Alexander The Great

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Alexander the Great

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This article is about the ancient king of Macedon. For other uses, see Alexander the Great
(disambiguation).
Alexander the Great
Basileus of Macedon
Alexander fighting the Persian king Darius III. From Alexander Mosaic, Naples
National Archaeological Museum
Reign 336–323 BC
Full name Alexander III of Macedon
Μέγαρ Ἀλέξανδπορiii[›] (Mégas

Aléxandros, Great Alexander)
Greek
Ἀλέξανδπορ ὁ Μέγαρ (Aléxandros ho
Mégas, Alexander the Great)
King of Macedon, Hegemon of the

Titles Hellenic League, Shahanshah of Persia,
Pharaoh of Egypt and Lord of Asia
Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC
Birthplace Pella, Macedon
Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)
Place of death Babylon
Predecessor Philip II of Macedon
Alexander IV of Macedon
Successor
Philip III of Macedon
Roxana of Bactria
Wives Stateira II of Persia
Parysatis II of Persia
Offspring Alexander IV of Macedon
Dynasty Argead dynasty
Father Philip II of Macedon
Mother Olympias of Epirus
Religious beliefs Greek polytheism
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as
Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγαρ Ἀλέξανδπορ, Mégas Aléxandros), was a king of
Macedon or Macedonia, a state in the north eastern region of Greece, and the creator of one
of the largest empires in ancient history. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of
the most successful commanders of all time.[1] Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander was
tutored by the famed philosopher Aristotle. In 336 BC he succeeded his father Philip II of
Macedon to the throne after he was assassinated. Philip had brought most of the city-states of
mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, using both military and diplomatic means.
Upon Philip's death, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He
succeeded in being awarded the generalship of Greece and, with his authority firmly
established, launched the military plans for expansion left by his father. In 334 BC he
invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor and began a series of campaigns lasting ten years.
Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of
Issus and Gaugamela. Subsequently he overthrew the Persian king Darius III and conquered
the entirety of the Persian Empire.i[›] The Macedonian Empire now stretched from the
Adriatic sea to the Indus river.
Following his desire to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded
India in 326 BC, but was eventually forced to turn back by the near-mutiny of his troops.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, without realizing a series of planned campaigns that
would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following Alexander's death a
series of civil wars tore his empire apart which resulted in the formation of a number of states
ruled by the Diadochi - Alexander's surviving generals. Although he is mostly remembered
for his vast conquests, Alexander's lasting legacy was not his reign, but the cultural diffusion
his conquests engendered.
Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic
culture, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire until the
mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles,
and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He
became the measure against which generals, even to this day, compare themselves and
military academies throughout the world still teach his tactical exploits.[1] ii[›]
Contents
[show]
Early life
Lineage and childhood
Alexander was born on 20 (or 21) July 356 BC,[2][3] in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of
Macedon. He was the son of Philip II, the King of Macedon. His mother was Philip's fourth
wife Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, the king of the northern Greek state of
Epirus.[4][5][6][7] Although Philip had either seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal
wife for a time.
As a member of the Argead dynasty, Alexander claimed patrilineal descent from Heracles
through Caranus of Macedon.iv[›] From his mother's side and the Aeacids, he claimed descent
from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles;v[›] Alexander was a second cousin of the celebrated
general Pyrrhus of Epirus, who was ranked by Hannibal as, depending on the source, either
the best[8] or second-best (after Alexander)[9] commander the world had ever seen.
According to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch, Olympias, on the eve of the consummation
of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt, causing a
flame that spread "far and wide" before dying away. Some time after the wedding, Philip was
said to have seen himself, in a dream, sealing up his wife's womb with a seal upon which was
engraved the image of a lion.[4] Plutarch offers a variety of interpretations of these dreams:
that Olympia was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that
Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided as to whether the ambitious
Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, some claiming she told
Alexander, others that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.[4]
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing himself for his siege on the city of
Potidea on the peninsula of Chalkidiki. On the same day, Philip received news that his
general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his
horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of
Artemis in Ephesus—one of the Seven Wonders of the World—burnt down, leading
Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it burnt down because Artemis was attending the birth of
Alexander.[2][6][10]
Alexander fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail). 3rd century BC mosaic,
Pella Museum.
In his early years, Alexander was raised by his nurse, Lanike, the sister of Alexander's future
friend and general Cleitus the Black. Later on in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the
strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus.[11][12]
When Alexander was ten years old, a horse trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse,
which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted by anyone, and
Philip ordered it to be taken away. Alexander, however, detected the horse's fear of his own
shadow and asked for a turn to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. According to
Plutarch, Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed him tearfully,
declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you", and bought the horse for him.[13] Alexander would name the horse
Bucephalus, meaning "ox-head". Bucephalus would be Alexander's companion throughout
his journeys as far as India. When Bucephalus died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, for
he was already thirty), Alexander named a city after him (Bucephala).[14][15][16]
Adolescence and education
Aristotle tutoring Alexander.
When Alexander was thirteen years old, Philip decided that Alexander needed a higher
education, and he began to search for a tutor. Many people were passed over including
Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter of whom was Plato's successor at the Academy and who
offered to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip offered the job to Aristotle, who
accepted, and Philip gave them the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as their classroom. In
return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira,
which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were
slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[17][18][19][20]
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such
as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of the pupils who learned by Alexander's side
would become his friends and future generals, and are often referred to as the 'Companions'.
At Mieza, Aristotle educated Alexander and his companions in medicine, philosophy, morals,
religion, logic, and art. From Aristotle's teaching, Alexander developed a passion for the
works of Homer, and in particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which
Alexander was to take on his campaigns.[21][22][23][24]
Philip's heir
Regency and ascent of Macedon
Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon
A bust depicting Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father
When Alexander became sixteen years old, his tutorship under Aristotle came to an end.
Philip, the king, departed to wage war against Byzantium, and Alexander was left in charge
as regent of the kingdom. During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against
Macedonian rule. Alexander responded quickly; he crushed the Maedi insurgence, driving
them from their territory, colonised it with Greeks, and founded a city named
Alexandropolis.[25][26][27][28]
After Philip's return from Byzantium, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue
certain revolts in southern Thrace. During another campaign against the Greek city of
Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave
Philip the opportunity to further intervene in the affairs of Greece. Still occupied in Thrace,
Philip ordered Alexander to begin mustering an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned
with the possibility of other Greek states intervening, Alexander made it look as if he was
preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians took the opportunity to
invade Macedonia, but Alexander repelled the invaders.[29]
Philip joined Alexander with his army in 338 BC, and they marched south through
Thermopylae, which they took after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went
on to occupy the city of Elatea, a few days march from both Athens and Thebes. Meanwhile,
the Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek an alliance with Thebes in the war against
Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to try to win Thebes's favour, with the
Athenians eventually succeeding.[30][31][32] Philip marched on Amphissa (theoretically acting
on the request of the Amphicytonic League), captured the mercenaries sent there by
Demosthenes, and accepted the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea and sent a final
offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, which was rejected.[33][34][35]
Statue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum.
As Philip marched south, he was blocked near Chaeronea, Boeotia by the forces of Athens
and Thebes. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right, and
Alexander the left wing, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to
the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for a long time. Philip deliberately
commanded the troops on his right wing to backstep, counting on the untested Athenian
hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. On the left, Alexander was the first to break into
the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having achieved a breach in the enemy's
cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed his enemy. With the
rout of the Athenians, the Thebans were left to fight alone; surrounded by the victorious
enemy, they were crushed.[36]
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the
Peloponnese welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused,
and they simply left.[37] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modeled on the
old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), with the exception of Sparta. Philip was
then named Hegemon (often translated as 'Supreme Commander') of this league (known by
modern historians as the League of Corinth). He then announced his plans for a war of
revenge against the Persian Empire, which he would command.[38][39]
Exile and return

