agree with Dalton’s theories about atoms.
3. In 1897 J. J. Thomson designed the specialized cathode ray tube.
4. Michael Faraday used electricity to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen.
5. Dalton thought some kinds of gas particles were lighter.
6. If each element is a particular kind of atom, then these atoms combine in fixed numbers to
form what Dalton called compound atoms.
7. Dalton concluded that elements of matter consist of characteristic kinds of particles.
8. The curiosity about the basic nature of matter led to the work of this man, the English
chemist John Dalton.
9. William Crookes designed more complex vacuum tubes.
10. The atoms of one element cannot be converted into the atoms of another element.
11. In 1907 R. A. Millikan established that all electrons are identical by determining their
minimum charge.
12. Atoms in chemical reactions are neither created nor destroyed, merely rearranged.
13. Over thousands of experiments Millikan found the smallest single discrete rate of change and
decided that it represented the charge of a single electron.
4. Describe discoveries and contributions made by the scientists mentioned in the

film.
A. Read the texts “J. J. Thomson’s ‘plum-pudding’ model”, “Rutherford‘s
planetary model“ and “The cloud model of Schrödinger” and translate them
in writing.
J. J. Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model
J. J. Thomson’s discovery of the negatively charged electron had raised theoretical problems
for physicists as early as 1897, because atoms as a whole are electrically neutral. Where was the
neutralizing positive charge and what held it in place? Between 1903 and 1907 Thomson tried
to solve the mystery by adapting an atomic model that had been first proposed by the Scottish

scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1902. According to the
Thomson atomic model, often referred to as the “plum-pudding”
model, the atom is a sphere of uniformly distributed positive charge
about one angstrom in diameter. Electrons are embedded in a
regular pattern, like raisins in a plum pudding, to neutralize the
positive charge. 
The advantage of the Thomson atom was that it was inherently
stable: if the electrons were displaced, they would attempt to
return to their original positions. In another contemporary
model, the atom resembled the solar system or the planet Saturn,
with rings of electrons surrounding a concentrated positive charge. The Japanese physicist
Nagaoka Hantaro in particular developed the “Saturnian” system in 1904. The atom, as
postulated in this model, was inherently unstable because, by radiating continuously, the
electron would gradually lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. No electron could thus remain
in any particular orbit indefinitely.
Rutherford’s planetary model

Rutherford overturned Thomson’s model in 1911 with his famous gold-foil experiment,
in which he demonstrated that the atom has a tiny, massive nucleus. The model suggested that
the charge on the nucleus was the most important characteristic of the atom, determining its
structure. On the other hand, Mendeleyev’s periodic table of the elements had been organized
according to the atomic masses of the elements, implying that the mass was responsible for the
structure and chemical behavior of atoms.
The model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core called a nucleus,
in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around which the light, negative constituents,
called electrons, circulate at some distance, much like planets revolving around the Sun. The
Rutherford atomic model has been alternatively called the nuclear atom, or the planetary model
of the atom. The Rutherford model, based wholly on classical physics, was superseded in a few
years by the Bohr atomic model, which incorporated some early quantum theory.
The cloud model of SchrödingeR

Electron cloud is an informal term in physics. It is used to describe where electrons are
when they go around the nucleus of an atom. The electron cloud model is different from the
older Bohr atomic model. Bohr talked about electrons orbiting the nucleus, in a similar way to

the planets that go around the Sun. Erwin Schrödinger developed the
probability function for the hydrogen atom (and a few others). The
probability function basically describes a cloud-like region where the
electron is likely to be found. It can not say with any certainty, where
the electron actually is.
The Electron Cloud Model depicts the floating motion of the
electrons rather than them having a set path of travel. He determined the
probability location of electrons in atoms. According to Schrodinger,
electrons stuck in their orbits would set up “standing waves”. He said
that you could describe only the probability of where an electron could be, it was not definite.
The distributions of these probabilities formed areas of space about the nucleus and were called
orbitals. An orbital is a wave function describing the state of a single electron in an atom.
B. Read the text “Bohr’s shell model” and fulfill the tasks given below.
Bohr’s shell model
In 1913 Bohr proposed his quantized shell model of the atom to explain how electrons can
have stable orbits around the nucleus. The motion of the electrons in the Rutherford model was
unstable because, according to classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory, any charged
particle moving on a curved path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons would lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus. To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the Rutherford
model by requiring that the electrons move in orbits of fixed size and energy. The energy of an
electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller orbits. Radiation can occur only
when the electron jumps from one orbit to another. The atom will be completely stable in the state
with the smallest orbit, since there is no orbit of lower energy into which the electron can jump.
L shell electrons
(8 electrons) nucleus
proton
neutron
K shell
(8 electrons)
With his model, Bohr explained how electrons could jump from one orbit to another only by
emitting or absorbing energy in fixed quanta. Bohr’s model accounts for the stability of atoms
because the electron cannot lose more energy than it has in the smallest orbit, the one with n = 1.
Bohr’s theory had major drawbacks, however. Except for the spectra of X-rays in the K and
L series, it could not explain properties of atoms having more than one electron. The German
physicist Arnold Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s theory by quantizing the shapes and orientations
of orbits to introduce additional energy levels corresponding to the fine spectral lines. His
investigations of atomic spectra led him to suggest that in the Bohr model of the atom the
electrons move in elliptical orbits as well as circular ones.

In spite of these modifications, by the early 1920s Bohr’s model seemed to be a dead end. It
could not explain the number of fine spectral lines and many of the frequency shifts associated
with the Zeeman effect.

1. In 1913 Bohr proposed … to explain … .
2. According to classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory … .
3. Bohr modified the Rutherford model by … .
4. The energy of an electron depends on … and … .
5. With his model, Bohr explained … .
6. Bohr’s model accounts for … .
7. Bohr’s theory had major drawbacks … .
8. The German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld modified Bohr’s theory by … .
9. His investigations of atomic spectra led him to … .
10. In spite of these modifications, by the early 1920s … .
11. It could not explain … .

Atomic structure
1. Which of the following does the nucleus contain?
protons and electrons
protons and neutrons
neutrons and electrons
2. Which of the following statements is correct?

Protons are positively charged and neutrons are negatively charged.
Protons are negatively charged and electrons are positively charged.
Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged.
3. What is the atomic number of an atom?

The number of atoms it contains.
The number of protons it contains.
The number of neutrons it contains.
4. Which of the following statements is true of an atom?

The number of protons is always equal to the number of neutrons.
The number of protons is always equal to the number of electrons.
The number of neutrons is always equal to the number of electrons.

5. An element has the electronic structure 2, 8, 4. Which group is it in?
Group 3
Group 4
Group 0
6. Two elements have these electronic structures: 2, 1 and 2, 8, 1. What can you say
about the elements?
They are both in Group 1.
They are both in Group 2.
They are both in period 2.
7. Which electronic structure is correct for an element with 17 electrons?

1, 7
10, 7
2, 8, 7
8. What do the elements in a group have the same number of?

electrons
occupied energy levels or shells
electrons in the highest occupied energy level or outer shell
9. What do the elements in a period have the same number of?

electrons
occupied energy levels or shells
electrons in the highest occupied energy level or outer shell
10. Which of these electronic structures belongs to a noble gas?

2
2, 2
2, 8, 2

Now In Future

I understand I may

I can I will

 NAMES OF SCIENTISTS
Albert Einstein ['ælbət 'aɪnstaɪn] Альберт Эйнштейн
Angstrom ['æŋstrəm] Ангстрем
Aristotle ['arɪstɒt(ə)l] Аристотель
Avogadro [ avə'gɑːdrəʊ] Авогадро
'
Bose [bəʊs] Боуз
Cannizzaro [ kanɪ'zɑːrəʊ] Канниццаро
'
Christian Huygens ['krɪsʧən 'haɪgənz] Кристиан Гюйгенс
Christopher Columbus ['krɪstəfə kə'lʌmbəs] Христофор Колумб
Cicero ['sɪs(ə)rəʊ] Цицерон
Dalton ['dɔːlt(ə)n] Далтон
Daniel Bernoulli ['dænjəl bɜː'nuːɪ] Даниил Бернулли
Democritus [dɪ'mɔkrɪtəs] Демокрит
Descartes ['deɪkɑːt] Декарт
Epicurus [ ɛpɪ'kjʊərəs] Эпикур
'
Euclid ['juːklɪd] Эвклид
Galen ['ɡeɪlən] Гален
Galileo Galelei [ gælɪ'leɪəʊ'gælɪleɪ] Галилео Галилей
'
Hans Christian Oersted ['hɑːns 'krɪstʃən 'ɜːsted] Ханс Кристиан Эрстед
Humphrey Davy ['hʌmfrɪ 'deɪvɪ] Хамфри Дэви
Isaac Newton ['aɪzək 'njuːt(ə)n] Исаак Ньютон
James Clerk Maxwell ['ʤeɪmz klɑːk 'mækswəl] Джеймс Клерк Максвелл
Jean Perrin [ʤiːn 'perən] Жан Перрен
Karl Friedrich Gauss ['kɑːl 'friːdrɪk 'ɡaʊs] Карл Фридрих Гаусс
Kepler ['keplə] Кеплер
Lorentz ['lɒrənts] Лоренц
Luther ['luːθə] Лютер
Max Planck [ mæks 'plæŋk] Макс Планк
'
Michael Faraday ['maɪk(ə)l 'færədeɪ] Майкл Фарадей
Pierre Curie ['pi(ə)r 'kjʊərɪ] Пьер Кюри
Pierre de Fermat [pɪ'(ə)r də 'fəːmɑː] Пьер де Ферма
Pythagoras [paɪ'θæɡərəs] Пифагор
Robert Boyle ['rɔbət bɔɪl] Роберт Бойль
Robert Brown ['rɔbət braun] Роберт Броун
Rudolf Clausius ['ruːdɔlf 'klaʊzɪʊs] Рудольф Клаузиус
Seneca ['sɛnɪkə] Сенека
Thomas Young ['tɔməs jʌŋ] Томас Янг
Van der Waals [ van də 'wɑːlz] Ван дер Ваальс
'
William Gilbert ['wɪljəm gɪlbət] Уильям Гильберт
William Sturgeon ['wɪljəm 'stɜːʤ(ə)n] Уильям Стёрджен
194 Part II. Glossary

 Unit 1
accurate точный
advance продвижение, успех, совершенствование
ancient древний
basis (pl. bases) основание, базис
be equal to равняться
behaviour поведение
branch отрасль (науки)
characteristic характерная черта, особенность
charge заряд
compose (v) составлять
concept понятие, идея, концепция
condensate конденсат
consist of (v) состоять из
conventional обычный, традиционный
correlate (v) соотносить
cover (v) охватывать
deal with (v) иметь дело с, касаться
depend on (v) зависеть
describe (v) описывать
determine (v) определять
development развитие
devise (v) изобретать, придумывать
distinct отличный (от других)
divide (v) делить(ся)
electricity электричество
exist (v) существовать
experience опыт, практика, знания
experiment эксперимент
fermionic фермионный
govern (v) управлять
heat теплота
indicate (v) указывать
investigation исследование
knowledge знание
law закон
light свет
liquid жидкий, жидкость
matter материя, вещество
mechanical механический
mechanics механика
merge (v) сливаться, соединяться
modern современный
motion движение
nature природа
nuclear ядерный
Part II. Glossary 195

nucleus (pl. nuclei) ядро (ядра)
observation наблюдение
origin происхождение
particle частица
phenomenon (pl. phenomena) явление (явления)
physical физический, материальный, вещественный
physics физика
predict (v) предсказывать
primarily первоначально, сперва, сначала, главным образом
range диапазон, размах, область
relation отношение
revolve (v) вращаться
science наука
show (v) показывать
situate (v) располагать
solid твердый, твердое тело
sound звук
state состояние
substance вещество
surround (v) окружать
technique технический прием, метод, способ, технология,
методика, оборудование
total суммарный
transformation преобразование
unit единица измерения, элемент, составная деталь
various разнообразный
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 2
accelerated motion ускоренное движение
acceleration ускорение
account for (v) объяснять
achieve (v) достигать
act on (v) воздействовать
action действие
agency действие, сила
angular momentum момент импульса, угловой момент
application применение
approximation приближение
arise (arose, arisen) (v) возникать
arise out of (v) вытекать
arrow стрела
attribute свойство, признак
balance (v) уравновешивать
basic основной
belief убеждение, мнение
body тело
bow лук
calculate (v) вычислять
call (v) называть
cancel (v) компенсировать
cause and effect причина и следствие
common распространенный
concept понятие
concern (v) касаться, относиться
conservation of energy сохранение энергии
consider (v) считать
consideration рассмотрение, обсуждение, pl. мнение
content суть, содержание
continue (v) продолжать
continuously непрерывно
derive (v) выводить
determine (v) определять
difficulty трудность
dimensions размеры
dynamics динамика
elaboration детальная разработка
embody (v) воплощать, содержать, заключать в себе
enunciate (v) провозглашать
equality равенство
equilibrium (pl. equilibria) равновесие (равновесия)
eventually в конце концов

experience (v) испытывать
explain (v) объяснять
express (v) выражать
fall (fell, fallen) (v) подпадать под
field область
firmly прочно
force сила
framework рамка, каркас, конструкция, структура
friction трение
frictional forces силы трения
hold (held, held) (v) занимать (место)
ignore (v) игнорировать
importance важность
in the first approximation в первом приближении
influence влияние
inherit (v) унаследовать
interaction взаимодействие
interfere (v) вмешиваться
intrinsic присущий, неотъемлемый
involved данный, рассматриваемый
isolated изолированный
kinematics кинематика
law закон
lead to (v) приводить к
limit предел
loading нагрузка
loading limit предельная нагрузка
maintain (v) утверждать
mere простой
momentum (pl. momenta) импульс, количество движения
natural philosophy физика
object объект, тело
planetary планетарный
play a part (v) играть роль
point particle точечная частица
pointlike точечный
postulate постулат
precision точность
predict (v) предсказывать
present-day современный
produce (v) создавать
profound глубокий
property свойство
province область, сфера
quantum (pl. quanta) квант, величина (величины)

range from … to (v) заключаться в пределах от … до
лежать в пределах от … до
reaction противодействие
relate (v) соотносить
remain (v) оставаться
remarkable замечательный
require (v) требовать
restrain (v) сдерживать
result in (v) приводить к
retain (v) сохранять, удерживать
rigid жесткий, негнущийся
root (v) основываться
sap (v) поглощать
set группа, система, ряд, набор
shape форма
slow (v) замедлять
source of propulsion источник поступательного движения (движущей
силы)
state of rest состояние покоя
static статичный
straight line прямая линия
stress давление, напряжение, нагрузка, усилие
study изучение
survive (v) выжить
theory of relativity теория относительности
timber frame деревянный каркас
treat (v) рассматривать, трактовать
understand (v) понимать
undervalue (v) недооценивать
uniform motion равномерное (прямолинейное) движение
vague неопределенный, неясный
variety разнообразие
vehicle chassis шасси транспортного средства
view взгляд, мнение
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 3
ability способность
accomplish (v) совершать, выполнять, завершать
analyze (v) анализировать
as long as пока
as well as а также
at rest в покое
attempt (v) пытаться
average средний
basically в основном
calculus исчисление (дифференциальное)
conception понятие, понимание, идея, концепция
constant (n) постоянная
constrain (v) принуждать, вынуждать, ограничивать
define (v) определять
derive (v) выводить, получать
develop (v) развивать, разрабатывать
direction направление
directly proportional прямо пропорциональный
downward / upward force сила, направленная вниз/вверх
equation уравнение
feat подвиг
gravity сила тяжести
in terms of на основе
inertia инерция
inversely proportional обратно пропорциональный
law of inertia закон инерции
magnitude величина
momentum (pl. momenta) импульс (импульсы)
neglect (v) пренебрегать
opposite противоположный
permit (v) позволять, разрешать
procedure методика, метод, прием, ход (опыта), процесс
proposition предположение, утверждение
pull up (down) (v) тянуть вверх (вниз)
quantitative количественный
quantity величина
reaction противодействие
realize (v) осуществлять, выполнять, осознавать

resistance сопротивление
resultant (force) результирующая (равнодействующая) сила
seek (sought, sought) (v) искать
separation отделение, разделение
speed скорость (скалярная)
state (v) утверждать, констатировать, излагать
straight прямо, прямой
surface поверхность
time rate of change of the velocity изменение скорости со временем
underlying physical processes лежащие в основе физические процессы
uniform равномерный
unless если не
value значение, величина
velocity скорость (векторная)
weight вес
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 4
ability способность
add (v) добавлять
advent приход, появление
applied force приложенная сила
apply (v) применять
associate (v) связывать
at rest в покое
be equal to равняться
body тело
boundary граница, предел
bow лук
call (v) называть
capacity способность
carefully тщательно
change (v) изменять
closed system замкнутая система
conception понятие, представление
conclusively убедительно
configuration форма
consequence следствие
conservation law закон сохранения
conserve (v) сохранять
constant (adj) постоянный
contain (v) содержать
continue (v) продолжать
convert (v) преобразовывать
create (v) создавать
define (v) определять
definition определение
description описание
detail подробность, деталь
discovery открытие
dissipate (v) рассеивать
distance расстояние
do work выполнять работу
elastic упругий
electric current электрический ток
electric field электрическое поле
evaluate (v) оценивать
evaluation оценка, вычисление, определение

expand (v) расширять(ся)
express (v) выражать
extend (v) распространять
factor множитель
force of gravity сила тяжести
freely свободно
friction трение
generate (v) производить
go back to восходить к
go on (v) продолжать, происходить (иметь место)
heat теплота
high-speed высокоскоростной
hold (v) (held, held) иметь силу
in turn в свою очередь
include (v) включать
increase увеличение
lift (v) поднимать
lose (v) терять
measure критерий, мера
multiply (v) умножать
notion понятие
occur (v) иметь место, случаться, происходить
particle collision столкновение частиц
potential потенциал, потенциальный
principle закон
product результат, произведение
progressively постепенно
pulley шкив, ролик
pulley system подъемная система
quantity величина
recognize (v) признавать, узнавать
regardless of не взирая на
relativity physics теория относительности
remain constant оставаться постоянным
remove (v) удалять
rest mass масса покоя
result from (v) следовать из, вытекать, быть результатом чего-либо
return возвращение
satellite спутник