"At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for
him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful
successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his
head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and
would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine
he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which Alexander reproachfully
insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia,
overturned in passing from one seat to another."
— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[25]
After returning to Pella, Philip fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of
one of his generals, Attalus. This marriage made Alexander's position as heir to the throne
less secure, since if Cleopatra Eurydice bore Philip a son, there would be a fully Macedonian
heir, while Alexander was only half Macedonian.[40] During the wedding banquet, a drunken
Attalus made a speech praying to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir to
the Macedonian throne. Alexander shouted to Attalus, "What am I then, a bastard?" and he
threw his goblet at him. Philip, who was also drunk, drew his sword and advanced towards
Alexander before collapsing, leading Alexander to say, "See there, the man who makes
preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to
another."[25]
Alexander fled from Macedon taking his mother with him, whom he dropped off with her
brother in Dodona, capital of Epirus. He carried on to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the
Illyrian King and was treated as a guest by the Illyrians, despite having defeated them in
battle a few years before. Alexander returned to Macedon after six months in exile due to the
efforts of a family friend, Demaratus the Corinthian, who mediated between the two
parties.[25][41][42]
The following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered the hand of his
eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of
Alexander's friends suggested to Alexander that this move showed that Philip intended to
make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell
Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to
Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the
daughter of a Carian. Philip had four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy
and Erigyius exiled, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[40][43][44]
King of Macedon
Accession
The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC
In 336 BC, whilst at Aegae, attending the wedding of his daughter by Olympias, Cleopatra, to
Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his
bodyguard, Pausanias.vi[›] As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed
by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus.
Alexander was proclaimed king by the Macedonian army and by the Macedonian noblemen
at the age of 20.[45][46][47]
Power consolidation
Alexander began his reign by eliminating any potential rivals to the throne. He had his
cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed, as well as having two Macedonian princes from
the region of Lyncestis killed, while a third, Alexander Lyncestes, was spared. Olympias had
Cleopatra Eurydice and her daughter by Philip, Europa, burned alive. When Alexander found
out about this, he was furious with his mother. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,
who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor. Attalus was at the
time in correspondence with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens.
Regardless of whether Attalus actually intended to defect, he had already severely insulted
Alexander, and having just had Attalus's daughter and grandchildren murdered, Alexander
probably felt Attalus was too dangerous to leave alive.[48] Alexander spared the life of
Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by
Olympias.[45][49][50][51]
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly,
and the Thracian tribes to the north of Macedon. When news of the revolts in Greece reached
Alexander, he responded quickly. Though his advisors advised him to use diplomacy,
Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 men and rode south towards Thessaly,
Macedon's neighbor to the south. When he found the Thessalian army occupying the pass
between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, he had the men ride over Mount Ossa. When the
Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear, and promptly
surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force, as he rode down towards the
Peloponnesus.[52][53][54][55]
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the

Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander
received the envoy and pardoned anyone involved with the uprising. At Corinth, where
occurred the famous encounter with Diogenes the Cynic, who asked him to stand a little aside
as he was blocking the sun,[56] Alexander was given the title Hegemon, and like Philip,
appointed commander of the forthcoming war against Persia. While at Corinth, he heard the
news of the Thracian rising to the north.[53][57]
Balkan campaign
Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders; and, in the
spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several apparent revolts. Starting from
Amphipolis, he first went east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount
Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian army manning the
heights.[58] The Macedonians marched on into the country of the Triballi, and proceeded to
defeat the Triballian army near the Lyginus river [59] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander
then advanced for three days on to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite
shore. Surprising the Getae by crossing the river at night, he forced the Getae army to retreat
after the first cavalry skirmish, leaving their town to the Macedonian army.[60][61] News then
reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in
open revolt against Macedonian authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated
each in turn, forcing Cleitus and Glaukias to flee with their armies, leaving Alexander's
northern frontier secure.[62][63]
While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once
more. Alexander reacted immediately, but, while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes
decided to resist with the utmost vigor. However, the resistance was ineffective, and the city
was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed, and its territory was divided between the other
Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission, leaving all of Greece at
least outwardly at peace with Alexander.[64]
Conquest of the Persian Empire

Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander
the Great into Asia
Asia Minor
Main articles: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and Siege of Miletus
Map of Alexander's empire and the paths he took
Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 42,000 soldiers from
Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from
Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[65] After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of
the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury
of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast.[66] At Halicarnassus, Alexander successfully
waged the first of many sieges, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain
Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea.[67]
Alexander left the government of Caria to Ada, who adopted Alexander as her son.[68]
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain,
asserting control over all coastal cities. He did this to deny the Persians naval bases. Since
Alexander had no reliable fleet of his own, defeating the Persian fleet required land
control.[69] From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved
inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city.[70] At the
ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander 'undid' the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot,
a feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[71] According to the story, Alexander
proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and hacked it apart with his
sword.[72]
The Levant and Syria
Main articles: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre
Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus, from the House of the Faun, Pompeii
After spending the winter campaigning in Asia Minor, Alexander's army crossed the Cilician
Gates in 333 BC, and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the
Battle of Issus in November.[73] Darius fled the battle, causing his army to break, and left
behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous amount of
treasure.[74] He afterward offered a peace treaty to Alexander, the concession of the lands he
had already conquered, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that
since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.[75]
Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant.[76]
However, the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he eventually
captured after a famous siege.[77][78] After the capture of Tyre, Alexander crucified all the men
of military age, and sold the women and children into slavery.[79]
Egypt
Main article: Siege of Gaza
Name of Alexander the Great in Hieroglyphs (written from right to left), circa 330 BCE,
Egypt. Louvre Museum.
See also: History of Ptolemaic Egypt
When Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated,
with the exception of Gaza. The stronghold at Gaza was built on a hill and was heavily
fortified.[80] At the beginning of the Siege of Gaza, Alexander utilized the engines he had
employed against Tyre. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was finally taken by
force, but not before Alexander received a serious shoulder wound. When Gaza was taken,
the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into
slavery.[81]
Jerusalem, on the other hand, opened its gates in surrender, and according to Josephus,
Alexander was shown the book of Daniel's prophecy, presumably chapter 8, where a mighty
Greek king would subdue and conquer the Persian Empire. Thereupon, Alexander spared
Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt.[82][83]
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator.[84] He
was pronounced the new "master of the Universe" and son of the deity of Amun at the Oracle
of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert.[85] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon
as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him adorned with ram horns as a symbol
of his divinity.[86][87] During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would
become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom after his death.[88]
Assyria and Babylonia
Main article: Battle of Gaugamela