science наука
show (v) показывать
significant существенный
slow down (v) замедлять(ся)
speed up (v) ускорять
spring пружина
statement утверждение
store (v) накапливать, запасать
stored energy накапливаемая энергия, запасенная энергия
subatomic particle субатомная частица
successive последующий, последовательный
swinging pendulum раскачивающийся маятник
tensioned device натяжное устройство
term термин
thermal тепловой
thermodynamics термодинамика
total суммарный
travel upward (v) двигаться вверх
truly действительно
vary (v) изменяться
weight груз, вес
widen (v) расширять
within the constraint в рамках
work работа
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 5
analysis (pl. analyses) анализ (анализы)
angle угол
atomic combination соединение атомов, сочетание атомов
atomic physics атомная физика
binding связь
binding energy энергия связи
binding forces силы связи
bound nucleus связанное ядро
branch отрасль (науки), область
calculation вычисление
close близко
collide (v) сталкиваться
collision interval промежуток времени между двумя последователь-
ными столкновениями
combined system связанная система
сomplicated сложный
computerized компьютеризированный
concern (v) касаться
condition условие
configuration форма, конфигурация
consider (v) рассматривать
constitute (v) составлять, основывать
construction построение, создание
crystal lattice кристаллическая решетка
deal with (v) иметь дело с, касаться
dimensions размеры
employ (v) применять
error ошибка
exhibit (v) проявлять
experimental techniques экспериментальные методы
explain (v) объяснять, толковать
extension распространение, расширение
free atom свободный атом
heavy molecule тяжелая молекула
identification распознавание, опознавание, идентификация
improvement design усовершенствование конструкции
instantly немедленно
instrumental diagnostics диагностика приборов
interact (v) взаимодействовать
interatomic distances межатомные расстояния

internal energy state внутреннее энергетическое состояние
interpret (v) объяснять, толковать
involve (v) включать в себя, вовлекать
low-energy physics физика низких энергий
maintenance техническое обслуживание, эксплуатация
measure (v) измерять
measurement измерение
microscopic микроскопический
molecular physics молекулярная физика
momentarily на мгновение, мгновенно
nuclear physics ядерная физика
objective цель, объективный
order порядок
probe (v) исследовать
quantum physics квантовая физика
remarkable замечательный
serviсe обслуживание
shape форма
single nucleus отдельное ядро
size размер
sophisticated сложный
spatial symmetry пространственная симметрия
stable устойчивый, стабильный
subject предмет, дисциплина
survey (v) наблюдать, изучать, делать обзор
technical optimization methods методы технической оптимизации
temporarily временно
the former первый из двух упомянутых
the latter второй из двух упомянутых
troubleshooting выявление неисправностей, поиск и устранение
неисправностей
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 6
although хотя, если бы даже; несмотря на то, что
applicable применимый, пригодный
approach (v) подходить, приближаться
arrow of time стрела времени
assert (v) утверждать, заявлять
asymmetry асимметрия
atomic атомный
charge заряд
collision столкновение
concept понятие, идея, общее представление, концепция
consequently следовательно, поэтому, в результате
conservation of energy сохранение энергии
constituent компонент, составная часть, составляющая
continental зд. европейский
convert (v) преобразовывать, превращать
corresponding соответствующий
deal with (v) (dealt, dealt) рассматривать, заниматься (напр. проблемой),
иметь дело с
diffusion диффузия, рассеивание
disorder беспорядок
energy энергия
energy distribution распределение энергии
entirely полностью
entropy энтропия
equilibrium равновесие
equipartition of energy распределение энергии
equivalently равнозначно, эквивалентно
essentially существенно, существенным образом
exchange (v) обменивать, меняться
extract (v) извлекать
failure неудача, неуспех, провал
forward and backward processes прямой и обратный процессы
from a statistical point of view с точки зрения статистики
heat теплота
hypothetical предположительный, допускаемый, гипотетиче-
ский
impossibility невозможность
in broad terms в широком смысле
in particular в частности, в особенности
in response to в ответ на
lay the foundations закладывать основу, положить начало
limitless безграничный, бесконечный
manufacture (v) производить, изготовлять
mass масса

meaningful значительный, значимый, важный, содержатель-
ный, серьезный
measurable измеримый
measure мера
originally первоначально
overwhelmingly очень, чрезвычайно, в подавляющем большинстве
случаев
perfect crystal идеальный кристалл
perpetual motion machine вечный двигатель
precise точный
process процесс
quantitative количественный
randomness беспорядок, хаотичность
scale шкала, масштаб
spontaneously самопроизвольно, спонтанно, стихийно
steam engine паровой двигатель
structure структура, устройство, расположение частей
surroundings окрестности, среда, окружение
sweeping generality максимальная неопределенность
system система
temperature температура
tend to (v) стремиться к
theorem теорема
theory теория
theory of probability теория вероятности
thereby таким образом
thermal conductivity теплопроводность
thermodynamics термодинамика
thermometer градусник, термометр
value ценность, величина, значение
violate (v) нарушать
viscosity вязкость, липкость, клейкость, тягучесть
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 7
alive живой
amplitude амплитуда
analysis (pl. analyses) анализ (анализы)
Avogadro’s number число Авогадро
bombardment бомбардировка
Brownian motion броуновское движение
cancel out (v) уравновешивать, компенсировать
cancellation взаимное уничтожение, компенсация
convenient удобный, подходящий
convenient fiction удобный вымысел
crucial test решающий тест
deduce (v) приходить к заключению, делать вывод
diehard консерватор
direction направление
distance расстояние, дистанция
dye краситель
eminent выдающийся, знаменитый, известный
even though даже если, хотя
exact точный, строгий
examination исследование
exhibit (v) проявлять, демонстрировать
force сила
formula (pl. formulae, formulas) формула (формулы)
frequency частота
kinetic кинетический
matter вещество, материал
merely только, просто
molecular nature of matter молекулярная природа вещества
molecule молекула
movement of molecules движение молекул
obviously явно, заметно, очевидно
oscillation колебание, качание
pendulum маятник
phase фаза, период, стадия
pollen grains крупинки пыльцы
qualitative качественный
random vibration хаотичная вибрация
resulting force результирующая сила

reveal (v) показывать, обнаруживать
scattering рассеивание
settle down (v) остановиться, успокоиться
suspend (v) взвешивать (о дисперсной фазе)
swinging качание, колебание, покачивание
timing of oscillations время, прошедшее с начала колебания
work out (v) разработать, определить путем вычисления
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 8
acquire (v) приобрести, получить
act (v) действовать, влиять
advance достижение, успех
align (v) располагать параллельно
(на одной прямой)
alloy (v) сплавлять, легировать
angular momentum момент импульса, угловой момент
artificial искусственный
assume (v) допускать, предполагать
attract (v) привлекать, притягивать
attribute to (v) приписывать, относить
available имеющийся в наличии
benefit (v) приносить пользу
captivate (v) пленять, увлекать
circumferential field периферическое (круговое) поле
civilian гражданский
conceive (v) выражать, понимать, представлять себе
connection связь
consumer goods потребительские товары
contribute to (v) способствовать, вносить вклад
cool (v) охлаждать
countless бесчисленный
crucial ключевой, решающий
curious mind любознательный, пытливый ум
current density плотность тока
current-carrying coil катушка, проводящая ток
deflect (v) отклонять(ся)
demagnetizing field размагничивающее поле
destroy (v) разрушать
discover (v) открывать, делать открытие
discovery открытие
distance расстояние
distribution распределение
dream (v) (dreamt, dreamt) мечтать
electric charge электрический заряд
electric motor электрический двигатель
ensue (v) получить в результате
equation уравнение
equipment оборудование
eventually в конце концов
excitation активизация, запуск, возбуждение

expansion расширение
familiar осведомленный, хорошо знакомый
ferrous железистый
filings опилки
float (v) держаться на поверхности
force field силовое поле
free space свободное пространство
high-frequency высокочастотный
horseshoe magnet подковообразный магнит
horseshoe-shaped core подковообразный сердечник
icon символ, образ
identify (v) определить
immense огромный
ingenious гениальный
inspire (v) вдохновлять
introduction введение, внедрение
invent (v) изобретать
invention изобретение
iron-cored со стальным сердечником
landmark веха
launch (v) начинать
lay the foundations заложить фундамент, основы
lead to (v) привести к
magic волшебство
magnetic force магнитная сила
magnetic recording магнитная запись
magnetic resonance method метод магнитного резонанса
magnetize (v) намагничивать
manipulate (v) управлять
manufacture (v) производить
medical imaging рентгенография
military военный
millennium (pl. millennia) тысячелетие (тысячелетия)
modern современный
obsolete устаревший
onwards далее
permanent magnet постоянный магнит
perpetual вечный
perpetuum mobile вечный двигатель
phase transition фазовый переход
piece кусочек
powerful мощный
previously ранее
priest священник

primary school начальная школа
produce (v) создавать
promising многообещающий
promote (v) продвигать, способствовать, поддерживать, по-
ощрять
prove (v) оказываться
rare-earth element редкоземельный элемент
red heat красное каление, красный накал
relate (v) связывать
remote control дистанционное управление
replace (v) замещать
represent (v) представлять
research исследование
resemblance сходство
scientific научный
search поиск
sequence of events ход событий
solid твердое тело, твердый
solution решение
source источник
spectroscopic techniques методы спектроскопии
steel needle стальная игла
surrounding space окружающее пространство
suspend (v) подвешивать
sustain (v) поддерживать, подкреплять
temporary временный
tiny крошечный
understanding понимание
unified theory единая теория
voyage of discovery путешествие-открытие
weak слабый
widespread широко распространенный
wind (v) (wound, wound) наматывать
winding обмотка
witness (v) быть свидетелем
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 9
accompany (v) сопровождать, следовать
aerial антенна
as a result of в результате (чего-то)
associate (v) соединять, связывать, ассоциировать
attract (v) притягивать
cancel (v) компенсировать
cast iron чугун
charge заряд
coefficient коэффициент
collision столкновение, соударение
concentrate (v) концентрироваться, сосредоточиваться
conduct (v) проводить
conductor проводник
consequently следовательно
constant постоянный, непрерывный
constantan константан (сплав)
continuous flow непрерывный поток
convention соглашение, условие, правило
conversely обратно, наоборот
copper медь
cross-section area площадь поперечного сечения
current текущий, данный, ток, сила тока (эл.)
denote (v) обозначать
designate (v) определять, обозначать
display (v) показывать, демонстрировать
distinct отличный (от других)
electric flux электрический поток
electric force электрическая сила, напряженность электриче-
ского поля
enable (v) давать возможность
excess избыток, излишек
flux поток
graphically графически, схематически
impede (v) мешать, препятствовать, задерживать
in terms of на основе
in the case of в случае с, в отношении чего-либо
inertialess charge безинерционный заряд
insulator изолятор, непроводник
interact (v) взаимодействовать
interplay (v) взаимодействовать
inversely обратно, в обратную сторону
like charges одноименные заряды
line of force силовая линия
magnetic (electromagnetic) field магнитное (электромагнитное) поле
magnitude величина, размер, значение
manganin манганин (резистивный сплав)

matter вещество
move along the conductor двигаться по проводнику
nichrome нихром
nickel никель
nickeline никелин (резистивный сплав)
nonuniform неоднородный
objective цель, стремление
ohm ом
opposition сопротивление, противодействие, противопостав-
ление
path путь, траектория
per unit charge на единицу заряда
photon фотон
poor conducting materials слабопроводящие материалы
possess (v) владеть, иметь, обладать
project (v) проектировать, бросать, отбрасывать (луч)
propagate (v) распространять(ся)
quantum (pl. quanta) квант (величины)
radiate (v) излучать (свет, тепло), излучаться
release (v) высвобождать
repel (v) отталкивать
resistance сопротивление
resistivity удельное сопротивление
scalar скалярный
set up (v) устанавливать, основывать, обеспечивать
silver серебро
space пространство
spherical body шаровидное, сферическое тело
stationary charged body неподвижное заряженное тело
stationary permanent magnet неподвижный постоянный магнит
strength of electric field напряженность электрического поля
surface charge density поверхностная плотность заряда
transverse поперечный
uniform однородный (о поле), равномерный
unlike charges разноименные заряды
vacuum вакуум, безвоздушное пространство
variable переменный, переменная (мат.)
variable magnetic (electric) field переменное магнитное (электрическое) поле
vector вектор
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 10
alloy сплав
although хотя, если бы даже, несмотря на то, что
anode анод
apprentice (v) отдавать в учение, учить ремеслу
aside from помимо, за исключением
blacksmith кузнец
bookbinding переплетение книг
career карьера
carry on (v) продолжать
cathode катод
charge заряд
chemical action химическое действие
chemical decomposition химическое разложение
chloride хлорид
circuit цепь, контур
clarify (v) пояснять, разъяснять
coil катушка
coil of wire катушка провода
conductor проводник
copper медь
current электрический ток
day by day день за днем
decompose (v) разлагать на составные части, разлагаться
deflection отклонение
diamagnetism диамагнетизм
diffusion рассеивание
distinction различение, разграничение
electric discharge электрический разряд
electrical age эра электричества
electricity электричество
electrochemistry электрохимия
electrode электрод
electrolysis электролиз
electromagnetic deflection магнитное отклонение (пучка)
electromotive force электродвижущая сила
employer наниматель
enthusiastic полный энтузиазма, увлеченный
errand boy курьер, посыльный
experiment опыт, эксперимент
Faraday cage клетка Фарадея
Faraday constant постоянная Фарадея
Faraday cup чаша Фарадея
Faraday effect эффект Фарадея
Faraday force сила Фарадея
Faraday wave волна Фарадея
Faraday wheel колесо Фарадея
Faraday’s law of induction закон индукции Фарадея
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis законы электролиза Фарадея
foot (pl. feet) фут (мера длины) = 30,48 см (футы)

frictional machine машина с трением
galvanometer гальванометр
generator генератор
in connection with в связи с
induce (v) индуцировать
induction индукция
initially в начале
insert (v) вставлять
ion ион
lay the foundation закладывать основу
magnetic field strength напряженность магнитного поля
magnetic needles магнитная стрелка
magnetic pole магнитный полюс
melt (v) таять
molten state расплавленное состояние
natural philosophy физика
optical glass оптическое стекло
paper научный доклад, статья, работа
parallel параллельный
particularly особенно
passage of current прохождение тока
phenomenon (pl. phenomena) феномен, явление (явления)
pole полюс
power station электростанция
pressure напряжение (электрическое)
prove доказывать
provide for (v) обеспечивать
pure science «чистая» наука
purely physical reasoning чисто физическое объяснение
reasoning рассуждение, объяснение, аргументация
reverse direction обратное направление
Royal Institute Королевский институт (Великобритания)
seek (v) (sought, sought) искать
shilling шиллинг
stationary неподвижный
stationary magnet неподвижный магнит
substance вещество
sulphate сульфат
to a limited extent в ограниченной степени (масштабе)
though хотя, несмотря на
turbine турбина
winding обмотка
winding of copper wire наматывание медной проволоки
wire проволока
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 11
aberration аберрация, отклонение
achievement достижение
advance успех, продвижение
appreciably ощутимо, заметно
arise (v) (arose, arisen) появляться, возникать
associate (v) связывать c, соединять(ся)
at the turn of (the century) на рубеже столетия
behave (v) вести себя
behaviour поведение
branch отрасль (науки)
by means of посредством
cardinal point кардинальная точка
carry (v) переносить
closely тесно
coherent когерентный
communication channel канал связи
comprehensive всесторонний, исчерпывающий
concept понятие
conception понимание, понятие
concern (v) касаться
consider (v) считать
content содержание
contribution вклад
corpuscular nature корпускулярная природа
couple with (v) соединяться, связываться c
deal with (v) (dealt, dealt) рассматривать, касаться, иметь дело с
decade десятилетие
derive (v) выводить
design конструирование, модель
detail (v) подробно описывать, детализировать
development развитие, разработка
device прибор
devise (v) создать
diffraction дифракция
directional направленный, направленного действия
discrete unit дискретная единица (часть, порция)
dispersion рассеивание
disturbance возмущение, помехи

dominate (v) преобладать
electric charge электрический заряд
electric circuit электрическая цепь
emergence появление
emit (v) испускать
establish (v) создавать, устанавливать
explain (v) объяснять
explanation объяснение
extend (v) расширять, распространять
findings полученные данные, выводы
focal length фокусное расстояние
foremost выдающийся
foundations основы
generation поколение
give rise to (gave, given) порождать
groundwork основа
hold sway (v) (held, held) оставаться в силе
image изображение
image-forming property свойство, формирующее изображение
imaging device прибор, формирующий изображение
in conjunction with вместе
interference интерференция
introduction введение
investigator исследователь
knowledge знание
largely в значительной степени
laser beam луч лазера
lead to (v) привести к
lens линза
light свет
long-distance communication осуществление связи на длинных дистанциях
application
loss потеря
major главный
make use of использовать
manipulation управление
matter of much concern очень важное дело
means средство
minute мельчайший
mirror зеркало

moving particle движущаяся частица
optical data processing обработка оптических данных
optical fiber оптоволокно
oscillation колебание
overshadow (v) затмевать
parallel (v) проходить параллельно
particle theory теория частиц
photoelectric effect фотоэлектрический эффект
physician врач
polarization поляризация
present (v) представлять
present-day современный
primarily главным образом
principal главный, основной
principle закон
production создание
propagation распространение
propose (v) предлагать
provide (v) предоставлять, обеспечивать
publish (v) опубликовать
quality качество
radiant energy энергия излучения
reflection отражение
refraction преломление
relate (v) соотносить, связывать
relation отношение, связь
relay (v) передавать
relay station ретрансляционная станция
revive (v) возрождать
similar похожий
size размер
spacial пространственный
subject предмет, тема, дисциплина
subsequent последующий
succeed (v) суметь
temporal временный
thought мысль, мышление
tie связь
tool инструмент
transfer (v) переносить, перемещать, передавать

transmit (v) передавать
treatise трактат, научный труд
undergo (v) подвергаться, испытывать
usher in (v) возвещать наступление
view взгляд
wave motion волновое движение
wave theory волновая теория
wave-particle duality корпускулярно-волновой дуализм
yield (v) давать плоды, давать результат
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 12
absorb (v) поглощать
absorption поглощение
alter (v) изменять, менять
angle угол
associate (v) связывать, ассоциироваться
assume (v) предполагать, допускать
bounce (off) (v) подпрыгивать, отскакивать
boundary граница
causal причинный
coating покрытие
constant постоянный, неизменный, постоянная (величина)
curved surface искривленная поверхность
demagnify (v) уменьшать
depth глубина
diamond алмаз
diffuse (v) рассеивать (свет)
electromagnetic wave электромагнитная волна
exhibit (v) обнаруживать, проявлять
fiber волокно
flat surface плоская поверхность
form (v) образовывать(ся)
fraction фракция, часть, доля
glass sheet лист стекла
grain boundary граница зерна (в поликристаллическом материа-
ле), поверхность (моно)кристалла
image образ, изображение
in fact фактически, на самом деле
in the most general case в самом общем случае
incident падающий
incident ray падающий луч
index (pl. indexes, indices) показатель (показатели)
index of refraction показатель преломления
interface поверхность раздела
irregularity неправильность, неровность
law of conservation of energy закон сохранения энергии
law of reflection закон отражения
lens линза
magnify (v) увеличивать

major важный, значительный
medium (pl. media) среда (среды)
metallic coating металлическое покрытие
mirror зеркало
momentum количество движения, импульс
multiple многократный
multiple reflection многократное отражение
normal нормальный, перпендикулярный
oblique наклонный
occur (v) происходить, иметь место
opaque непрозрачный, непроницаемый
opaque substance непрозрачное вещество
optical medium оптическая среда
optical power оптическая сила
organic material органический материал
originate (v) происходить; возникать
parabolic параболический
pass (v) проходить
point of incidence точка падения (напр., луча)
polycrystalline material поликристаллический материал
primary первичный, первоначальный
propagation распространение
reflect (v) отражать
reflected ray отраженный луч
reflection отражение
reflection of light отражение света
refractive index показатель преломления
refractive telescope (телескоп) – рефрактор, линзовый телескоп
regular reflection зеркальное (правильное) отражение
remainder остаток
retain (v) держать, удерживать
reverse (v) изменять (направление) на обратное
rotate (v) вращаться
rough шероховатый
seismic waves сейсмические волны
smooth гладкий, ровный
sound wave звуковая волна
specific gravity удельный вес
specular зеркальный
specular (mirror-like) reflection зеркальное отражение
spherical сферический, шарообразный
strike (v) (struck, struck) ударять(ся), падать (о луче)

surface поверхность
transmission (optical, передающая (оптическая, прозрачная) среда
transparent) medium
transmit (v) передавать, проводить, пропускать
transparent прозрачный
water wave волна воды
wave phase velocity фазовая скорость волн
wavefront волновой фронт
wavelength длина волны
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 13
absorb (v) поглощать
advertising реклама
afterglow послесвечение
alchemist алхимик
apply (v) применять
appropriate подходящий, соответствующий
arouse (v) вызывать
Balmain’s paint краска Бальмейна
banknote банкнота
barium sulfide сульфид бария
begin (v) начинать
bluish glow голубоватое свечение
burning wood горящая древесина
calcium sulfide сульфид кальция
capacity способность
chemical химический
coal уголь
cold light люминесценция, холодный свет
cool (v) охлаждать
cooling охлаждение
crystal кристалл
depend on (v) зависеть от
differ (v) отличаться
different multiplicity различная множественность (кратность, мульти-
плетность)
dim light тусклый свет
discrete дискретный
durability длительность
dye краситель
electron электрон
electron beam пучок электронов
electronic transition электронный переход
emission испускание, излучение
emit (v) испускать, излучать
energy энергия
energy state энергетическое состояние
evidently очевидно, несомненно
excitation возбуждение
excitation energy энергия возбуждения
excite (v) возбуждать
excited state возбужденное состояние
exhibit (v) обнаруживать, проявлять, выказывать
exposure воздействие
fluorescence флуоресценция
fluorescent флуоресцентный

fluorescent lamp флуоресцентная лампа
fungus (pl. fungi) гриб (грибы)
glow (v) светиться
glowworm жук-светляк
ground state основное состояние
heat теплота
heat (v) нагревать
identity card удостоверение личности
incandescent body светящееся тело (за счет теплового излучения)
inorganic неорганический
investigate (v) исследовать
invisible marker невидимый маркер
lapis solaris солнечный камень
learned men ученые, просвещенные люди
light bearer “носитель света”
light emission свечение, излучение света
lightning молния
like multiplicity одинаковая множественность
luminescence люминесценция
luminescence efficiency выход люминесценции
mankind человечество
microcrystalline микрокристаллический
mirror-like зеркально подобный
mix (v) смешивать
mixture смесь
molten iron расплавленное железо
multiple кратное, многократный, составной, сложный
(о линзах)
multiplicity множественность; кратность, большое количество
neon неон
orbit (v) двигаться по орбите
organic substance органическое вещество
outdoor advertising наружная (уличная) реклама
outermost наиболее удаленный
outermost electron внешний электрон
paint краска
phosphor люминофор, фосфор
phosphorescence фосфоресценция
phosphorus фосфор
pigment пигмент, краситель
powder порошок
practical application практическое применение
produce (v) производить, создавать
quantity количество
quantum state квантовое состояние
radar радар, радиолокатор

radiate (v) расходиться, излучать
relative относительный, сравнительный
relatively относительно, сравнительно
restore (v) восстанавливать, возвращать
rise of temperature повышение, рост температуры
room temperature комнатная температура
science наука
shortcoming недостаток
stable устойчивый
stamp марка
sulfate сульфат
sulfide сульфид
symbol символ, обозначение, знак
synthetic material синтетический материал
tissue (биол.) ткань
transform (v) превращать(ся)
transition переход, превращение (яд. физ.)
ultraviolet ультрафиолетовый
ultraviolet radiation ультрафиолетовое излучение
undergo (v) испытывать, подвергаться
unexcited невозбужденный
value значение, величина
visible видимый
visible light видимый свет
whereas тогда как, несмотря на то, что
wire проволока, провод
with respect to что касается
X-ray radiation рентгеновское излучение
zinc цинк
zinc sulfide сульфид цинка
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 14
adaptation адаптация, приспособление
adherent сторонник
air pump воздушный насос
antiquity древность
argue (v) доказывать, спорить
argue for (v) приводить доводы в пользу
argument довод, аргумент
at best в лучшем случае
be made up of состоять из
belief убеждение
believe (v) верить
brave (v) не испугаться (трудности)
carry (v) переносить
coincide (v) совпадать
come from (v) происходить
compose (v) составлять
concept понятие, идея, общее представление
condemn (v) осуждать, порицать
conduce (v) приводить к
create (v) создавать
crumble (v) разрушаться, терпеть крах
desintegration распад
detailed подробный
develop (v) развивать
disapproval неодобрение
disbeliever оппонент, противник
discuss (v) обсуждать
echo (v) вторить, подражать
elaborate (v) детально разрабатывать, конкретизировать, уточнять
follower сторонник
gift дар
grace милость
impenetrable непроницаемый
in this fashion подобным образом
indestructible неразрушимый
insist on (v) настаивать на
inspire (v) вдохновлять
introduce (v) знакомить
invisible невидимый
join (v) соединять(ся)
keep alive (v) (kept, kept) сохранять
lead (v) приводить к

lose (v) терять
maintain (v) сохранять
manifestation проявление
massy массивный, объемный
mean(v) (meant, meant) означать
misguided ошибочный, ложный
moveable particle подвижная частица
naked eye невооруженный глаз
oppose (v) быть против
opposition сопротивление, противодействие, неприятие
outlast (v) пережить
outside power внешняя сила
parrot (v) механически повторять
preserve (v) сохранять
principle закон, принцип
propose (v) предлагать
quote (v) цитировать
rediscover (v) открыть вновь
reform (v) изменять
regain attention снова привлечь внимание
regard (v) считать
regular solid твердое тело геометрически правильной формы
repudiation отречение (от чего-либо), отрицание
revival возрождение
save (v) беречь, спасать
scholar ученый
shape форма
shift (v) перемещать, изменять
size размер
sophisticated сложный, передовой
strength сила
suggest (v) предлагать, намекать
ultimately в конечном счете
Universe вселенная
writings (pl.) труды, произведения
My vocabulary
English Russian

 Unit 15
absorb (v) абсорбировать, поглощать
alter (v) изменять, менять
antiquity древность
atomic composition строение атома
atomic theory атомная теория
atomic weight атомный вес
atoms existence существование атомов
carbon dioxide углекислый газ
chemical compound химическое соединение
chemical reaction химическая реакция
complex structure сложная структура
composition состав, образование
compound соединение (химическое)
conceive (v) постигать, понимать
crudity незрелость
drawback препятствие, преграда
element элемент
elementary простой, элементарный
elementary particles элементарные частицы
empirical эмпирический, опытный
empirical fashion эмпирический способ (метод)
entity бытие, существование
evidence-based approach принцип доказательности, аргументированный подход
experimentation экспериментирование
findings полученные данные, выводы
fixed ratio постоянное отношение
hypothesize (v) строить гипотезу
indivisible elements неделимые элементы
matter вещество
meteorologist метеоролог
neutral charge нейтральный заряд
philosophical construct философская концепция
prior прежний, предшествующий
proportion пропорция
quantum theory квантовая теория
ratio отношение, пропорция, коэффициент
relativity theory теория относительности
scientific научный
series of experiments серия экспериментов
tiny очень маленький, крошечный
unique уникальный
weight вес
My vocabulary
English Russian

 A CENTURY OF NOBEL PRIZES
Home is where I work and I work everywhere.
Alfred Nobel
The Nobel prizes are awarded annually to those considered to have benefited mankind most
from their work in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and in the promotion of peace. This
year is the hundredth anniversary of the awarding of the first prizes, which gives us an opportunity
to look back and see how it all started.
Alfred Nobel
Alfred Nobel, who instituted the prizes, was a nineteenth-century Swedish inventor. When
Alfred was 9 years old, his family moved to Russia, where his father was employed to develop and
manufacture explosives. Some years later, Russia became engaged in the Crimean War against
Britain and France, and explosives were in high demand, but the end of the war led to a decline
in the family fortunes and Nobel returned to Sweden.
There, in 1865, he set up a factory to manufacture nitroglycerine, a recently discovered, very
powerful liquid explosive. It required extremely careful handling to prevent premature detonation,
but accidents inevitably happened. Not only did Alfred’s customers
occasionally blow themselves up, but his own factory eventually blew
up as well, killing his brother. The Swedish government refused to allow
the factory to be rebuilt and Nobel became regarded as a mad scientist
who manufactured destruction. This failed to put him off explosives and
he became determined to find a way of handling nitroglycerine safely.
However, the only way he was allowed to perform his experiments was on
a barge moored in the middle of a lake to minimise the danger to others.
One day in 1866, Nobel noticed that a cask of nitroglycerine had
leaked. The liquid had been completely absorbed by the packaging, which
consisted of a special kind of earth normally used as an industrial filter
(its technical name is kieselguhr). He experimented with this earth /
nitroglycerine mixture and discovered to his enormous satisfaction that it was perfectly safe to
handle, yet, when detonated, the explosive retained its full power. Nobel called this substance
‘dynamite’. He patented it and, to cut a long story short, it made a vast fortune for him.
Although Nobel made his fortune by supplying explosives to the world’s armies, he always
expressed the ideal hope that his products would be used only for peaceful purposes such as quarrying,
mining and the building of railways. He also hoped that the power of dynamite was such that it would
convince governments throughout the world that warfare was just too awful to contemplate.
The Nobel prizes
When Nobel died in 1896, he left about £2 million in his will for the establishment of the
annual prizes (equivalent to over £100 million in today’s money). The will was contested by
members of his family but eventually, after considerable legal argument, the first prizes were
awarded in 1901.
Since 1968 there has also been a Nobel prize in economics, funded by the Bank of Sweden.
Nobel’s money has been carefully invested and, each year, the interest is divided into equal parts to
be awarded to the prize winners. The current value of an individual prize is a bit less than £600,000,
but all the winners will tell you that the money is secondary to the honour of being chosen.
Prizes for physics
The first winner of the physics prize was Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen for his discovery of X-rays
in 1895. The discovery took the world by storm, and it was inevitable that Rontgen would be so
honoured.
232 Part III. Nobel Prize Winners in Physics

 NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN PHYSICS
1901
Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1901 was awarded to Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen “in recognition of
the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently
named after him”.
1902
Hendrik Antoon
Pieter Zeeman
Lorentz
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1902 was awarded jointly to Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter
Zeeman “in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the
influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena”.
1903
Antoine Henri Marie Curie,

Pierre Curie
Becquerel nee Sklodowska
Prize share: 1/4
Prize share: 1/2 Prize share: 1/4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903 was divided, one half awarded to Antoine Henri Becquerel “in
recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous
radioactivity», the other half jointly to Pierre Curie and Marie Curie, née Sklodowska «in
recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the
radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel”.
Part III. Nobel Prize Winners in Physics 233

1904
Lord Rayleigh
(John William
Strutt)
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1904 was awarded to Lord Rayleigh “for his investigations of
the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these
studies”.
1905
Philipp Eduard
Anton von
Lenard
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1905 was awarded to Philipp Lenard “for his work on cathode
rays”.
1906
Joseph John
Thomson
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1906 was awarded to J.J. Thomson “in recognition of the great
merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by
gases”.

1907
Albert Abraham
Michelson
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1907 was awarded to Albert A. Michelson “for his optical precision
instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid”.
1908
Gabriel
Lippmann
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1908 was awarded to Gabriel Lippmann “for his method of
reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference”.
1909
Guglielmo Karl Ferdinand

Marconi Braun
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909 was awarded jointly to Guglielmo Marconi and Karl
Ferdinand Braun “in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless
telegraphy”.

1910
Johannes
Diderik van
der Waals
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1910 was awarded to Johannes Diderik van der Waals “for his work
on the equation of state for gases and liquids”.
1911
Wilhelm Wien
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1911 was awarded to Wilhelm Wien “for his discoveries regarding
the laws governing the radiation of heat”.
1912
Nils Gustaf
Dalen
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1912 was awarded to Gustaf Dalén “for his invention of automatic
regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys”.

1913
Heike
Kamerlingh
Onnes
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1913 was awarded to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes “for his investigations
on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid
helium”.
1914
Max von Laue

Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1914 was awarded to Max von Laue “for his discovery of the
diffraction of X-rays by crystals”.
1915
Sir William William

Henry Bragg Lawrence Bragg
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1915 was awarded jointly to Sir William Henry Bragg and William
Lawrence Bragg “for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays”.

1916
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of
this prize section.
1917
Charles Glover
Barkla
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1917 was awarded to Charles Glover Barkla “for his discovery of
the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements”.
1918
Max Karl Ernst

Ludwig Planck
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 was awarded to Max Planck “in recognition of the services he
rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta”.
1919
Johannes Stark
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1919 was awarded to Johannes Stark “for his discovery of the
Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields”.

1920
Charles Edouard
Guillaume
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1920 was awarded to Charles Edouard Guillaume “in recognition
of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies
in nickel steel alloys”.
1921
Albert Einstein
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 was awarded to Albert Einstein ”for his services to Theoretical
Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”.
1922
Niels Henrik
David Bohr
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922 was awarded to Niels Bohr “for his services in the investigation
of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them”.

1923
Robert Andrews
Millikan
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1923 was awarded to Robert A. Millikan “for his work on the
elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect”.
1924
Karl Manne
Georg Siegbahn
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1924 was awarded to Manne Siegbahn “for his discoveries and
research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy”.
1925
Gustav Ludwig
James Franck
Hertz
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1925 was awarded jointly to James Franck and Gustav Ludwig
Hertz “for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom”.

1926
Jean Baptiste
Perrin
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1926 was awarded to Jean Baptiste Perrin “for his work on the
discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium”.
1927
Charles
Arthur Holly
Thomson Rees
Compton
Wilson
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1927 was divided equally between Arthur Holly Compton «for his
discovery of the effect named after him» and Charles Thomson Rees Wilson “for his method of
making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour”.
1928
Owen Willans
Richardson
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1928 was awarded to Owen Willans Richardson “for his work on
the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him”.

1929
Prince Louis-
Victor Pierre
Raymond de
Broglie
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1929 was awarded to Louis de Broglie “for his discovery of the wave
nature of electrons”.
1930
Sir
Chandrasekhara
Venkata Raman
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1930 was awarded to Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman “for his
work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him”.
1931
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of
this prize section.
1932
Werner Karl
Heisenberg
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 was awarded to Werner Heisenberg “for the creation of
quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic
forms of hydrogen”.

1933
Erwin Paul Adrien

Schrödinger Maurice Dirac
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933 was awarded jointly to Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien
Maurice Dirac “for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”.
1934
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main
Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
1935
James
Chadwick
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1935 was awarded to James Chadwick “for the discovery of the
neutron”.
1936
Victor Franz Carl David

Hess Anderson
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1936 was divided equally between Victor Franz Hess “for his
discovery of cosmic radiation» and Carl David Anderson «for his discovery of the positron”.

1937
Clinton Joseph George Paget

Davisson Thomson
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937 was awarded jointly to Clinton Joseph Davisson and George
Paget Thomson “for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals”.
1938
Enrico Fermi
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1938 was awarded to Enrico Fermi “for his demonstrations of the
existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery
of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons”.
1939
Ernest Orlando
Lawrence
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1939 was awarded to Ernest Lawrence “for the invention and
development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial
radioactive elements”.

1940
1941
1942
1943
Otto Stern
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1943 was awarded to Otto Stern «for his contribution to the
development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the
proton».
1944
Isidor Isaac Rabi

Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1944 was awarded to Isidor Isaac Rabi “for his resonance method
for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei”.

1945
Wolfgang Pauli
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1945 was awarded to Wolfgang Pauli “for the discovery of the
Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle”.
1946
Percy Williams
Bridgman
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1946 was awarded to Percy W. Bridgman “for the invention of an
apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the
field of high pressure physics”.
1947
Sir Edward
Victor Appleton
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1947 was awarded to Edward V. Appleton “for his investigations of
the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer”.

1948
Patrick Maynard
Stuart Blackett
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1948 was awarded to Patrick M.S. Blackett “for his development
of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics
and cosmic radiation”.
1949
Hideki Yukawa
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1949 was awarded to Hideki Yukawa “for his prediction of the
existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces”.
1950
Cecil Frank
Powell
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1950 was awarded to Cecil Powell “for his development of the
photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made
with this method”.