Initial dispositions and opening movements in the Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC.
Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (now northern
Iraq) and defeated Darius once more at the Battle of Gaugamela.[89] Once again, Darius was
forced to leave the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Darius fled over the
mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), and Alexander marched to and captured
Babylon.[90]
Persia
Main article: Battle of the Persian Gate
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its
legendary treasury.[90] Sending the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of
Persepolis via the Royal Road, Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to
the city. However, the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) had been
blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes, and Alexander had to storm the pass.
Alexander then made a dash for Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[91] At
Persepolis, Alexander stared at the crumbled statue of Xerxes and decided to leave it on the
ground.[92][93] During Alexander's stay in the capital, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of
Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city. Theories abound as to whether this was the result of
a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens
during the Second Persian War.[93]
Fall of the Empire and the East
Alexander then set off in pursuit of Darius again, first into Media, and then Parthia.[94] The
Persian king was no longer in control of his destiny, having been taken prisoner by Bessus,
his Bactrian satrap and kinsman.[95] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally
stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before
retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[96] Darius'
remains were buried by Alexander next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full regal
funeral.[97] Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to
the Achaemenid throne.[98] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen
with the death of Darius.[99]
Silver coin of Alexander, British Museum
Alexander, now considering himself the legitimate successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a
usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against
Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia, with Alexander founding a series of new
cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria
Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media,
Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan),
Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.[100]
Bessus was betrayed in 329 BC by Spitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy
of Sogdiana. Spitamenes handed over Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted
companions, and Bessus was executed.[101] However, when, at some point later, Alexander
was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised
Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and
immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes and defeated him in the Battle of
Gabai; after the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[102]
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah) and adopted
some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis,
either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians paid to their
social superiors.[103][104] The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and
believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the
sympathies of many of his countrymen.[104] A plot against his life was revealed, and one of
his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to bring the plot to his attention. The death of
the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with
guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated by command of Alexander, so he might
not make attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally slew the man who
had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a drunken argument at
Maracanda.[105] Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was
revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of
Olynthus (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt
to introduce proskynesis), was accused of being implicated in the plot; however, there has
never been consensus among historians regarding his involvement in the conspiracy.[106]
Indian campaign
Main article: Alexander's Indian campaign
Invasion of the Indian subcontinent

Silver "Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in Babylon c.322 BCE, following his
campaigns in India.
Obv: Alexander being crowned by Nike.
Rev: Alexander attacking King Porus on his elephant. British Museum.
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement
his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, Alexander was finally free to turn his
attention to the Indian subcontinent. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy
of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to come to him and submit to his
authority. Omphis, ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes,
complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections
of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to
submit.[107]
In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the
Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat and Buner valleys.[108] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander
himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight.
Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to
Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.[107] The fort of Massaga could
only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was
wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the
entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles".[109] A similar
slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. In the aftermath of
Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed
close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort after the fourth day of a bloody
fight.[107]
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against a local
ruler Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab, in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC.[110]
Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle, and therefore made an
alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom, even adding land he did
not own before. Additional reasons were probably political since, to control lands so distant
from Greece required local assistance and co-operation.[111] Alexander named one of the two
new cities that he founded on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, Bucephala, in honor of the
horse that had brought him to India, and had died during the battle[112] and the other Nicaea
(Victory) at the site of modern day Mong.[113][114]
Revolt of the army
Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent
East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha
and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian
armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River,
refusing to march further east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's
conquests.[115][116]
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed
their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who
mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed
Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they
learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further
side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they
were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty
thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six
thousand war elephants.[115]
Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but
Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return, the men, he said, "longed to again
see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander, seeing the
unwillingness of his men, eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus.
Along the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern day Multan), and other Indian
tribes.[117]
Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general
Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral
Nearchus, while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia through the more difficult
southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran (now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).[118]
Last years in Persia

Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence,
Alexander executed a number of them as examples, on his way to Susa.[119][120] As a gesture
of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-
aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon under Craterus. But, his troops misunderstood
his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis, refusing to be sent away and bitterly
criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress, and the introduction of Persian officers
and soldiers into Macedonian units.[121] Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but
forgave the rank and file.[122] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his
Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian
and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond
a year.[120] Meanwhile, upon his return, Alexander learned some men had desecrated the tomb
of Cyrus the Great, and swiftly executed them, because they were put in charge of guarding
the tomb Alexander held in honor.[123]
After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest
friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of an illness, or possibly of poisoning.[124][125]
According to Plutarch, Alexander, distraught over the death of his longtime companion,
sacked a nearby town, and put all of its inhabitants to the sword, as a sacrifice to
Hephaestion's ghost.[126] Arrian finds great diversity and casts doubts on the accounts of
Alexander's displays of grief, although he says that they all agree that Hephaestion's death
devastated him, and that he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon,
as well as a decree for the observance of a public mourning.[124]
Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion
of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them.[127]
Death and succession