1951
Sir John Douglas Ernest Thomas

Cockcroft Sinton Walton
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1951 was awarded jointly to Sir John Douglas Cockcroft and
Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton “for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by
artificially accelerated atomic particles”.
1952
Edward Mills
Felix Bloch
Purcell
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1952 was awarded jointly to Felix Bloch and Edward Mills
Purcell “for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and
discoveries in connection therewith”.
1953
Frits Zernike
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1953 was awarded to Frits Zernike “for his demonstration of the
phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope”.

1954
Max Born Walther Bothe

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954 was divided equally between Max Born “for his fundamental
research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction” and
Walther Bothe “for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith”.
1955
Willis Eugene
Polykarp Kusch
Lamb
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1955 was divided equally between Willis Eugene Lamb “for his
discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum” and Polykarp Kusch “for his
precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron”.
1956
William Bradford Walter Houser

John Bardeen
Shockley Brattain
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956 was awarded jointly to William Bradford Shockley, John
Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain “for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery
of the transistor effect”.

1957
Tsung-Dao
Chen Ning Yang
(T.D.) Lee
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957 was awarded jointly to Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao
(T.D.) Lee “for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to
important discoveries regarding the elementary particles”.
1958
Pavel Il'ja Igor

Alekseyevich Mikhailovich Yevgenyevich
Cherenkov Frank Tamm
Prize share: 1/3 Prize share: 1/3 Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1958 was awarded jointly to Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Il´ja
Mikhailovich Frank and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm “for the discovery and the interpretation of
the Cherenkov effect”.
1959
Emilio Gino Owen

Segre Chamberlain
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959 was awarded jointly to Emilio Gino Segrè and Owen
Chamberlain “for their discovery of the antiproton”.

1960
Donald Arthur
Glaser
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1960 was awarded to Donald A. Glaser “for the invention of the
bubble chamber”.
1961
Robert Rudolf Ludwig

Hofstadter Mössbauer
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1961 was divided equally between Robert Hofstadter “for his
pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries
concerning the structure of the nucleons” and Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer “for his researches
concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of
the effect which bears his name”.
1962
Lev Davidovich
Landau
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1962 was awarded to Lev Landau “for his pioneering theories for
condensed matter, especially liquid helium”.

1963
Eugene Paul Maria Goeppert J. Hans D.

Wigner Mayer Jensen
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963 was divided, one half awarded to Eugene Paul Wigner “for his
contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through
the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles», the other half jointly to Maria
Goeppert Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen «for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure”.
1964
Nicolay Aleksandr
Charles Hard
Gennadiyevich Mikhailovich
Townes
Basov Prokhorov
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1964 was divided, one half awarded to Charles Hard Townes, the
other half jointly to Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov and Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov “for
fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators
and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle”.
1965
Sin-Itiro Julian Richard P.

Tomonaga Schwinger Feynman
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965 was awarded jointly to Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger
and Richard P. Feynman “for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-
ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles”.

1966
Alfred Kastler
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1966 was awarded to Alfred Kastler “for the discovery and
development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms”.
1967
Hans Albrecht
Bethe
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1967 was awarded to Hans Bethe “for his contributions to the theory
of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars”.
1968
Luis Walter
Alvarez
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1968 was awarded to Luis Alvarez “for his decisive contributions
to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states,
made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and
data analysis”.

1969
Murray
Gell-Mann
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1969 was awarded to Murray Gell-Mann “for his contributions and
discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions”.
1970
Hannes Olof Louis Eugène

Gösta Alfvén Félix Néel
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1970 was divided equally between Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén “for
fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydro-dynamics with fruitful applications in different
parts of plasma physics» and Louis Eugène Félix Néel «for fundamental work and discoveries
concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in
solid state physics”.
1971
Dennis Gabor
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1971 was awarded to Dennis Gabor “for his invention and
development of the holographic method”.

1972
Leon Neil John Robert

John Bardeen
Cooper Schrieffer
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1972 was awarded jointly to John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper and
John Robert Schrieffer “for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the
BCS-theory”.
1973
Brian David
Leo Esaki Ivar Giaever
Josephson
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1973 was divided, one half jointly to Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever
“for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and
superconductors, respectively” and the other half to Brian David Josephson “for his theoretical
predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those
phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects”.
1974
Sir Martin Ryle Antony Hewish

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1974 was awarded jointly to Sir Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish
“for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in
particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of
pulsars”.

1975
Ben Roy Leo James

Aage Niels Bohr
Mottelson Rainwater
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1975 was awarded jointly to Aage Niels Bohr, Ben Roy Mottelson
and Leo James Rainwater “for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and
particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic
nucleus based on this connection”.
1976
Samuel Chao
Burton Richter
Chung Ting
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1976 was awarded jointly to Burton Richter and Samuel Chao Chung
Ting “for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind”.
1977
Philip Warren Sir Nevill John Hasbrouck

Anderson Francis Mott van Vleck
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1977 was awarded jointly to Philip Warren Anderson, Sir Nevill
Francis Mott and John Hasbrouck van Vleck “for their fundamental theoretical investigations
of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems”.

1978
Pyotr Robert
Arno Allan
Leonidovich Woodrow
Penzias
Kapitsa Wilson
Prize share: 1/4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1978 was divided, one half awarded to Pyotr Leonidovich
Kapitsa “for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics”, the
other half jointly to Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson “for their discovery of
cosmic microwave background radiation”.
1979
Sheldon Lee Steven

Abdus Salam
Glashow Weinberg
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979 was awarded jointly to Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam
and Steven Weinberg “for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral
current”.
1980
James Watson Val Logsdon

Cronin Fitch
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1980 was awarded jointly to James Watson Cronin and Val Logsdon
Fitch “for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral
K-mesons”.

1981
Nicolaas Arthur Leonard

Kai M. Siegbahn
Bloembergen Schawlow
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1981 was divided, one half jointly to Nicolaas Bloembergen and
Arthur Leonard Schawlow “for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy” and
the other half to Kai M. Siegbahn “for his contribution to the development of high-resolution
electron spectroscopy”.
1982
Kenneth
G. Wilson
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1982 was awarded to Kenneth G. Wilson “for his theory for critical
phenomena in connection with phase transitions”.
1983
Subramanyan William Alfred

Chandrasekhar Fowler
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1983 was divided equally between Subramanyan Chandrasekhar “for
his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the
stars” and William Alfred Fowler “for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear
reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe”.

1984
Simon van der

Carlo Rubbia
Meer
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1984 was awarded jointly to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der
Meer “for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field
particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction”.
1985
Klaus von
Klitzing
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1985 was awarded to Klaus von Klitzing “for the discovery of the
quantized Hall effect”.
1986
Ernst Ruska Gerd Binnig Heinrich Rohrer

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986 was divided, one half awarded to Ernst Ruska “for his
fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope”, the other
half jointly to Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer “for their design of the scanning tunneling
microscope”.

1987
J. Georg K. Alexander
Bednorz Müller
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1987 was awarded jointly to J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alexander
Müller “for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic
materials”.
1988
Leon M. Melvin Jack

Lederman Schwartz Steinberger
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1988 was awarded jointly to Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz
and Jack Steinberger “for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure
of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino”.
1989
Norman F. Hans G.
Wolfgang Paul
Ramsey Dehmelt
Prize share: 1/4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1989 was divided, one half awarded to Norman F. Ramsey “for
the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and
other atomic clocks”, the other half jointly to Hans G. Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul “for the
development of the ion trap technique”.

1990
Jerome I. Henry W. Richard E.

Friedman Kendall Taylor
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1990 was awarded jointly to Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall
and Richard E. Taylor “for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering
of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the
development of the quark model in particle physics”.
1991
Pierre-Gilles de
Gennes
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1991 was awarded to Pierre-Gilles de Gennes “for discovering that
methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more
complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers”.
1992
Georges
Charpak
Prize share: 1/1
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1992 was awarded to Georges Charpak “for his invention and
development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber”.

1993
Joseph H. Taylor
Russell A. Hulse
Jr.
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1993 was awarded jointly to Russell A. Hulse and Joseph H. Taylor
Jr. “for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for
the study of gravitation”.
1994
Bertram N.
Clifford G. Shull
Brockhouse
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1994 was awarded “for pioneering contributions to the development
of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter” jointly with one half to Bertram
N. Brockhouse “for the development of neutron spectroscopy” and with one half to Clifford G.
Shull “for the development of the neutron diffraction technique”.
1995
Frederick
Martin L. Perl
Reines
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995 was awarded “for pioneering experimental contributions to
lepton physics” jointly with one half to Martin L. Perl «for the discovery of the tau lepton» and
with one half to Frederick Reines “for the detection of the neutrino”.

1996
Douglas D. Robert C.
David M. Lee
Osheroff Richardson
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1996 was awarded jointly to David M. Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff
and Robert C. Richardson “for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3”.
1997
Claude Cohen- William D.

Steven Chu
Tannoudji Phillips
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1997 was awarded jointly to Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
and William D. Phillips “for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light”.
1998
Robert B. Horst L.
Daniel C. Tsui
Laughlin Stormer
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998 was awarded jointly to Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer
and Daniel C. Tsui “for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged
excitations”.

1999
Gerardus't Martinus J.G.

Hooft Veltman
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1999 was awarded jointly to Gerardus ‘t Hooft and Martinus J.G.
Veltman “for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics”.
2000
Zhores I. Herbert
Jack S. Kilby
Alferov Kroemer
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 was awarded “for basic work on information and communication
technology“ with one half jointly to Zhores I. Alferov and Herbert Kroemer “for developing
semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics” and the other half to
Jack S. Kilby “for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit”.
2001
Wolfgang
Eric A. Cornell Carl E. Wieman
Ketterle
Prize share: 1/3
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2001 was awarded jointly to Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle
and Carl E. Wieman “for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali
atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates”.

2002
Raymond Masatoshi Riccardo

Davis Jr. Koshiba Giacconi
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2002 was divided, one half jointly to Raymond Davis Jr. and
Masatoshi Koshiba “for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection
of cosmic neutrinos” and the other half to Riccardo Giacconi “for pioneering contributions to
astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources”.
2003
Alexei A. Vitaly L. Anthony J.

Abrikosov Ginzburg Leggett
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003 was awarded jointly to Alexei A. Abrikosov, Vitaly L.
Ginzburg and Anthony J. Leggett “for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors
and superfluids”.
2004
David J. Gross H. David Politzer Frank Wilczek

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004 was awarded jointly to David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and
Frank Wilczek “for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction”.

2005
Theodor W.
Roy J. Glauber John L. Hall
Hänsch
Prize share: 1/4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005 was divided, one half awarded to Roy J. Glauber “for his
contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence”, the other half jointly to John L. Hall
and Theodor W. Hänsch “for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique”.
2006
George F.
John C. Mather
Smoot
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2006 was awarded jointly to John C. Mather and George
F. Smoot “for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave
background radiation”.
2007
Albert Fert Peter Grunberg

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2007 was awarded jointly to Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg “for
the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistanc”.

2008
Makoto Toshihide
Yoicniro Nambu
Kobayashi Maskawa
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2008 was divided, one half awarded to Yoichiro Nambu “for the
discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics”, the other
half jointly to Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa “for the discovery of the origin of
the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature”.
2009
Charles Kuen
Willard S. Boyle George E. Smith
Kao
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009 was divided, one half awarded to Charles Kuen Kao “for
groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical
communication”, the other half jointly to Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith “for the
invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit - the CCD sensor”.
2010
Konstantin
Andre Geim
Novoselov
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded jointly to Andre Geim and Konstantin
Novoselov “for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene”.

2011
Saul Perlmutter Brian P. Schmidt Adam G. Riess

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011 was divided, one half awarded to Saul Perlmutter, the other
half jointly to Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess “for the discovery of the accelerating
expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae”.
2012
David J.
Serge Haroche
Wineland
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2012 was awarded jointly to Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland
“for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual
quantum systems”.
2013
François Englert Peter W. Higgs

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2013 was awarded jointly to François Englert and Peter W. Higgs
“for the theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin
of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery of the
predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large Hadron
Collider”.

2014
Isamu Akasaki Hiroshi Amano Shuji Nakamura

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2014 was awarded jointly to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano and
Shuji Nakamura “for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has enabled bright
and energy-saving white light sources”.
2015
Arthur B.
Takaaki Kajita
McDonald
Prize share: 1/2
Prize share: 1/2
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2015 was awarded jointly to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald
“for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass”.
2016
David J. F. Duncan M. J. Michael

Thouless Haldane Kosterlitz
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2016 was awarded with one half to David J. Thouless, and the
other half to F. Duncan M. Haldane and J. Michael Kosterlitz “for theoretical discoveries of
topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter”.

2017
Rainer Weiss Barry C. Barish Kip S. Thorne

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017 was divided, one half awarded to Rainer Weiss, the other half
jointly to Barry C. Barish and Kip S. Thorne “for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector
and the observation of gravitational waves”.
2018
Donna
Arthur Ashkin Gerard Mourou
Strickland
Prize share: 1/4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018 was awarded “for groundbreaking inventions in the field of
laser physics” with one half to Arthur Ashkin “for the optical tweezers and their application to
biological systems”, the other half jointly to Gérard Mourou and Donna Strickland “for their
method of generating high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses”.
2019
James Peebles Michel Mayor Didier Queloz