A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British
Museum, London)
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in
Babylon at the age of 32.[128] Details of the death differ slightly - Plutarch's account is that
roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained his admiral Nearchus, and spent the
night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.[129] He developed a fever, which grew
steadily worse, until he was unable to speak, and the common soldiers, anxious about his
health, demanded and were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at
them.[129][130][131] Two days later, Alexander was dead.[129][130] Diodorus recounts that
Alexander was struck down with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour
of Hercules, and died after some agony,[132] which is also mentioned as an alternative by
Arrian, but Plutarch specifically denies this claim.[129]
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[133] allegations of foul

play have been made about the death of Alexander. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all
mention the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Plutarch dismisses it as a fabrication,[49]
while both Diodorus and Arrian say that they only mention it for the sake of
completeness.[132][134] The accounts are nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater,
recently removed from the position of Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as
the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence in
waiting,[135] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[136] Antipater arranged for
Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.[49][134][136]
There is even a suggestion that Aristotle may have had a hand in the plot.[49][134] Conversely,
the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed
between the start of his illness and his death; in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons
were probably not available.[137] In 2010, however, a theory was proposed that indicated that
the circumstances of his death are compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx
(Mavroneri) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria
present in its waters.[138]
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested as the cause of Alexander's death;
malaria or typhoid fever are obvious candidates. A 1998 article in the New England Journal
of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and
ascending paralysis,[139] whereas another recent analysis has suggested pyrogenic spondylitis
or meningitis as the cause.[140] Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including
acute pancreatitis or the West Nile virus.[141][142] Natural-cause theories also tend to
emphasise that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy
drinking and his suffering severe wounds (including one in India that nearly claimed his life).
Furthermore, the anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may have contributed
to his declining health.[139]
Another possible cause of Alexander's death is an overdose of medication containing

hellebore, which is deadly in large doses.[143][144]
Fate after death
Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus
Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus, which was in turn placed in a
second gold casket.[145] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land
where Alexander was laid to rest "would be happy and unvanquishable forever".[146] Perhaps
more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy
(it was a royal prerogative to bury the previous king).[147] At any rate, Ptolemy stole the
funeral cortege, and took it to Memphis.[145][146] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus,
transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least Late Antiquity.
Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's
sarcophagus with a glass one so he could melt the original down for issues of his coinage.[148]
Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, the latter allegedly
accidentally knocking the nose off the body. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's
breastplate from the tomb for his own use. In c. AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed
Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, was a great admirer of
Alexander, and visited the tomb in his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb
are sketchy.[148]
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul
Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's
remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions hunting and in
battle with the Persians. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of
Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately
following the battle of Issus in 331.[149][150][151] However, more recently, it has been suggested
that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death.[152]
Division of the empire
Main article: Diadochi

Bust of Seleucus I Nicator, who succeeded to Alexander's eastern conquests
Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born
after Alexander's death. This left the huge question as to who would rule the newly
conquered, and barely pacified empire.[153] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions
asked him when he was on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic
reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".[132] Given that Arrian and Plutarch have
Alexander speechless by this point, it is possible that this is an apocryphal story.[154]
Diodorus, Curtius and Justin also have the more plausible story of Alexander passing his
signet ring to Perdiccas, one of his bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front
of witnesses, thereby possibly nominating Perdiccas as his successor.[132][153]
In any event, Perdiccas initially avoided explicitly claiming power, instead suggesting that
Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus and Antipater as
guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement
since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-
brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of
Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings of the Empire—albeit in name
only.[155]
It was not long, however, before dissension and rivalry began to afflict the Macedonians. The
satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each
general could use to launch his own bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in
321 BC, all semblance of Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between "The
Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power
blocks: the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of
Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III
were murdered.[156]
Testament
Diodorus relates that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time
before his death.[157] Although Craterus had already started to carry out some of Alexander's
commands, the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were
impractical and extravagant.[157] The testament called for military expansion into the southern
and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and
Western populations. Its most remarkable items were:
 Construction of a monumental pyre to Hephaestion, costing 10,000 talents

 Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the
pyramids of Egypt"
 Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, Cyrnus, and
Ilium
 Building of "a thousand warships, larger than triremes, in Phoenicia, Syria, Cilicia,
and Cyprus for the campaign against the Carthaginians and the others who live along
the coast of Libya and Iberia and the adjoining coastal regions as far as Sicily"
 Building of a road in northern Africa as far as the Pillars of Heracles, with ports and
shipyards along it
 Establishment of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in
the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to
common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties."[158]
Character
Physical appearance
Roman copy of a statue by Lysippus, Louvre Museum. Plutarch felt sculptures by Lysippus
were the most faithful.
Green provides a description of Alexander's appearance, based on ancient sources:
Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian standards he was very
short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute
Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he
appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one brown) revealed a dewy,
feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice.[159]
Many descriptions and statues portray Alexander with the aforementioned gaze looking
upward and outward. Both his father Philip II and his brother Philip Arrhidaeus also suffered
from physical deformities, which had led to the suggestion that Alexander suffered from a
congenital scoliotic disorder (familial neck and spinal deformity). Furthermore, it has been
suggested that this may have contributed to his death.[140]
During his last years, sculptor Lysippus sculpted an image of Alexander. Lysippus had
captured in the stone Alexander's appearance characteristics; slightly left-turned neck and
peculiar gaze. Lysippus' sculpture, which is opposite to his often vigorous portrayal,
especially in coinage of the time, is thought to be the most faithful depiction of
Alexander.[160]
Personality
Alexander's personality is well described by the ancient sources. Some of his strongest
personality traits formed in response to his parents.[159] His mother had huge ambitions for
Alexander, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian
Empire.[159] Indeed, Olympias may have gone to the extent of poisoning Philip Arrhidaeus so
as to disable him, and prevent him being a rival for Alexander.[49] Olympias's influence
instilled huge ambition and a sense of destiny in Alexander,[161] and Plutarch tells us that his
ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".[162] Alexander's
relationship with his father generated the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to
out-do his father, as his reckless nature in battle suggests.[159] While Alexander worried that
his father would leave him "no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[12]
he still attempted to downplay his father's achievements to his companions.[159]
Alexander's most evident personality traits were his violent temper and rash, impulsive
nature,[162][163] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions during his life.[159]
Plutarch thought that this part of his personality was the cause of his weakness for
alcohol.[162] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his
father, he was easier to persuade by reasoned debate.[17] Indeed, set beside his fiery
temperament, there was a calmer side to Alexander; perceptive, logical, and calculating. He
had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.[22] This was
no doubt in part due to his tutelage by Aristotle; Alexander was intelligent and quick to
learn.[17][159] The tale of his "solving" the Gordian knot neatly demonstrates this. He had great
self-restraint in "pleasures of the body", contrasting with his lack of self control with
alcohol.[162][164] The intelligent and rational side to Alexander is also amply demonstrated by
his ability and success as a general.[163]
Alexander was undoubtedly erudite, and was a patron to both the arts and sciences.[22][162]
However, he had little interest in sports, or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking
only the Homeric ideals of glory and fame.[161][162] He had great charisma and force of
personality, characteristics, which made him a great leader.[153][163] This is further emphasised
by the inability of any of his generals to unite the Macedonians and retain the Empire after
his death – only Alexander had the personality to do so.[153]
Megalomania
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to
exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[135] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with
his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to
produce this effect.[165] His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in the testament that he
ordered Craterus to fulfil, and in his desire to conquer all non-Greek peoples.[135]
He seems to have come to believe himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.[135]
Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus,[2] a theory apparently confirmed
to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa.[86] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-
Ammon.[86] Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court,
notably the custom of proskynesis, a practice of which the Macedonians disapproved, and
were loath to perform.[103][104] Such behaviour cost him much in the sympathies of many of
his countrymen.[104]
Personal relationships
Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great
A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC.
The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.
The greatest emotional relationship of Alexander's life was with his friend, general, and
bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble.[124][159][166] Hephaestion's death
devastated Alexander, sending him into a period of grieving.[124][126] This event may have
contributed to Alexander's failing health, and detached mental state during his final
months.[135][139] Alexander married twice: Roxana, daughter of the Bactrian nobleman
Oxyartes, out of love;[167] and Stateira II, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of
Persia, as a matter of political interest.[168] He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of
Macedon of Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine; and lost
another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.[169][170]
Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy.[171] Nowhere in the
ancient sources is it stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander's
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to
Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the
latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of
Achilles".[172] Noting that the word eromenos (ancient Greek for beloved) does not
necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may indeed have been bisexual, which in his
time was not controversial.[173][174]
Green argues that there is little evidence in the ancient sources Alexander had much interest
in women, particularly since he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.[159]
However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's
matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same age.[175] Apart from
wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander had accumulated a harem
in the style of Persian kings but he used it rather sparingly;[176] showing great self-control in
"pleasures of the body".[164] It is possible that Alexander was simply not a highly sexed
person. Nevertheless, Plutarch describes how Alexander was infatuated by Roxanne while
complimenting him on not forcing himself on her.[177] Green suggests that, in the context of
the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria,
who adopted Alexander, and even Darius's mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from
grief when Alexander died.[159]
Legacy
Hellenistic kingdoms
Main article: Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient world map of Eratosthenes (276–194
BC), incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors.[178]
Alexander's most obvious legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new
swathes of Asia. Many of these areas would remain in Macedonian hands or under Greek
influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least
initially, dominant forces during this epoch, and these 300 years are often referred to as the
Hellenistic period.[179]
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime.[153]
However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave
rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of the neglect
shown to this region by the successors, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in European
sources as Sandrokotto), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and then
with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire of northern India.[180] In
305 BC Seleucus, one of the successors, marched to India to reclaim the territory; instead he
ceded the area to Chandragupta in return for 500 war elephants. These in turn played a
pivotal role in the Battle of Ipsus the result of which did much to settle the division of the
Empire.[180]
Hellenization
Main article: Hellenistic civilization
Hellenization is a term coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the
spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after
Alexander's conquest.[179] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the
great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria (one of around twenty towns founded by
Alexander[181]), Antioch[182] and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad).[183] However, exactly
how widespread and deeply permeating this was, and to what extent it was a deliberate
policy, is debatable. Alexander certainly made deliberate efforts to insert Greek elements into
Persian culture and in some instances he attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture,
culminating in his aspiration to homogenise the populations of Asia and Europe. However,
the successors explicitly rejected such policies after his death. Nevertheless, Hellenization
occurred throughout the region, and moreover, was accompanied by a distinct and opposite
'Orientalization' of the Successor states.[182][184]
Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription
The core of Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian by origin.[182][185] The Athenian
koine dialect had been adopted long before Philip II for official use and was thus spread
throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca through Alexander's conquests.
Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic
period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving though into distinct new forms
commonly grouped as Hellenistic.[182] Aspects of the Hellenistic culture were still evident in
the traditions of the Byzantine Empire up until the mid-15th century.[186][187]
Some of the most unusual effects of Hellenization can be seen in India, in the region of the
relatively late-arising Indo-Greek kingdoms.[188] There, isolated from Europe, Greek culture
apparently hybridised with Indian, and especially Buddhist, influences. The first realistic
portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time; they are modelled on Greek statues of
Apollo.[188] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek
religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[189] and some
Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars)
are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. Zen Buddhism draws in part on the ideas
of Greek stoics, such as Zeno.[190] One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist,
and is immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[188]
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate
themselves with his achievements. Polybius started his Histories by reminding Romans of his
role, and thereafter subsequent Roman leaders saw him as their inspirational role model.
Julius Caesar reportedly wept in Spain at the sight of Alexander's statue, because he thought
he had achieved so little by the same age that Alexander had conquered the world.[191]
Pompey the Great searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old
cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. In his zeal to honor Alexander, Augustus
accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at
the Alexander's tomb Alexandria. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of
Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons,
either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.[192]
In the summer of 1995, a statue of Alexander was recovered in an excavation of a Roman
house in Alexandria, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and
probably was constructed in the 1st century AD and occupied until the 3rd century.[193]
Legend
Main article: Alexander the Great in legend
There are many legendary accounts surrounding the life of Alexander the Great, with a
relatively large number deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander
himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from
him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus,
went so far as to invent a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical
Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later
King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time."[194]
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the more
legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely
ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text
underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle
Ages.[195]
There is also an Iranian or Persian account of Alexander the Great in "Shahnameh" or "The
Epic of the Kings" by Ferdowsi. It is called Eskandarnameh.[196] It speaks of Alexander being
the son of Nahid (Lydia) and being sent back to Philip of Macedon because she had bad
breath. Later it is mentioned that the name Sekandar was given because the remedy it
provided for his mother. Arab historians then referred to him as Al Sekander.
In ancient and modern culture
Main article: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been preserved and depicted in
many ways. Alexander has figured in works of both high and popular culture from his own
era to the modern day. In the Middle Ages he was created a member of the Nine Worthies, a
group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry.
In Punjab, the land of his final conquest, the name "Secunder" is commonly given to children
even today. This is both due to respect and admiration for Alexander and also as a memento
to the fact that fighting the people of Punjab fatigued his army to the point that they revolted
against him.
A common proverb in the Punjab reads jit jit key jung, secunder jay haar, in translation,
"Alexander wins so many battles that he loses the war". It is used to address anyone who is
good at winning but never takes advantage of those wins.[citation needed]
Sources
Main article: Historical Alexander the Great
Texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men
who served with Alexander are all lost apart from a few inscriptions and fragments.
Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian
Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the
campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. These works have been lost, but
later works based on these original sources survive. The five main surviving accounts are by
Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin.[197]
Ancestry
[show]Ancestors of Alexander the Great
4. Amyntas III of Macedon