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2019 was awarded “for contributions to our understanding of the
evolution of the universe and Earth’s place in the cosmos” with one half to James Peebles “for
theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology”, the other half jointly to Michel Mayor and Didier
Queloz “for the discovery of an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star”.
 1. Latin acronyms and abbreviations
ab init. лат. ab initio от начала, вначале, сначала
a.c. лат. anni currentis сего года
AD лат. Anno Domini в лето Господне (в год от Рождества Христо-
ва, в год н.э.)
ad fin. лат. ad finem до конца
ad int. лат. ad interim предварительно, на данное время
ad lib. лат. ad libitum пo желанию
a.f. лат. anni futuri будущего года
a.m. лат. ante meridiem до полудня
cca лат. circa приблизительно, около
cf., cfr. лат. conferatur сравни, следует сравнить
c.l. лат. citato loco в приведенном месте (об источнике цити-
рования)
CV лат. curriculum vitae жизнеописание (автобиография, анкета,
кадровое резюме)
e. g. лат. exempli gratia в качестве примера
et al. лат. et alii, alii множ. и другие (авторы, коллеги и т. п., употребля-
от лат. alius – другой ется в научных статьях)
etc. лат. et cetera и другое, и тому подобное, и так далее
ib, ibid. лат. ibidem то же место (термин, использующийся в на-
учной библиографии, обозначающий, что
ссылка на данный объект та же, что была
в предыдущем цитировании)
id лат. idem то же самое, так же, тот же
i. e. лат. id est то есть
N. B. лат. nota bene обрати внимание (cтавится на полях книги
для выделения важной информации)
p.a. лат. per annum в год, ежегодно
pct лат. per centum процент
P. S. лат. post scriptum после написанного, послесловие
p. m. лат. post meridiem после полудня
pro et con лат. pro et contra за и против
Q.E.D. лат. quod erat что и требовалось доказать
demonstrandum
q.v. лат. quod vide смотри (там-то)
resp. лат. respective соответственно, соответствует
sc или scil лат. scilicet а именно, то есть
terra incognita неизвестная область (напр., знаний)
v. v. лат. vice versa наоборот, обратно, противоположно
Viz. лат. videlicit а именно, то есть
VS или v. лат. versus против
272 Appendices
 2. Contracted word forms used in science literature
A
abs absolute [ æbs(ə)'luːt] абсолютный
'
abt about [q'baut] около, приблизительно
abv above [q'bAv] выше, более
a/d after date ['aːftq 'deIt] от сего числа
a.f. as follows [xz 'fɔləuz] как указано далее
ah ampere-hour ['xmpFq 'rauq] ампер-час
a.m. above mentioned [q'bAv 'menʃ(ə)nd] вышеуказанный,
вышеупомянутый
amp 1. amperage, [xm'pFqrIG] 1. сила тока в амперах
2. ampere ['xmpFq] 2. ампер
ampl 1. amplifier ['xmplIfaIq] 1. усилитель
2. amplitude ['xmplItjuːd] 2. амплитуда
amt amount [q'maunt] 1. количество
2. величина
amu atomic mass unit [q'tOmik 'mxs 'juːnIt] атомная единица массы
ao and others [qnd 'ADqz] и другие
approx approximate [q'prOksImIt] приблизительный, прибли-
женный
appx appendix [q'pendIks] приложение
at. atomic [q'tOmIk] атомный
atm atmosphere ['xtmqsfIq] атмосфера
at. no atomic number [q'tOmIk 'nAmbq] атомный номер, атомное чис-
ло, порядковый номер
awg average ['xvqrIG] среднее число, средний
a.w. atomic weight [q'tOmIk weIt] атомный вес
awp actual working pressure ['xktjuql 'wqːkIN действительное рабочее дав-
'preSq] ление
B
B 1. B 1. [biː] 1. символ для обозначения
магнитной индукции
2. breadth 2. [bredT] 2. ширина
3. brightness 3. ['braItnIs] 3. яркость
4. British 4. ['brItIS] 4. английский, британский
bal balance ['bxlqns] остаток
bar. barometer [bq'rOmItq] барометр
B.R. book of reference ['buk qv 'refrqns] справочник
B.S. 1. Bachelor of Science 1. ['bxtSqlq qv 'saIqns] 1. бакалавр наук
2. British Standard 2. ['brItIS 'stxndqd] 2. британский стандарт
BThU British Thermal Unit ['brItIS 'Tqːmql 'juːnIt] британская тепловая единица
(= 0,252 большой калории)
Appendices 273
С
С 1. C 1. [siː] 1. символ для обозначения
емкости
2. capacitance 2. [kq'pxsItqns] 2. 1) емкость, 2) емкостное
сопротивление
3. сell 3. [sel] 3. элемент
4. centigrade 4. ['sentIgreId] 4. температурная шкала Цель
сия, стоградусный, со сто-
градусной шкалой
5. coefficient 5. ['kouI'fISqnt] 5. коэффициент
6. company 6. ['kAmpqnI] 6. компания, общество
7. coulomb 7. ['kuːlOm] 7. кулон
Cal calorie ['kxlqrI] большая калория, кило-
грамм-калория
cal calorie ['kxlqrI] калория, грамм-калория
cap. 1. capacitance 1. [kq'pxsitqns] 1. емкость, емкостное сопро
тивление
2. capacity 2. [kq'pxsItI] 2. емкость, мощность, про-
пускная способность
3. capital 3. ['kxpItql] 3. столица
cb 1. circuit breaker 1. ['sqːkIt 'breIkq] 1. выключатель, прерыватель
2. control board 2. [kqn'troul 'bLd] 2. пульт управления
3. control button 3. [kqn'troul 'bAtn] 3. кнопка управления
cckw counterclockwise ['kauntq'klOkwaIz] против часовой стрелки
cct circuit ['sqːkIt] цепь, контур, схема
CEMF, counter-electromotive ['kauntq I'lektrq moutIv противоэлектродвижущая
cemf force 'fLs] сила
Сent. centigrade ['sentIgreId] температурная шкала Цель-
сия, стоградусный, со сто-
градусной шкалой
cf confer [kqn'fqː] сравни
cfm cubic foot (feet) per ['kjuːbIk fut (fiːt) pq кубических футов в минуту
minute 'mInIt]
cfs cubic foot (feet) per ['kjuːbIk fut (fiːt) pq кубических футов в секунду
second 'sekqnd]
cir 1. лат. circa = about, 1. [q'baut] 1. приблизительно, около
2. circuit 2. ['sqːkit] 2. цепь, контур
circm circumference [sq'kAmfqrqns] окружность, периметр
ckw clockwise ['klOkwaIz] по часовой стрелке
cl centre line ['sentq laIn] центральная ось
cm centimeter ['senti miːtq] сантиметр
'
cmps centimeters per second ['senti miːtqz pq сантиметров в секунду
'
'sekqnd]
col column ['kOlqm] столбец, колонка, графа
cp candle-power ['kxndl 'pauq] сила
cpm 1. counts per minute 1. ['kaunts pq 'mInIt] 1. отсчетов в минуту
2. cycles per minute 2. ['saIklz pq 'mInIt] 2. циклов в минуту
274 Appendices
cps 1. counts per second 1. ['kaunts pq 'sekqnd] 1. отсчетов в секунду
2. cycles per second 2. ['saIklz pq 'sekqnd] 2. циклов в секунду
crs cross-section ['krOs 'sekSn] поперечное сечение, пло-
щадь поперечного сечения
cu, cub cubic ['kjuːbIk] кубический
cu cm cubic centimetre ['kjuːbIk 'senti miːtq] кубический сантиметр
'
cu ft cubic foot ['kjuːbIk 'fut] кубический фут
cu in cubic inch ['kjuːbIk 'IntS] кубический дюйм
cu m cubic metre ['kjuːbIk 'miːtq] кубический метр
curr current ['kArqnt] 1) ток, 2) текущий
cyl cylinder ['sIlIndq] цилиндр
D
D 1. D 1. [diː] 1. символ, обозначающий
электрическое смещение
2. density 2. ['densItI] 2. плотность, удельный вес
3. depth 3. [depT] 3. глубина
4. derivative 4. [dI'rIvqtIv] 4. производная величина
5. diameter 5. [daI'xmItq] 5. диаметр
6. distance 6. ['dIstqns] 6. расстояние
dc direct current [dI'rekt 'kArqnt] постоянный ток
defl deflection [dI'flekSqn] отклонение
deg degree [dI'griː] 1) градус, 2) степень
dim dimension [dI'menSqn] размер
DL dead load ['ded 'loud] собственный вес
doz dozen [dAzn] дюжина
Dp 1. degree of polymeriza- 1. [dI'griː qv 1. степень полимеризации
tion pOlImqrI'zeISqn]
'
2. difference of poten- 2. ['dIfrqns qv 2. разность потенциалов
tials pq'tenSqlz]
dp double-pole ['dAbl 'poul] двухполюсный
dw dead weight ['ded 'weIt] собственный вес,
вес конструкции
E
eff(y) efficiency [I'fISqnsI] производительность, коэф
фициент полезного дейст
вия, к.п.д., экономичность
ehp 1. effective horsepower 1. [I'fektIv 'hLs pauq] 1. эффективная мощность
'
2. electric horsepower 2. [I'lektrIk 'hLs pauq] 2. электрическая лошадиная
'
сила (= 736 ватт)
eht extra-high tension ['ekstrq haI 'tenSqn] сверхвысокое напряжение
em electromagnetic [I'lektroumxg'netIk] электромагнитный
EMF, emf electromotive force [I'lektroumoutIv 'fLs] электродвижущая сила
Appendices 275
EMU, emu 1. electromagnetic unit 1. [I'lektroumxg'netIk 1. электромагнитная единица
'juːnIt]
2. electromotive unit 2. [I'lektroumoutIv 2. единица электродвижущей
'juːnIt] силы
esp. espec especially [I'spqSqlI] особенно
exp 1. expansion 1. [Iks'pxnSqn] 1. расширение, растяжение
2. experiment 2. [Iks'perImqnt] 2. опыт, эксперимент
3. exponent 3. [eks'pounqnt] 3. экспонент
ext external [eks'tqːnql] внешний
F
F 1. factor of safety 1. ['fxktqr qv 'seIftI] 1. коэффициент безопасно-
сти
2. Fahrenheit 2. ['fxrqnhaIt] 2. температура по Фаренгейту
3. farad 3. ['fxrqd] 3. фарада
4. force 4. [fLs] 4. сила
5. frequency 5. ['friːkwqnsI] 5. частота
fn function ['fANkSqn] функция
fol., foll following ['fOlouIN] следующий
fpse 1. feet per second 1. ['fiːt pq 'sekqnd] 1. футов в секунду
2. flashes per second 2. ['flxSIz pq 'sekqnd] 2. число вспышек в секунду
3. foot-pound-second 3. ['fut 'paund 'sekqnd] 3. фут-фунт-секунда (элек-
(electrostatic system of тростатическая система еди-
units) ниц)
fs foot second ['fut 'sekqnd] фут-секунда
G
G 1. G 1. [ʤiː] 1. символ, обозначающий
проводимость
2. gas 2. [gxs] 2. газ
3. gaug 3. [geIG] 3. мера, масштаб, размер, ка
либр
4. gauss 4. [gLs] 4. гаусс
5. Geiger counter 5. ['gaIgq 'kauntq] 5. счетчик Гейгера
6. generator 6. ['GenqreItq] 6. генератор
7. specific gravity 7. [spI'sIfIk 'grxvItI] 7. удельный вес, ускорение
силы тяжести
8. grid 8. [grid] 8. 1) сетка, 2) решетка
gb grid bias ['grId 'baIqs] сеточное смещение
g-cal gramme-calorie ['grxm 'kxlqrI] грамм-калория
g/cu m grammes per cubic ['grxmz pq 'kjuːbIk граммов на кубический метр
metre 'miːtq]
g/l grammes per litre ['grxmz pq 'liːtq] граммов на литр
gm gram(me) [grxm] грамм
g-mol gram(me)-molecule ['grxm 'mOlIkjuːl] грамм-молекула
gn generator ['GenqreItq] генератор
276 Appendices
gnd ground [graund] 1) земля
2) основание
3) заземление
gv gravity volume ['grxvItI 'vOljum] отношение объема газа к рав
ному объему воды
H
H 1. H 1. [eɪʧ] 1. символ, обозначающий на-
пряжение магнитного поля
2. hardness 2. ['haːdnIs] 2. твердость
3. henry 3. ['henrI] 3. генри
4. hydrogen 4. ['haIdrIGqn] 4. водород
h 1. heat 1. [hIt] 1. теплота
2. henry 2. [henrI] 2. генри
3. hour 3. ['aVq] 3. час
HF, hf, high frequency ['haI 'friːkwqnsI] высокая частота, радиоча-
h-f стота
HFC, hfc high frequency current ['haI 'friːkwqnsI ток высокой частоты
'kʌr(ə)nt]
hr hour ['aVq] час
h-r high resistance ['haI rIzIstqns] высокое сопротивление
HT, ht 1. high tension 1. ['haI 'tenSn] 1. высокое напряжение
2. high temperature 2. ['haI 'temprItSq] 2. высокотемпературный
HV, h v high voltage ['haI 'voultIG] высокое напряжение
I
I 1. I 1. [aI] 1. символ, обозначающий
силу тока
2. interpole 2. ['Intqpoul] 2. промежуточный (добавоч-
ный) полюс
i inch [IntS] дюйм
IHP. ihp, indicated horse power ['IndIkeItId 'hLs 'pauq] индикаторная лошадиная
ihp сила
in. inch [IntS] дюйм (= 2,54 см)
inc 1. inclusive 1. [Ink'luːsIv] 1. включительно
2. incorporated 2. [In'kLrpqreItId] 2. объединенный
3. increase 3. [In'kriːs] 3. увеличение
ind 1. index 1. ['Indeks] 1. индекс
2. industrial 2. [In'dAstrIql] 2. промышленный, индуст
3. industry 3. ['IndqstrI] риальный
3. промышленность
inf infinity [In'fInItI] бесконечность
ipm inches per minute ['IntSIz 'pq 'mInIt] дюймов в минуту
ips inches per second ['IntSIz 'pq 'sekqnd] дюймов в секунду
Appendices 277
J
J joule [Guːl] джоуль, обозначение мни-
мой величины
K
K 1. K 1. [keI] 1. символ, обозначающий ди
электрическую постоянную
2. Kelvin 2. ['kelvIn] 2. температурная шкала Кель
вина, шкала абсолютных тем
ператур
KC, kc kilocycle ['kIlou saIkl] килогерц,
'
тысяча периодов
kc/s kilocycles per second ['kIlou saIklz 'pq килогерц в секунду
'
'sekqnd]
KE, ke kinetic energy [kaI'netIk 'enqGI] кинетическая энергия
kg kilogram(me) ['kIlqgrxm] килограмм
kgpm kilogrammes per minute ['kIlqgrxmz 'pq 'mInIt] килограммов в минуту
kgps kilogrammes per second ['kIlqgrxmz 'pq килограммов в секунду
'sekqnd]
k(l)m kilometre ['kIlq miːtq] километр
'
kmps kilometres per second ['kIlq miːtqz 'pq километров в секунду
'
'sekqnd]
kms/hr kilometres per hour ['kIlq miːtqz 'pqr 'aVq] километров в час
'
kn knot [nOt] узел (единица скорости)
Kt kiloton ['kIlətʌn] килотонна
kv kilovolt ['kIlə vəult] киловольт
'
kva kilovolt ampere ['kilə vəult 'xmpFq] киловольт-ампер
'
kw kilowatt ['kIlqwOt] киловатт
kwd kilowatt-day ['kIlqwOt 'deI] киловатт-день
kwhr kilowatt-hour ['kIlqwOt 'aVq] киловатт-час
L
L 1. L 1. [el] 1. символ, обозначающий са
моиндукцию
2. league 2. [liːg] 2. лига (мера длины)
3. lengh 3. [leNT] 3. длина
lb лат. libra = pound [paund] фунт
lb cal pound-calorie ['paund 'kxlqrI] фунт-калория
lb ft pound-foot ['paund 'fut] фунт-фут
lb in. pound-inch ['paund IntS] фунт-дюйм
lb/cu ft pound per cubic foot ['paund 'pq 'kjuːbIk 'fut] фунт на кубический фут
lb/cu in. pound per cubic inch ['paund 'pq 'kjuːbIk IntS] фунт на кубический дюйм
lb/mol pound-molecule ['paund 'mOlIkjuːl] фунт-молекула
lb/sq ft pound per square foot ['paund pq 'skwFq 'fut] фунт на квадратный фут
lb/sq in. pound per square inch ['paund pq 'skwFq IntS] фунт на квадратный дюйм
278 Appendices
lb/yd pound per yard ['paund pq 'jaːd] фунт на ярд
LF, lf 1. load factor 1. ['loud 'fxktq] 1. коэффициент нагрузки
2. low frequency 2. ['lou 'friːkwqnsI] 2. низкая частота
LFC, lfc low frequency current ['lou'friːkwənsɪ 'kArqnt] ток низкой частоты
liq liquid ['lIkwId] жидкость
lmt length-mass-time ['leNT 'mxs 'taIm] длина-масса-время
lt low tension ['lou 'tenSn] низкое напряжение
M
M, m 1. M 1. [em] 1. символ, обозначающий
взаимоиндукцию
2. mas 2. [mxs] 2. масса
3. mega... 3. ['megq] 3. мега...
4. megohm 4. ['megəum] 4. мегом (= одному миллио
ну ом)
5. meridian 5. [mq'rIdIqn] 5. меридиан
6. metal 6. ['metl] 6. металл
7. metre 7. ['miːtq] 7. метр
8. micro... 8. ['maIkrou] 8. микро...
9. mile 9. [maIl], 9. миля
10. milli... 10. ['mIlI] 10. милли...
11. minute 11. ['mInIt] 11. минута
12. modulator 12. [ mOdju'leItq] 12. модулятор
'
13. module 13. ['mOdjuːl] 13. модуль
MA, ma 1. microampere 1. ['maIkrou xmpFq] 1. микроампер
'
2. milliampere 2. ['mIlI xmpFq] 2. миллиампер
'
mam milliampere minutes ['mIlI xmpFq 'mInIts] миллиампер минуты
'
max maximum ['mxksImqm] максимум
mc megacycle ['megq saIkl] мегацикл, мегагерц (= одно-
'
му миллиону герц)
mep mean effective pressure ['miːn I'fektIv 'preSq] среднее эффективное дав-
ление
mev megaelectronvolt ['megq I'lektrqn 'voult] мегаэлектронвольт
'
MF medium frequency ['mIdjqm 'friːkwənsɪ] средняя частота
mf microfarad ['maIkrou fxrqd] микрофарада
'
mg 1. mile-gallons 1. ['maIl gxlqnz] 1. миль-галлонов
2. milligram(me) 2. ['mIlI'grxm] 2. миллиграмм
mi 1. mile 1. [mail] 1. миля
min 1. minimum 1. ['mInImqm] 1. минимум
mm millimetre ['mIlI miːtq] миллиметр
'
MMF, magnetomotive force ['mxg'niːtə(ʊ) 'məʊtIv магнитодвижущая сила
mmf 'fLs]
Appendices 279
mmu millimass unit ['mIlImxs 'juːnIt] одна тысячная атомной еди-
ницы массы
MO master oscillator [ maːstq 'OsIleItq] задающий генератор
'
mod 1. modulus 1. ['mOdjulqs] 1. модул
2. modern 2. ['mOdqn] 2. современный
mol. 1. molecular 1. [mə 'lekjulq] 1. молекулярный
2. molecule 2. ['mɔlɪkjuːl] 2. молекула
m. p. 1. medium pressure 1. ['miːdɪəm 'preSq] 1. среднее давление
2. melting point 2. ['meltIN 'pOInt] 2. точка плавления
mph miles per hour ['maIlz 'pq raVq] миль в час
mpm 1. metres per minute 1. ['miːtqz pq 'mInIt] 1. метров в минуту
2. miles per minute 2. ['maIlz pq 'mInIt] 2. миль в минуту
mr milliroentgen ['mIlI'rOntjqn] миллирентген
ms millisecond ['mIlI'sekqnd] миллисекунда
mt megaton ['megqtAn] мегатонна, миллион тонн
MT 1. mean time 1. ['miːn 'taIm] 1. среднее поясное время
2. metric ton 2. ['metrɪk 'tAn] 2. метрическая тонна
M.T.L. mass, time, length ['mxs 'taIm 'leNT] масса, время, длина (систе-
ма единиц)
MTS metre-ton-second ['miːtq 'tAn 'sekqnd] метр-тонна-секунда (систе-
ма единиц)
MU measurement unit ['meZqmqnt 'juːnIt] 1. единица измерения
2. измерительное устройство
mu 1. mu 1. [mjuː] 1. коэффициент усиления
2. micro... 2. ['maɪkrəu] 2. микро...
3. micron 3. ['maIkrqn] 3. микрон
4. millimicron 4. ['mIlI'maIkrqn] 4. миллимикрон
mu a microampere ['maIkrq 'xmpFq] микроампер
mu f microfarad ['maIkrq 'fxrqd] микрофарада
mu mu micromicron ['maɪkrəu 'maIkrqn] микромикрон
mu v microvolt ['maIkrqvoult] микровольт
Mu w microwatt ['maIkrqwOt] микроватт
mv millivolt ['mIlIvoult] милливольт
Mw megawatt ['megqwOt] мегаватт
mW milliwatt ['mIlIwOt] милливатт
mw 1. megawatt 1. ['megqwOt] 1. мегаватт
2. milliwatt 2. ['mIlIwOt] 2. милливатт
mx maxwell ['mxkswql] максвелл
N
n 1. net 1. [net] 1. чистый вес
2. neutron 2. ['njuːtrqn] 2. нейтрон
3. number 3. ['nAmbq] 3. число, количество, номер
nat natural ['nxtSrql] натуральный, естественный
280 Appendices
NHP, nominal horsepower ['nOmInql 'hLs pauq] номинальная мощность
'
n.h.p, nhp
n.t.p., ntp normal temperature and ['nOːmql 'temprItSq 'qnd нормальная температура и
pressure 'preSq] давление
O
Oh ohm [əum] ом
opm operations per minute [ Opq'reISqnz pq 'mInIt] число операций в минуту
'
OZ ounce [auns] унция (= 28,3 г)
P
P 1. power 1. [pauq] 1. мощность
2. plate 2. [pleIt] 2. анод
3. pressure 3. ['preSq] 3. давление
pc, pct percent [pq 'sent] процент
pd potential difference [pq'tenSql 'dIfrqns] разность потенциалов
p.d. per day [pq'deI] на день, в день
p.f. power factor ['pauq 'fxktq] коэффициент мощности
p.h. per hour [pq'rauq] в час
p.m. per minute [pq'mInIt] в минуту
port portable ['pOːtqbl] портативный, переносный,
передвижной
pps 1. periods per second 1. ['pIqrIqdz pq 1. периодов в секунду
2. pulses per second 'sekqnd] 2. импульсов в секунду
2. ['pAlsIz pq 'sekqnd]
Pr proceedings [prq'siːdINz] труды, записки (научного об
щества)
p.s. per second [pq 'sekqnd] в секунду
PT potential transformer [pq'tenSql trxns'fLmq] трансформатор напряжения
PU power unit ['pauq 'juːnIt] единица мощности
puv per unit value [pq 'juːnIt 'vxljuː] значение в относительных
единицах
p.w. per week [pq 'wiːk] в неделю
Q
q quantity ['kwOntItI] количество
R
R 1. resistance 1. [rI'zIstqns] 1. сопротивление
2. ratio 2. ['reɪʃɪəu] 2. отношение, пропорция,
коэффициент, соотношение
3. Reaumur 3. ['reIqmjuq] 3. Реомюр, температурная
шкала Реомюра
Appendices 281
r. 1. radical 1. ['rxdIkql] 1. радикал
2. radius 2. ['reIdIqs] 2. радиус
3. resistance 3. [rI'zIstqns] 3. сопротивление
4. roentgen 4. ['rOntjqn] 4. рентген
ra radioactive [ reɪdɪəu'æktɪv] радиоактивный
'
rad 1. radial 1. ['reIdIql] 1. радиальный
2. radical 2. ['rxdIkql] 2. радикал
3. radius 3. ['reIdIqs] 3. радиус
rd rod [rOd] род (мера длины = 4,86 м)
ref. reference ['refrqns] 1. ссылка, сноска
2. справка
Regs regulations [ regju'leISqnz] инструкции, технические
'
нормы (условия)
res 1. research 1. [rI'sqːtS] 1. исследование
2. resistance 2. [rI'zIstqns] 2. сопротивление
3. restricted 3. [rI'strIktId] 3. ограниченного пользова-
ния
rev 1. reverse 1. [rI'vqːs] 1. обратный, противополож-
ный
2. revolution 2. [ revq'luːSqn] 2. оборот
'
RF, rf, r-f radio frequency ['reɪdɪəu 'friːkwənsɪ] высокая частота, радиоча-
стота
T
T, t 1. time 1. [taIm] 1. время, период, срок
2. temperature 2. ['temprItSq] 2. температура
TC, tc temperature coefficient ['temprItSq температурный коэффици-
kəuɪ'fɪʃ(ə)nt] ент
'
TDS time-distance-speed ['taIm 'dIstqns'spiːd] время-расстояние-скорость
TE 1. transverse electric 1. ['trxnzvqːs I'lektrIk] 1. поперечный электриче-
ский (о волне)
2. twin-engined 2. ['twIn-'enGInd] 2. с двумя двигателями
tf 1. time factor 1. ['taIm 'fxktq] 1. коэффициент времени
2. true fault 2. ['truː 'fLlt] 2. относительная ошибка
th 1. thermal 1. ['Tqːmql] 1. тепловой, термический
2. threshold 2. ['θreʃhəuld] 2. порог, граница, предел
tn ton [tAn] тонна
tol 1. tolerance 1. ['tOlqrqns] 1. допуск, допустимое от-
2. tolerable 2. ['tOlqrqbl] клонение от стандарта
2. допустимая
tpr temperature, pulse, ['temprItSq 'pAls re- температура, пульс, дыхание
'
respiration spq'reISqn]
TRF, trf tuned radio frequency ['tjuːnd 'reɪdɪəu резонансная высокая частота
'friːkwənsɪ]
TU 1. transmission unit 1. [trxnz'mISqn 'juːnIt] 1. единица передачи
2. thermal unit 2. ['Tqːmql 'juːnIt] 2. тепловая единица
3. toxic unit 3. ['tOksIk 'juːnIt] 3. токсическая единица
282 Appendices
U
UA ultra-audible ['Altrq'Ldqbl] сверхзвуковой
UHF, uhf ultrahigh frequency ['Altrq'haI 'friːkwənsɪ] ультравысокая частота
u.m. undermentioned ['Andq'menSqnd] нижеследующий, нижепри-
веденный
UPO, upo undistorted power ['AndI'stLtId 'pauq неискаженная выходная мощ
output 'autput] ность
UT universal time ['juːnI'vqːsql 'taIm] время по гринвичскому ме-
ридиану
UTS ultimate tensile strength ['AltImIt 'tensaIl 'streNT] предельная прочность на
разрыв или растяжение
V
V 1. V 1. [viː] 1. символ для обозначения
потенциала
2. vacuum tube 2. ['vxkjuqm 'tjuːb] 2. электронная лампа, элек-
тровакуумный прибор
3. volt 3. [vɔlt] 3. вольт
4. voltmeter 4. ['vOlt miːtq] 4. вольтметр
'
5. volume 5. ['vOljum] 5. 1) объем, 2) сила звука,
3) том, книга
val value ['vxljuː] 1. величина, 2. значение
var 1. variable 1. ['vFqrIqbl] 1. переменная величина, пе-
ременный, изменяющийся
2. variance 2. ['vFqrIqns] 2. изменение, расхождение,
несоответствие
3. variant 3. ['vFqrIqnt] 3. вариант, разновидность
4. variometer 4. ['vFqrI'OmItq] 4. вариометр
VC 1. variable capacitor 1. ['vFqrIqbl kq'pxsItq] 1. конденсатор переменной
емкости
2. volt-coulomb 2. [vɔlt 'kuːlqm] 2. вольт-кулон
VD, vd vapour density ['veIpq 'densItI] плотность пара
vec vector ['vektq] вектор, векторный
vel velocity [vI'lOsItI] 1) скорость, быстрота
2) вектор скорости
VF, vf 1. velocity factor 1. [vI'lOsItI 'fxktq] 1. коэффициент скорости
2. video frequency 2. ['vɪdɪəu 'friːkwənsɪ] 2. видеочастота
3. viscosity factor 3. [vIs'kOsItI 'fxktq] 3. коэффициент вязкости
viz. лат. videlicet = namely ['neImlI] а именно
VM, vm voltmeter ['vOlt miːtq] вольтметр
'
vm 1. velocity modulation 1. [vI'lOsItI mOdju'leISqn] 1. модуляция скорости
'
2. volatile matters 2. ['vOlqtaIl 'mxtqz] 2. летучие вещества
Appendices 283
vol volume ['vOljum] 1) объем
2) сила звука, громкость
3) том, книга
vs versus ['vqːsqs] против, в зависимости от
VT, vt 1. vacuum tube 1. ['vxkjuqm 'tjuːb] 1. электронная лампа, ва-
куумная лампа
2. visual turning 2. ['vIzjuql 'tqːnIN] 2. визуальная настройка
3. voltage transformer 3. ['vəultIG 3. трансформатор напряже-
trxns'fLmq] ния
VTR, vtr video tape recorder ['vɪdɪəu 'teIp rI'kLdq] устройство для записи изо-
бражений на магнитную
пленку
vu volume unit ['vOljum 'juːnIt] объемная единица
W
W 1. W 1. ['dʌb(ə)ljuː] 1. символ, обозначающий
электрическое сопротивление
2. total weight 2. ['təut(ə)l 'weIt] 2. общий вес
3. water 3. ['wOtq] 3. вода
4. watt 4. [wOt] 4. ватт
5. wattmeter 5. ['wOt miːtq] 5. ваттметр
'
wd warranted ['wOrqntId] гарантированный
WG, wg wire gauge ['waIq 'geIG] проволочный калибр
WH, whr watt-hour ['wOt 'auq] ватт-час
wm wattmeter ['wOt miːtq] ваттметр
'
wt hp weight horsepower ['weIt 'hLspauq] мощность на единицу веса
X
X 1. X 1. [eks] 1. символ, обозначающий
реактивное сопротивление
2. experimental 2. [eks perI'mentl] 2. экспериментальный, опыт-
'
ный
X-rays X-rays ['eks'reIz] рентгеновские лучи
Y
Y Y [waɪ] символ, обозначающий пол-
ную проводимость
yd yard [jaːd] ярд (= 91,44 см)
yr year [jqː] год
Z
Z Z [zed] символ, обозначающий пол-
ное сопротивление
z 1. zero 1. ['zɪərəu] 1. нуль
2. zone 2. [zəun] 2. зона
ZF, zf zero frequency ['zɪərəu 'friːkwənsɪ] нулевая частота
284 Appendices
 3. Words of Latin and Greek origin
Singular Translation Plural
analysis анализ analyses

axis ось axes
basis основа bases
calculus исчисление calculuses, calculi
crisis кризис crises
criterion критерий criteria
datum данная величина data
emphasis выделение, эмфаза emphases
equilibrium равновесие equilibria
focus фокус foci
formula формула formulae, formulas
fungus гриб fungi
hypothesis гипотеза, предположение hypotheses
index индекс, показатель indices, indexes
locus место, положение, траектория loci
matrix матрица matrices
maximum максимум maxima
medium среда media
millennium тысячелетие millennia
minimum минимум minima
modulus модуль moduli
momentum момент, количество движения momenta
nucleus ядро nuclei
phenomenon явление phenomena
quantum квант, величина quanta
radius радиус radii
spectrum спектр spectra
thesis тезис, положение theses
Appendices 285
 4. Mathematical symbols
+ plus [plʌs]
– minus ['maɪnəs]
± plus or ['plʌs ɔː 'maɪnəs]
minus
∓ minus or ['maɪnəs ɔː 'plʌs]
plus
~ difference ['dɪf(ə)rəns]
× multiplied by, ['mʌltɪplaɪd baɪ]
times [taɪmz]
÷ is divided by [(ɪz) dɪ'vaɪdɪd baɪ]
is to [ɪz tə]
equals, as ['iːkwəlz, æz]
= equals, (is) equal to ['iːkwəlz], [(ɪz) 'iːkwəl tə]
≠ (is) not equal to [(ɪz) 'nɔt'iːkwəl tə]
≈ is approximately equal to [(ɪz) ə'prɔksɪmətlɪ 'iːkwəl tə]
≡ is equivalent to / is identical with
> is greater than [(ɪz) 'greɪtә ðәn]
≯ is not greater than [(ɪz) nɔt 'greɪtә ðәn]
< is less than [(ɪz) 'les ðәn]
≮ is not less than [(ɪz) nɔt 'les ðәn]
≥ is equal to or greater than [(ɪz) 'iːkwәl tə ɔː 'greɪtә ðәn]
≤ is equal to or less than [(ɪz) 'iːkwәl tə ɔː 'les ðәn]
x4 x to the power four / to the fourth [eks]
power
πr2 pi r squared (square) (formula for [paɪ aː 'skweәd (skweә)]
area of circle)
10–11 ten to the minus eleventh (power) ['paʊə]
7
10 ten to the seventh (power)
a' a prime ['eɪ 'praɪm]
a'' a second prime or a double prime ['eɪ 'sekәnd 'praɪm], ['eɪ 'dʌbl 'praɪm]
a''' a third prime or a triple prime ['eɪ 'θɜːd 'praɪm], ['eɪ 'trɪpl 'praɪm]
b1 b sub one or b first ['biː 'sʌb 'wʌn], ['biː 'fɜːst]
b2 b sub two or b second ['biː 'sʌb 'tuː], ['biː 'sekәnd]
сm c sub m or с m-th ['siː 'sʌb 'em], ['siː 'emθ]
a1' a first prime ['eɪ 'fɜːst 'praɪm]
286 Appendices
a2' a second, second prime ['eɪ 'sekәnd, 'sekәnd 'praɪm]
am a sub m or a, m-th ['eɪ 'sʌb 'em], ['eɪ 'emθ]
bс' b prime, sub c or b sub c, prime ['biː 'praɪm 'sʌb 'siː], ['biː 'sʌb 'siː 'praɪm]
ż first derivative of z ['fɜːst dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'zed]
z¨ second derivative of z ['sekәnd dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'zed]
log logarithm ['lɔgərɪðm]
log10 common logarithm ['kɔmən 'lɔgərɪðm]
sin sine [saɪn]
cos cosine ['kəʊsaɪn]
tan, tg tangent ['tænʤənt]
ctn, cot cotangent [ kəʊ'tænʤənt]
'
sec secant ['siːkənt]
csc cosecant [ kəʊ'siːkənt]
'
vers versine, versed sine ['vɜːsaɪn], ['vɜːst saɪn]
covers coversine, coversed sine [ kəʊ 'vɜːsaɪn], [ kəʊ 'vɜːst saɪn]
' '
sin–1 antisine ['æntɪsaɪn]
–1
cos anticosine ['æntɪ'kəʊsaɪn]
sinh hyperbolic sine [ haɪpə'bɔlɪk 'saɪn]
'
cosh hyperbolic cosine [ haɪpə'bɔlɪk 'kəʊsaɪn]
'
tanh hyperbolic tangent [ haɪpə'bɔlɪk 'tænʤənt]
'
f(x) function of x ['fʌŋkʃ(ə)n əv 'eks]
∆x increment of x ['ɪŋkrɪm(ə)nt əv 'eks]
∑ summation [sə'meɪʃ(ə)n]
dx differential of x [ dɪfə'renʃəl əv 'eks]
'
dy/dx derivative of y with respect to x [dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'waɪ wɪð rɪ'spekt tə 'eks]
d2y/dx2 second derivative of y with respect to x ['sekәnd dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'waɪ wɪð rɪ'spekt tə 'eks]
dny/dxn n-th derivative of y with respect to x ['enθ dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'waɪ wɪð rɪ'spekt tə 'eks]
y/x derivative of y with respect to x [dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'waɪ wɪð rɪ'spekt tə 'eks]
ʃ integral of ['ɪntɪgr(ə)l əv]
ʃ f(x) dx integral of a function of x over dx ['ɪntɪgr(ə)l əv ə 'fʌŋkʃ(ə)n əv 'eks 'əʊvə
dɪ'rɪvətɪv əv 'eks]
n
ʃm integral between limits n and m
|x| absolute value of x ['æbsəluːt 'væljuː əv 'eks]
! factorial [fæk'tɔːrɪəl]
% per cent [pə'sent]
* asterisk ['æst(ə)rɪsk]
Appendices 287
square root (out) of ['skwεə 'ruːt (aʊt) əv]
3 cube root (out) of ['kjuːb 'ruːt (aʊt) əv]
n n-th root (out) of ['enθ 'ruːt (aʊt) əv]
|| parallel to ['pærəlel tə]
∠ angle ['æŋg(ə)l]
∟ right angle [ raɪt 'æŋg(ə)l]
'
⊥ perpendicular [ pɜːp(ə)n 'dɪkjulə]
'
[] brackets, square brackets ['brækɪts], [skwεə 'brækɪts]
() round brackets, parentheses ['raʊnd 'brækɪts], [pə'renθəsɪːz]
{} braces [breɪsɪz]
d d over dt ['əʊvə]
dt
dx dy over dx or the first derivative of y [dɪ'rɪvətɪv]
dy with respect to x
a+b a plus b over a minus b is equal to c
= plus d over c minus d
a−b
c+d
=
c−d
255,604 two hundred and fifty five thousand
six hundred and four
 5. Numerical Expressions
US GB and other European countries
1 000 000 000 = 109
a/one billion a/one thousand million(s)
[ə/wʌn bɪljən] [ə/wʌn 'θaʊznd 'mɪljən(z)]
1 000 000 000 000 = 1012
a/one trillion a/one billion
[ə/wʌn 'trɪljən] [ə/wʌn bɪljən]
1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015
a/one quadrillion a/one thousand million(s)
[ə/wʌn kwɒ'drɪljən] [ə/wʌn 'θaʊznd 'mɪljən(z)]
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018
a/one quintillion a/one trillion
[ə/wʌn kwɪn'tɪljən] [ə/wʌn 'trɪljən]
288 Appendices
 6. Vulgar and decimal fractions
1 one half, a half [hɑːf]
2
1 an/one eighth [ə/wʌn 'eɪtθ]
8
1 a/one quarter [ə/wʌn 'kwɔːtə]
4
1 a/one third [ə/wʌn θɜːd]
3
2 two sevenths [tuː 'sev(ə)nθs]
7
1 two and a half [tuː ənd ə hɑːf]
2
2
0.125 (nought) point one two five [( nɔː t) pɔɪnt 'wʌn tuː 'faɪv]
' '
0.25 (nought) point two five [( nɔːt) pɔɪnt tuː 'faɪv]
' '
0.33 (nought) point three three [( nɔːt) pɔɪnt θriː 'θriː]
' '
0.5 (nought) point five [( nɔːt) pɔɪnt 'faɪv]
'
0.75 (nought) point seven five [( nɔːt) pɔɪnt sevən 'faɪv]
' '
 7. Weights and Measures