2. Philip II of Macedon
20. Arrhabaeus
10. ??
5. Eurydice I of Macedon
1. Alexander the
Great
24. Tharrhypas
12. Alcetas I of
Epirus
6. Neoptolemus I of Epirus
3. Olympias
See also
 Alexander the Great in the Qur'an
 Chronology of European exploration of Asia
 Artemis
 Colossus of Rhodes
Notes
^ i: By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire Achaemenid Persian Empire,
adding it to Macedon's European territories; according to some modern writers, this was most
of the world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[198][199] An approximate view
of the world known to Alexander can be seen in Hecataeus of Miletus's map, see
File:Hecataeus world map-en.svg.
^ ii: For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the greatest general;[200] Julius
Caesar wept on seeing a statue of Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same
age;[191] Pompey consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[201] the young Napoleon
Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander.[202]
^ iii: The name Αλέξανδπορ derives from the Greek verb "ἀλέξω" (alexō), "to ward off, to
avert, to defend"[203] and the noun "ἀνδπόρ" (andros), genitive of "ἀνήπ" (anēr), "man"[204]
and means "protector of men."[205]
^ iv: "In the early 5th century the royal house of Macedon, the Temenidae, was recognised as
Greek by the Presidents of the Olympic Games. Their verdict was and is decisive. It is certain
that the Kings considered themselves to be of Greek descent from Heracles son of Zeus."[206]
^ v: "AEACIDS Descendants of Aeacus, son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, eponymous
(see the term) to the island of that name. His son was Peleus, father of Achilles, whose
descendants (real or supposed) called themselves Aeacids: thus Pyrrhus and Alexander the
Great."[207]
^ vi: There have been, since the time, many suspicions that Pausanias was actually hired to
murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned
Persian Emperor, Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip
murdered.[208]
References
1. ^ a b Yenne, W. Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General.
Palmgrave McMillan, 2010. 244 p.
2. ^ a b c Plutarch, Alexander, 3
3. ^ Alexander was born on the 6 of the month Hekatombaion "The birth of Alexander
at Livius.org". http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7.
5. ^ McCarty, p. 10.
6. ^ a b Renault, p. 28.
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16. ^ Durant, p. 538.
19. ^ Renault, p. 44.
20. ^ McCarty, p. 15.
21. ^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, pp. 65–66.
23. ^ Renault, pp. 45–47.
24. ^ McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 16.
25. ^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 9
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29. ^ Renault, pp. 47–49.
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35. ^ McCarty, p. 24.
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75. ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 3–4 II, 14
76. ^ Arrian Anabasis Alexandri II, 23
78. ^ Gunther, p. 84.
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157. ^ a b Diodorus Siculus, Library XVIII, 4
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162. ^ a b c d e f Plutarch, Alexander, 4
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174. ^ Worthington, p. 159.
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176. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library XVII, 77
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198. ^ Danforth, pp38, 49, 167
199. ^ Stoneman, p2
200. ^ Goldsworthy, pp. 327–328.
201. ^ Holland, pp. 176–183.
202. ^ Barnett, p. 45.
203. ^ ἀλέξω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on
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Alexander the Great

Argead dynasty
Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC
Preceded by King of Macedon
Philip II 336–323 BC
Great King (Shah) of Persia
Preceded by 330–323 BC Succeeded by
Darius III Pharaoh of Egypt Philip III & Alexander IV
332–323 BC
Preceded by King of Asia
None (new title) 331–323 BC
Authority control: LCCN: n79004067
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Alexander The Great

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Alexander The Great

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We're celebrating Wikipedia's 10th

Alexander the Great

National Archaeological Museum

Full name Alexander III of Macedon

Μέγαρ Ἀλέξανδπορiii[›] (Mégas

King of Macedon, Hegemon of the

Birthplace Pella, Macedon

Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)

Place of death Babylon

Predecessor Philip II of Macedon

Offspring Alexander IV of Macedon

Dynasty Argead dynasty

Father Philip II of Macedon

Mother Olympias of Epirus

Religious beliefs Greek polytheism

Adolescence and education

Aristotle tutoring Alexander.

Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon

A bust depicting Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father

Statue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

Exile and return

— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[25]

Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the

Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign

Conquest of the Persian Empire

The Levant and Syria

Main articles: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre

Assyria and Babylonia

Main article: Battle of Gaugamela

Main article: Battle of the Persian Gate

Fall of the Empire and the East

Silver coin of Alexander, British Museum

Problems and plots

Invasion of the Indian subcontinent

Revolt of the army

Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent

Last years in Persia

Death and succession

Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[133] allegations of foul

Another possible cause of Alexander's death is an overdose of medication containing

Fate after death

Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus

Division of the empire

Main article: Diadochi

 Construction of a monumental pyre to Hephaestion, costing 10,000 talents

Green provides a description of Alexander's appearance, based on ancient sources:

Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great

Main article: Hellenistic period

Main article: Hellenistic civilization

Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription

Main article: Alexander the Great in legend

In ancient and modern culture

Main article: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great

4. Amyntas III of Macedon

 Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander), translated by Aubrey de

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Alexander III of Macedon

 Alexander the Great at the Open Directory Project

Alexander the Great

Anaxagoras · Anaximander · Anaximenes · Antisthenes · Aristotle ·

Aeschylus · Aesop · Aristophanes · Euripides · Herodotus · Hesiod · Homer ·

Alexander the Great · Alcibiades · Archimedes · Aspasia · Demosthenes ·

[show]v · d · eThe Works of Plutarch