Metric GB and US
Length
10 millimetres (mm) 1 centimetre (cm) 0.3937 inches (in)
100 centimetres 1 metre (m) 39.37 inches or
1.094 yards (yd)
1000 metres 1 kilometre (km) 0.62137 miles or about 5/8 mile
Surface
100 square metres (m2) 1 acre (a) 0.0247 acres
100 acres 1 hectare (ha) 2.471 acres
100 hectares 1 square kilometre (km2) 0.386 square miles
Weight
10 milligram(me)s (mg) 1 centigram(me) (cg) 0.1 543 grains
100 centigram(me)s 1 gram(me) (g) 15.4323 grains
1000 gram(me)s 1 kilogram(me) (kg) 2.2046 pounds
1000 kilogram(me)s 1 tonne 19.684 cwt
Capacity
1000 millilitres (ml) 1 litre (1) 1.75 pints or
2.101 US pints
10 litres 1 decalitre (dl) 2. 1997 gallons or
2.63 US gallons
Appendices 289
 8. Symbols used for designating physical quantities
Symbol Quality Symbol Quality
A area, mass number L self-inductance, latent heat, Avogadro
constant
a acceleration Lm molar latent heat
В magnetic flux density l length, specific latent heat
b breadth M mutual inductance, molar solution
C capacitance, heat capacity m mass, electromagnetic moment, mag-
nification
c specific heat capacity, velocity of N number of molecules, neutron, num-
e.m. waves in vacuum, critical angle ber, refractive index, number of moles
d relative density, thickness, distance NA Avogadro constant
apart
E energy, electric field strength, elec- P power
tromotive force. Ek kinetic energy, Ep
potential energy, E0 peak e.m.f.
e charge on electron (or proton), elec- p pressure, order of a spectrum, proton
tron
F Faraday constant, force Q electric charge
f frequency, focal length q quantity of heat
G free energy (∆G), conductance R resistance
g acceleration due to gravity RA anode slope resistance, molar gas con-
stant
H magnetic field strength, magnetizing r angle of refraction, gas constant (n R),
force, heat of reaction (∆H) radius
h height s distance along a path, slit separation
I intensity of radiation, electric current T period, thermodynamic (absolute)
temperature, torque, tension, turns
ratio
I0 peak current t time
i angle of incidence ts half-life
k constant (n) F permittivity
u initial velocity, velocity of molecules, η efficiency
object distance
V volume, electrical potential, poten- θ temperature (Celsius), temperature
tial difference difference, angle, Bragg angle
Vm molar volume λ wavelength, decay constant
V velocity, image distance, velocity of µ permeability, amplification factor
sound
W weight π ratio of circumference to diameter of
circle
w work ρ density, resistivity
X reactance Ф magnetic flux
Z atomic number ϕ angle
z charge of ion, electrochemical equiv- ω angle velocity
alent
α angle ∆ increment (finite)
290 Appendices
 9. Chemical elements
Al aluminium [æljuː'mɪnjəm] алюминий
(US aluminum) ([ə'ljuːmɪnəm])
Ar, A argon ['ɑːɡən] аргон
As arsenic ['ɑːsnɪk] мышьяк
B boron ['bɔːrɔn] бор
Ba barium ['bεərɪəm] барий
Be beryllium [bə'rɪlɪəm] бериллий
Bi bismuth ['bɪzməθ] висмут
Cd cadmium ['kædmɪəm] кадмий
Ca calcium ['kælsɪəm] кальций
Cl chlorine ['klɔːriːn] хлор
Co cobalt ['kəʊbɔːlt] кобальт
Cu copper ['kɔpə] медь
Es einstainium [ aɪn'staɪnɪəm] эйнштейний
'
Eu europium [jʊ(ə)r'əʊpɪəm] европий
F fluorine ['flʊəriːn] фтор
Fe ferrum = iron ['ferəm] ['aɪən] железо
Fm fermium ['fɜːmjəm] фермий
Fr francium ['frænsɪəm] франций
Ga gallium ['ɡælɪəm] галлий
Gd gadolinium [ ɡædə'lɪnɪəm] гадолиний
'
Ge germanium [dʒɜː'meɪnɪəm] германий
H hydrogen ['haɪdrədʒ(ə)n] водород
He helium ['hiːlɪəm] гелий
Hf hafnium ['hæfnɪəm] гафний
In indium ['ɪndɪəm] индий
Ir iridium [aɪ'rɪdɪəm] иридий
J, I iodine ['aɪədiːn] йод
K kalium = potassium ['kælɪəm] [pə'tæsɪəm] калий
Li lithium ['lɪθɪəm] литий
Mg magnesium [mæɡ'niːzɪəm] магний
Mn manganese ['mæŋgəniːz] марганец
Mo molybdenum [mə'lɪbdənəm] молибден
N nitrogen ['naɪtrədʒ(ə)n] азот
Na natrium = sodium ['neɪtrɪəm] ['sʊədɪəm] натрий
Nb niobium [naɪ'əʊbɪəm] ниобий
Appendices 291
Ne neon ['niːɔn] неон
Ni nickel ['nɪk(ə)l] никель
O oxygen ['ɔksɪdʒən] кислород
P phosphorus ['fɔsf(ə)rəs] фосфор
Pb plumbum = lead ['plʌmbəm] [led] свинец
Pt platinum ['plætɪnəm] платина
Pu plutonium [pluː'təʊnɪəm] плутоний
Ra radium ['reɪdɪəm] радий
Rh rhodium ['rəʊdɪəm] родий
S sulphur ['sʌlfə] сера
Sb stibium = antimony [stɪbɪəm] ['æntɪmənɪ] сурьма
Se selenium [sɪ'liːnɪəm] селен
Si silicon ['sɪlɪk(ə)n] кремний
Sn stannum = tin ['stænəm] [tin] олово
Sr strontium ['strɔntɪəm] стронций
Te tellurium [te'ljʊərɪəm] теллур
Th thorium ['θɔːrɪəm] торий
Ti titanium [taɪ'teɪnɪəm] титан
U uranium [ju'reɪnɪəm] уран
V vanadium [və'neɪdɪəm] ванадий
W wolfram(ium) = tungsten [wulfrəm] ['tʌŋstən] вольфрам
Xe xenon ['zenɔn] ксенон
Zn zinc(um) [zɪŋk] цинк
Zr zirconium [zɜː'kəʊnɪəm] цирконий
 10. Reading Chemical Formulas

CO2 + CaO → CaCО3
[‘siː ‘əu ‘tuː ‘ plʌs ‘siː ‘eɪ ‘ əu ‘gɪv ‘siː ‘ei ‘siː ‘əu ‘θriː]
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3
[‘en ‘tuː ‘plʌs ‘θriː ‘mɒlɪkjuːlz əv ‘eitʃ tuː ‘fɔːm ənd ɑː’fɔːmd frɒm ‘tuː ‘mɒlɪkjuːlz əv ‘en
‘eitʃ ‘θriː]
C2H4 + Cl2 = C3H4Cl2
[‘siː tuː ‘ eitʃ fɔː ‘ plʌs ‘siː ‘el ‘tuː ‘gɪv ‘siː ‘θriː ‘ eitʃ fɔː’ siː ‘el ‘tuː]
4HCl + O2 = 2Cl2 + 2H2O
[‘fɔː ‘mɒlɪkjuːlz əv ‘eitʃ ‘siː ‘el ‘ plʌs ‘əu tuː ‘gɪv tuː ‘mɒlɪkjuːlz əv ‘siː ‘el ‘tuː ənd ‘tuː
‘mɒlɪkjuːlz əv ‘eɪtʃ tuː ‘əu]
AcOH → AcO– + H+
[‘eɪ ‘siː ‘əu ‘eɪtʃ ‘fɔːmz ənd ɪz ‘fɔːmd frəm ‘eɪ ‘siː ‘ɔksɪʤən ‘aiən ‘plʌs ‘haɪdrəʤən ‘aiən]
292 Appendices
 11. Greek alphabet
Α, α alpha ['ælfə]
Β, β beta ['biːtə], ['beɪtə]
Γ, γ gamma ['gæmə]
Δ, δ delta ['deltə]
Ε, ε epsilon ['epsɪlɔn]
Ζ, ζ zeta ['ziːtə], ['zeɪtə]
Η, η eta ['iːtə], ['eɪtə]
Θ, θ theta ['θiːtə], ['θeɪtə]
Ι, ι iota [aɪ'əʊtə]
Κ, κ kappa ['kæpə]
Λ, λ lambda ['læmdə]
Μ, μ mu [mjuː]
Ν, ν nu [njuː]
Ξ, ξ xi [zaɪ], [ksaɪ], [ksiː]
Ο, ο omicron ['ɔmɪkrən], ['ə(ʊ)'maɪkrən]
Π, π pi [paɪ], [piː]
Ρ, ρ rho [rəʊ]
Σ, ς sigma ['sɪgmə]
Τ, τ tau [tɔː], [taʊ]
Υ, υ upsilon ['juːpsɪlən], [jup'saɪlən]
Φ, φ phi [faɪ], [fiː]
Χ, χ chi [haɪ]
Ψ, ψ psi [saɪ], [psaɪ], [psiː]
Ω, ω omega [ɔ'miːgə], [əʊ'megə], [ɔ'megə]
 12. Irregular verbs

Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle Translation
arise [ə'raɪz] arose [ə'rəʊz] arisen [ə'rɪz(ə)n] возникать, появляться
awake [ə'weɪk] awoke [ə'wəʊk] awoken [ə'wəʊkn] будить, просыпаться
be [biː] was [wɔz], been [biːn] быть
were [wзː]
bear [beə] bore [bɔː] born [bɔːn] нести
beat [biːt] beat [biːt] beaten [biːtn] бить
become [biː'kʌm] became [biː'keɪm] become [biː'kʌm] становиться
befall [bɪ'fɔːl] befell [bɪ'fel] befallen [bɪ'fɔːlən] приключаться
Appendices 293
beget [bɪ'get] begot [bɪ'gɔt] begotten [bɪ'gɔtn] вызывать
begin [bɪ'gɪn] began [bɪ'gæn] begun [bɪ'gʌn] начинать
behold [bɪ'həʊld] beheld [bɪ'held] beheld [bɪ'held] увидеть
bend [bend] bent [bent] bent [bent] гнуть
beseech [bɪ'siːʧ] besought [bɪ'sɔːt] besought [bɪ'sɔːt] просить, умолять
beset [bɪ'set] beset [bɪ'set] beset [bɪ'set] осаждать, окружать
bestride [bɪ'straɪd] bestrode [bɪ'strəʊd] bestridden [bɪ'strɪdn] садиться верхом
bet [bet] bet [bet] bet [bet] держать пари
bid [bɪd] bid/bade [bɪd/beɪd] bidden [bɪdn] велеть, просить
bid [bɪd] bid [bɪd] bid [bɪd] предлагать
bind [baɪnd] bound [baʊnd] bound [baʊnd] связывать
bite [baɪt] bit [bɪt] bitten [bɪtn] кусать
bleed [bliːd] bled [bled] bled [bled] кровоточить
bless [bles] blest [blest] blest [blest] благословлять
blow [bləʊ] blew [bluː] blown [bləʊn] дуть
break [breɪk] broke [brəʊk] broken ['brəʊk(ə)n] ломать
breed [briːd] bred [bred] bred [bred] разводить
bring [brɪŋ] brought [brɔːt] brought [brɔːt] приносить
broadcast broadcast broadcast ['brɔːdkɑːst] транслировать
['brɔːdkɑːst] ['brɔːdkɑːst]
browbeat ['braʊbiːt] browbeat ['braʊbiːt] browbeaten запугивать
['braʊbiːtn]
build [bɪld] built [bɪlt] built [bɪlt] строить
burn [bɜːn] burnt [bɜːnt] burnt [bɜːnt] жечь, гореть
burst [bзːst] burst [bзːst] burst [bзːst] разразиться, взрываться
bust [bʌst] busted/bust busted/bust разорить(ся)
[bʌstɪd/bʌst] [bʌstɪd/bʌst]
buy [baɪ] bought [bɔːt] bought [bɔːt] покупать
cast [kɑːst] cast [kɑːst] cast [kɑːst] бросать, кидать
catch [kætʃ] caught [kɔːt] caught [kɔːt] ловить, хватать
choose [tʃuːz] chose [tʃəʊz] chosen [tʃəʊzn] выбирать
cleave [kliːv] cleft [kleft] cleft [kleft] рассечь
cling [klɪŋ] clung [klʌŋ] clung [klʌŋ] цеплять(ся)
come [kʌm] came [keɪm] come [kʌm] приходить
cost [kɔst] cost [kɔst] cost [kɔst] стоить
creep [kriːp] crept [krept] crept [krept] ползать
cut [kʌt] cut [kʌt] cut [kʌt] резать
deal [diːl] dealt [delt] dealt [delt] торговать
dig [dɪg] dug [dʌg] dug [dʌg] копать
do [duː] did [dɪd] done [dʌn] делать
294 Appendices
draw [drɔː] drew [druː] drawn [drɔːn] рисовать, тащить
dream [driːm] dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed видеть сны, мечтать
[dremt/driːmd] [dremt/driːmd]
drink [drɪŋk] drank [dræŋk] drunk [drʌŋk] пить
drive [draɪv] drove [drəʊv] driven [drɪvn] водить
dwell [dwel] dwelt/dwelled dwelt/dwelled обитать
[dwelt/dweld] [dwelt/dweld]
eat [iːt] ate [et] eaten ['iːtn] есть
fall [fɔːl] fell [fel] fallen ['fɔːlən] падать
feed [fiːd] fed [fed] fed [fed] кормить
feel [fiːl] felt [felt] felt [felt] чувствовать
fight [faɪt] fought [fɔːt] fought [fɔːt] бороться
find [faɪnd] found [faʊnd] found [faʊnd] находить
fit [fɪt] fitted [fɪtɪd] fitted [fɪtɪd] подходить по размеру
flee [fliː] fled [fled] fled [fled] бежать, спасаться
fling [flɪŋ] flung [flʌŋ] flung [flʌŋ] швырять
fly [flaɪ] flew [fluː] flown [fləʊn] летать
forbear [fɔː'bɛə] forbore [fɔː'bɔː] forborne [fɔː'bɔːn] воздерживаться
forbid [fə'bɪd] forbade [fə'beɪd] forbidden [fə'bɪd(ə)n] запретить
forecast ['fɔːkɑːst] forecast ['fɔːkɑːst] forecast ['fɔːkɑːst] предсказывать
foresee [fɔː'siː] foresaw [fɔː'sɔː] foreseen [fɔː'siːn] предвидеть
foretell [fɔː'tel] foretold [fɔː'təʊld] foretold [fɔː'təʊld] предсказывать
forget [fə'get] forgot [fə'gɔt] forgotten [fə'gɔt(ə)n] забывать
forgive [fə'gɪv] forgave [fə'geɪv] forgiven [fə'gɪv(ə)n] прощать
forsake [fə'seɪk] forsook [fə'suːk] forsaken [fə'seɪk(ə)n] бросать, отказываться
forswear [fɔː'swɛə] forswore [fɔː'swɔː] forsworn [fɔː'swɔːn] отказываться, отре-
каться
freeze [friːz] froze [frəʊz] frozen [frəʊzn] замерзать
gainsay [ geɪn'seɪ] gainsaid [ geɪn'sed] gainsaid [ geɪn'sed] отрицать, возражать
' ' '
get [get] got [gɔt] got [gɔt] получать
gild [gɪld] gilt [gɪlt] gilt [gɪlt] позолотить
gird [gɜːd] girt [gɜːt] girt [gɜːt] опоясывать
give [gɪv] gave [geɪv] given [gɪvn] давать
go [gɔʊ] went [went] gone [gɔn] идти
grind [graɪnd] ground [graʊnd] ground [graʊnd] измельчать
grow [grəʊ] grew [gruː] grown [grəʊn] расти
hang [hæŋ] hung [hʌŋ] hung [hʌŋ] вешать
have [hæv] had [hæd] had [hæd] иметь
hear [hɪə] heard [hзːd] heard [hзːd] слышать
hew [hjuː] hewed [hjuːd] hewn [hjuːn] рубить, тесать
Appendices 295
hide [haɪd] hid [hɪd] hidden ['hɪd(ə)n] прятать
hit [hɪt] hit [hɪt] hit [hɪt] попадать в цель
hold [həʊld] held [held] held [held] держать
hurt [hзːt] hurt [hзːt] hurt [hзːt] ушибить
input ['ɪnput] input ['ɪnput] input ['ɪnput] вводить (в компьютер)
inset ['ɪnset] inset ['ɪnset] inset ['ɪnset] вставлять, вкладывать
interweave interwove interwoven переплетать, сплетать
[ ɪntə'wiːv] [ ɪntə'wəʊv] [ ɪntə'wəʊv(ə)n]
' ' '
keep [kiːp] kept [kept] kept [kept] содержать
kneel [niːl] knelt [nelt] knelt [nelt] стоять на коленях
knit [nɪt] knit [nɪt] knit [nɪt] вязать
know [nəʊ] knew [njuː] known [nəʊn] знать
lay [leɪ] laid [leɪd] laid [leɪd] класть
lead [liːd] led [led] led [led] вести
lean [liːn] leant [lent] leant [lent] наклоняться
leap [liːp] leapt [lept] leapt [lept] прыгать
learn [lзːn] learnt [lзːnt] learnt [lзːnt] учить
leave [liːv] left [left] left [left] оставлять
lend [lend] lent [lent] lent [lent] занимать
let [let] let [let] let [let] позволять
lie [laɪ] lay [leɪ] lain [leɪn] лежать
light [laɪt] lit [lɪt] lit [lɪt] освещать
lose [luːz] lost [lɔst] lost [lɔst] терять
make [meɪk] made [meɪd] made [meɪd] производить
mean [miːn] meant [ment] meant [ment] значить
meet [miːt] met [met] met [met] встречать
miscast [mɪs'kɑːst] miscast [mɪs'kɑːst] miscast [mɪs'kɑːst] дать роль неподходя-
щую
mishear [mɪs'hɪə] misheard [mɪs'hɜːd] misheard [mɪs'hɜːd] ослышаться
mishit [mɪs'hɪt] mishit [mɪs'hɪt] mishit [mɪs'hɪt] промахнуться
mislay [mɪs'leɪ] mislaid [mɪs'leɪd] mislaid [mɪs'leɪd] положить не на место
mislead [mɪs'liːd] misled [mɪs'led] misled [mɪs'led] вводить в заблуждение
misread [mɪs'riːd] misread [ mɪs'red] misread [ mɪs'red] прочитать неправильно
' '
misspell [mɪs'spel] misspelt [mɪs'spelt] misspelt [mɪs'spelt] писать с орфографиче-
скими ошибками
misspend misspent [mɪs'spent] misspent [mɪs'spent] неразумно, зря тратить
[mɪs'spend]
mistake [mɪ'steɪk] mistook [mɪ'stuk] mistaken [mɪ'steɪk(ə)n] ошибаться
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood неправильно понять
[ mɪsʌndə'stænd] [ mɪsʌndə'stud] [ mɪsʌndə'stud]
' ' '
296 Appendices
mow [məʊ] mowed [məʊd] mown [məʊn] косить
outbid [ aʊt'bɪd] outbid [ aʊt'bɪd] outbid [ aʊt'bɪd] перебивать цену
' ' '
outdo [ aʊt'duː] outdid [ aʊt'dɪd] outdone [ aʊt'dʌn] превзойти
' ' '
outgrow [ aʊt'grəʊ] outgrew [ aʊt'gruː] outgrown [ aʊt'grəʊn] перерастать, вырастать
' ' '
output ['aʊtput] output ['aʊtput] output ['aʊtput] выпускать, вводить
(данные)
outrun [ aʊt'rʌn] outran [ aʊt'ræn] outrun [ aʊt'rʌn] перегонять, опережать
' ' '
outsell [ aʊt'sel] outsold [ aʊt'səʊld]outsold [ aʊt'səʊld] продавать лучше
' ' '
outshine [ aʊt'ʃaɪn] outshone [ aʊt'ʃɔn] outshone [ aʊt'ʃɔn] затмить
' ' '
overbid [ əʊvə'bɪd] overbid [ əʊvə'bɪd] overbidden перебивать цену
' '
[ əʊvə'bɪd(ə)n]
'
overcome overcame overcome преодолевать, побороть
[ əʊvə'kʌm] [ əʊvə'keɪm] [ əʊvə'kʌm]
' ' '
overdo [ əʊvə'duː] overdid [ əʊvə'dɪd] overdone [ əʊvə'dʌn] перестараться
' ' '
overeat [ əʊv(ə)r'iːt] overate overeaten объедаться, переедать
'
[ əʊvər'eɪt] [ əʊv(ə)r'iːt(ə)n]
' '
overfly [ əʊvə'flaɪ] overflew [ əʊvə'fluː] overflown [ əʊvə'fləʊn] перелетать
' ' '
overhang overhung overhung нависать
[ əʊvə'hæŋ] [ əʊvə'hʌŋ] [ əʊvə'hʌŋ]
' ' '
overhear [ əʊvə'hɪə] overheard [ əʊvə'hɜːd] overheard [ əʊvə'hɜːd] подслушивать
' ' '
overlay [ əʊvə'leɪ] overlaid [ əʊvə'leɪd] overlaid [ əʊvə'leɪd] покрывать
' ' '
overpay [ əʊvə'peɪ] overpaid [ əʊvə'peɪd] overpaid [ əʊvə'peɪd] переплачивать
' ' '
override [ əʊvə'raɪd] overrode [ əʊvə'rəʊd] overridden отменять, перевеши-
' '
[ əʊvə'rɪd(ə)n] вать
'
overrun [ əʊvə'rʌn] overran [ əʊvə'ræn] overrun [ əʊvə'rʌn] переходить пределы,
' ' '
границы
oversee [ əʊvə'siː] oversaw [ əʊvə'sɔː] overseen [ əʊvə'siːn] наблюдать, надзирать
' ' '
overshoot [ əʊvə'ʃuːt] overshot [ əʊvə'ʃɔt] overshot [ əʊvə'ʃɔt] промахнуться
' ' '
oversleep overslept [ əʊvə'slept] overslept [ əʊvə'slept] проспать
' '
[ əʊvə'sliːp]
'
overtake [ əʊvə'teɪk] overtook [ əʊvə'tuk] overtaken обогнать, овладевать
' '
[ əʊvə'teɪk(ə)n]
'
overthrow overthrew overthrown перебрасывать, свер-
[ əʊvə'θrəʊ] [ əʊvə'θruː] [ əʊvə'θrəʊn] гать
' ' '
partake [pɑː'teɪk] partook [pɑː'tuk] partaken [pɑː'teɪk(ə)n] принимать участие
pay [peɪ] paid [peɪd] paid [peɪd] платить
plead [pliːd] pled [pled] pled [pled] заявлять
prepay [ priː'peɪ] prepaid [ priː'peɪd] prepaid [ priː'peɪd] платить вперед
' ' '
put [put] put [put] put [put] класть
quit [kwɪt] quit [kwɪt] quit [kwɪt] бросать
read [riːd] read [red] read [red] читать
Appendices 297
rebuild [ riː'bɪld] rebuilt [ riː'bɪlt] rebuilt [ riː'bɪlt] отстроить заново, ре-
' ' '
конструировать
recast [ riː'kɑːst] recast [ riː'kɑːst] recast [ riː'kɑːst] переделывать, изменять
' ' '
redo [ riː'duː] redid [ riː'dɪd] redone [ riː'dʌn] делать вновь, переде-
' ' '
лывать
remake [ riː'meɪk] remade [ riː'meɪd] remade [ riː'meɪd] переделать
' ' '
rend [rend] rent [rent] rent [rent] раздирать на куски
repay [rɪ'peɪ] repaid [rɪ'peɪd] repaid [rɪ'peɪd] выплатить
rerun [ riː'rʌn] reran [rɪ'ræn] rerun [ riː'rʌn] повторно показывать
' '
resell [ riː'sel] resold [ riː'səʊld] resold [ riː'səʊld] перепродавать
' ' '
reset [ riː'set] reset [ riː'set] reset [ riː'set] вновь устанавливать
' ' '
resit [ riː'sɪt] resat [ riː'sæt] resat [ riː'sæt] пересдавать
' ' '
retake [ riː'teɪk] retook [ riː'tuk] retaken [ riː'teɪk(ə)n] пересдавать экзамен
' ' '
retell [ riː'tel] retold [ riː'təʊld] retold [ riː'təʊld] пересказывать
' ' '
rewrite [ riː'raɪt] rewrote [ riː'rəʊt] rewritten [ riː'rɪt(ə)n] переписать
' ' '
rid [rɪd] rid [rɪd] rid [rɪd] избавлять
ride [raɪd] rode [rəʊd] ridden [rɪd(ə)n] ездить верхом
ring [rɪŋ] rang [ræŋ] rung [rʌŋ] звенеть
rise [raɪz] rose [rəʊz] risen ['rɪz(ə)n] подниматься
run [rʌŋ] ran [ræŋ] run [rʌŋ] бежать
saw [sɔː] sawed [sɔːd] sawn [sɔːn] пилить
say [seɪ] said [sed] said [sed] говорить
see [siː] saw [sɔː] seen [siːn] видеть
seek [siːk] sought [sɔːt] sought [sɔːt] искать
sell [sel] sold [səʊld] sold [səʊld] продавать
send [send] sent [sent] sent [sent] посылать
set [set] set [set] set [set] ставить
sew [səʊ] sewed [səʊd] sewn [səʊn] шить
shake [ʃeɪk] shook [ʃuk] shaken ['ʃeɪk(ə)n] встряхивать
shave [ʃeɪv] shaved [ʃeɪvd] shaved/shaven брить(ся)
[ʃeɪvd/'ʃeɪv(ə)n]
shear [ʃɪə] sheared [ʃɪəd] sheared/shorn стричь
[ʃɪəd/ʃɔːn]
shed [ʃed] shed [ʃed] shed [ʃed] проливать (слёзы)
shine [ʃaɪn] shone [ʃɔn] shone [ʃɔn] светить, сиять
shoe [ʃuː] shod [ʃɔd] shod [ʃɔd] обувать, подковывать
shoot [ʃuːt] shot [ʃɔt] shot [ʃɔt] стрелять
show [ʃəʊ] showed [ʃəʊd] shown [ʃəʊn] показывать
shrink [ʃrɪŋk] shrank [ʃræŋk] shrunk [ʃrʌŋk] уменьшать
shut [ʃʌt] shut [ʃʌt] shut [ʃʌt] закрывать
298 Appendices
sing [sɪŋ] sang [sæŋ] sung [sʌŋ] петь
sink [sɪŋk] sank [sæŋk] sunk [sʌŋk] тонуть
sit [sɪt] sat [sæt] sat [sæt] сидеть
slay [sleɪ] slew [sluː] slain [sleɪn] убивать
sleep [sliːp] slept [slept] slept [slept] спать
slide [slaɪd] slid [slɪd] slid [slɪd] скользить
sling [slɪŋ] slung [slʌŋ] slung [slʌŋ] метать
slink [slɪŋk] slunk [slʌŋk] slunk [slʌŋk] красться
slit [slɪt] slit [slɪt] slit [slɪt] рвать
smell [smel] smelt [smelt] smelt [smelt] пахнуть, нюхать
smite [smaɪt] smote [sməʊt] smitten ['smɪt(ə)n] ударять, бить
sow [səʊ] sowed [səʊd] sown [səʊn] сеять
speak [spiːk] spoke [spəʊk] spoken ['spəʊk(ə)n] говорить
speed [spiː d] sped [sped] sped [sped] ускорять
spell [spel] spelt [spelt] spelt [spelt] произносить по буквам
spend [spend] spent [spent] spent [spent] тратить
spill [spɪl] spilt [spɪlt] spilt [spɪlt] проливать
spin [spɪn] spun [spʌn] spun [spʌn] прясть
spit [spɪt] spit/spat spit/spat плевать
[spɪt/spæt] [spɪt/spæt]
split [splɪt] split [splɪt] split [splɪt] расщепить(ся)
spoil [spoɪl] spoiled/spoilt spoiled/spoilt портить
[spoɪld/spoɪlt] [spoɪld/spoɪlt]
spotlight ['spɔtlaɪt] spotlit ['spɔtlɪt] spotlit ['spɔtlɪt] осветить
spread [spred] spread [spred] spread [spred] расстилать
spring [sprɪŋ] sprang [spræŋ] sprung [sprʌŋ] прыгать
stand [stænd] stood [stuːd] stood [stuːd] стоять
steal [stiːl] stole [stəʊl] stolen ['stəʊl(ə)n] красть
stick [stɪk] stuck [stʌk] stuck [stʌk] колоть
sting [stɪŋ] stung [stʌŋ] stung [stʌŋ] жалить
stink [stɪŋk] stank [stæŋk] stunk [stʌŋk] вонять
strew [struː] strewed [struːd] strewn [struːn] усеять
stride [straɪd] strode [strəʊd] stridden ['strɪd(ə)n] шагать
strike [straɪk] struck [strʌk] struck/stricken ударить
[strʌk/'strɪk(ə)n]
string [strɪŋ] strung [srtʌŋ] strung [strʌŋ] нанизать, натянуть
strive [straɪv] strove/strived striven/strived стараться, стремиться
[strəʊv/straɪvd] [strɪv(ə)n/straɪvd]
sublet [sʌb'let] sublet [sʌb'let] sublet [sʌb'let] сдавать в субаренду
swear [swɛə] swore [swɔː] sworn [swɔːn] клясться
Appendices 299
sweat [swet] sweat/sweated sweat/sweated потеть
[swet/swetɪd] [swet/swetɪd]
sweep [swiːp] swept [swept] swept [swept] выметать
swell [swel] swelled [sweld] swollen ['swəʊl(ə)n] вздуться, раздуваться
swim [swɪm] swam [swem] swum [swʌm] плавать
swing [swɪŋ] swung [swʌŋ] swung [swʌŋ] качать
take [teɪk] took [tuk] taken ['teɪk(ə)n] брать, взять
teach [tiːtʃ] taught [tɔːt] taught [tɔːt] учить
tear [tɛə] tore [tɔː] torn [tɔːn] рвать
tell [tel] told [təʊld] told [təʊld] рассказывать
think [θɪŋk] thought [θɔːt] thought [θɔːt] думать
thrive [θraɪv] throve [θrəʊv] thriven ['θrɪv(ə)n] преуспевать, процве-
тать
throw [θrəʊ] threw [θruː] thrown [θrəʊn] бросать
thrust [θrʌst] thrust [θrʌst] thrust [θrʌst] толкать
tread [tred] trod [trɔd] trodden ['trɔd(ə)n] ступать
unbend [ʌn'bend] unbent [ʌn'bent] unbent [ʌn'bent] выпрямляться, разги-
баться
undercut [ ʌndə'kʌt] undercut [ ʌndə'kʌt] undercut [ ʌndə'kʌt] подрезать,
' ' '
сбивать цены
undergo underwent undergone испытывать, подвер-
[ ʌndə'gəʊ] [ ʌndə'went] [ ʌndə'gɔn] гаться
' ' '
underlie [ ʌndə'laɪ] underlay [ ʌndə'leɪ] underlain [ ʌndə'leɪn] лежать в основе
' ' '
underpay [ ʌndə'peɪ] underpaid underpaid [ ʌndə'peɪd] недоплачивать
' '
[ ʌndə'peɪd]
'
undersell [ ʌndə'sel] undersold undersold продавать дешевле
'
[ ʌndə'səʊld] [ ʌndə'səʊld]
' '
understand understood understood понимать
[ ʌndə'stænd] [ ʌndə'stud] [ ʌndə'stud]
' ' '
undertake undertook undertaken предпринимать, совер-
[ ʌndə'teɪk] [ ʌndə'tuk] [ ʌndə'teɪk(ə)n] шать
' ' '
underwrite underwrote underwritten подписывать, гаранти-
[ ʌnd(ə)r'aɪt] [ ʌnd(ə)'rəʊt] [ ʌnd(ə)r'ɪt(ə)n] ровать
' ' '
undo [ʌn'duː] undid [ʌn'dɪd] undone [ʌn'dʌn] расстегивать, развязы-
вать
unwind [ʌn'waɪnd] unwound [ʌn'waʊnd] unwound [ʌn'waʊnd] разматывать
uphold [ʌp'həʊld] upheld [ʌp'held] upheld [ʌp'held] поддерживать, одобрять
upset [ʌp'set] upset [ʌp'set] upset [ʌp'set] опрокидывать, расст
раивать
wake [weɪk] woke [wəʊk] woken ['wəʊk(ə)n] просыпаться
waylay [ weɪ'leɪ] waylaid [ weɪ'leɪd] waylaid [ weɪ'leɪd] подстерегать
' ' '
wear [wɛə] wore [wɔː] worn [wɔːn] носить
300 Appendices
weave [wiːv] wove [wəʊv] woven ['wəʊv(ə)n] ткать
wed [wed] wed [wed] wed [wed] вступать в брак
weep [wiːp] wept [wept] wept [wept] плакать
wet [wet] wet [wet] wet [wet] мочить
win [wɪn] won [wʌn] won [wʌn] выигрывать
wind [waɪnd] wound [waʊnd] wound [waʊnd] извиваться
withdraw [wɪðdrɔː] withdrew [wɪðdruː] withdrawn [wɪðdrɔː n] вынимать, отозвать
withhold wɪθ'həʊld] withheld [wɪθ'held] withheld [wɪθ'held] воздерживаться, удер-
живать
withstand withstood withstood выдержать, противо-
[wɪð'stænd] [wɪð'stud] [wɪð'stud] стоять
wring [rɪŋ] wrung [rʌŋ] wrung [rʌŋ] выкручивать
write [raɪt] wrote [rəʊt] written ['rɪt(ə)n] писать
LITERATURE
A Basic Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. Laurence Urdang. Vision Books. New

Delhi, 1983. – 400 p.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. A.S. Hornby. Oxford. Oxford
University Press. 1982. 509 p. Vol. 1.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. A.S. Hornby. Oxford. Oxford
University Press. 1982. 528 p. Vol. 2. 
Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com
https://en.wikipedia.org
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes
Physics Review, September 2001. Vol. 11, Num. 1. P. 27.
Video Links
https://www.youtube.com/
playlist?list=PLILR8RpewQlTM3v9-IawHOfQqDEx2re2n
Черенда Анжелика Эдуардовна
кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующий кафедрой ан-
глийского языка естественных факультетов факультета социокуль-
турных коммуникаций Белорусского государственного университета.
Автор 35 научных работ и 22 учебных пособий.
Пусенкова Галина Алексеевна

старший преподаватель кафедры английского языка естественных фа-
культетов факультета социокультурных коммуникаций Белорусского
государственного университета.
Автор более 50 научных работ и учебных пособий.
Сфера научных интересов – инновации, использование современных
педагогических технологий в процессе преподавания иностранных
языков.
Комкова Ольга Ивановна

старший преподаватель кафедры английского языка естественных фа-
культетов факультета социокультурных коммуникаций Белорусского
государственного университета.
Автор более 20 научных работ и учебных пособий.
Учебное издание
Черенда Анжелика Эдуардовна

Пусенкова Галина Алексеевна
Комкова Ольга Ивановна
English for Physicists
Английский язык для физиков
Учебное пособие
На английском и русском языках
Ответственный за выпуск Т. М. Турчиняк

Художник обложки Т. Ю. Таран
Технический редактор Л. В. Жаборовская
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English For Physicists

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Unit 1.

Под редакцией Г. А. Пусенковой

В учебном пособии содержатся оригинальные аутентичные тексты, задания и упраж-

ISBN 978-985-566-892-4 © БГУ, 2020

Part I. General Physics..............................................................................................5

Part II. Glossary......................................................................................................... 193

Part III. Nobel Prize Winners in Physics..................................................... 231

literature. ................................................................................................................ 302

Учебное пособие «English for Physicists» – часть учебно-методического комплек-

6 Part I. General Physics

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 7

8 Part I. General Physics

Notes to the text

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 9

2. Answer the following questions.

10 Part I. General Physics

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 11

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

4. Match the terms and their definitions.

12 Part I. General Physics

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe experiments illustrating Galileo’s discovery and Newton’s laws of motion.

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 13

14 Part I. General Physics

1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

Unit 1. WHAT IS PHYSICS 15

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

 Personal Achievement Checklist

18 Part I. General Physics

Notes to the text

20 Part I. General Physics

2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

22 Part I. General Physics

4. Match the terms and their definitions.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe how to find

24 Part I. General Physics

1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

26 Part I. General Physics

 Personal Achievement Checklist

Newton’s laws of motion

28 Part I. General Physics

Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 29

30 Part I. General Physics

Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 31

Notes to the text

32 Part I. General Physics

2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 33

2. Guess what the following words and word combinations mean.

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

34 Part I. General Physics

2. Answer the following questions.

Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 35

4. Formulate Newton’s laws of motion and give examples to illustrate them.

36 Part I. General Physics

Unit 3. Newton’s laws of motion 37

1. Complete the following sentences.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

38 Part I. General Physics

1. Complete the following sentences.

2. Answer the following questions.

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

4. Match the terms and their definitions.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe experiments illustrating Galileo’s discovery and Newton’s laws of motion.

1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

4. Match the terms and their definitions.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe how to find

1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

2. Guess what the following words and word combinations mean.

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Formulate Newton’s laws of motion and give examples to illustrate them.

1. Complete the following sentences.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

1. Complete the following sentences.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

1. Complete the following sentences adding information from the text.

2. Formulate the main idea of the text.

2. Guess the meaning of the following words.

3. Choose Russian-English equivalents in the list below.

2. Find answers to the following questions in the text.

2. Guess what the following words and word combinations mean.

4. Combine two parts of the sentences.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe the experiments

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

4. Match the terms and their definitions.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe the experiments

B. Do the tasks to the text “Mechanical energy”.

4. Complete the following sentences. Your answers must be related to the ideas

5. Formulate the main idea of the text.

6. Speak about mechanical energy. Make use of the prompts given in exercise 3

2. Describe the forms of energy mentioned in the text.

3. Choose English-Russian equivalents in the list below.

3. Use the text to answer the following questions.

2. Guess what the following words and word combinations mean.

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Describe the following

5. Formulate the main idea of the text.

2. Guess what the following words mean.

2. Use the text to answer the following questions.

2. Answer the following questions.

3. Find English-Russian equivalents.