1

Q1. Why should a manger know about research when the job
entails managing people, products, events,
environments, and the like?

Ans:-

The manager, while managing people, products, events, and

environments will invariably face problems, big and small, and will
have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can
be achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants
are engaged to solve problems.

The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is
discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for
the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters
of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but
need not do so. The goal of the research process is to produce new
nowledge, which takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed,
the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):
Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems
Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical
evidence. The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of
secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types:

1) Primary research

2) Secondary research

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research
methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter
and on the objective of the research:

Qualitative research

Quantitative research
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Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of

Research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research,
focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project
(like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of
discussion and results.
Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as
the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly
increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where
companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep
pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of
their customers.
Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since
the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in
advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher
R&D spending does not guarantee "more creativity, higher profit or a greater
market share.

Q 2. a. How do you evolve research design for exploratory

research? Briefly analyze.

Ans:-

The central purpose is to formulate hypotheses regarding potential

problems and opportunities present in the decision situation. The
hypotheses can be tested at a later phase with a conclusive
research design (Leinhardt and Leinhardt, 1980).
Exploratory research design applies when the research objectives
include the following:
a. identifying problems (threats or opportunities)
b. developing a more precise formulation of a vaguely identified
problem(threat or opportunity)
c. gaining perspective regarding the breath of variables operating in
a situation
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d. establishing priorities regarding the potential significance of

various problems (threats or opportunities)
e. gaining management and researcher perspective concerning the
character of the problem situation
f. identifying and formulating alternative courses of action; and
g. gathering information on the problems associated with doing
conclusive research.
h. identification of problems (threats or opportunities) can be
assisted through the following:

i) Searching secondary sources

ii) Interviewing knowledgeable persons
iii) Compiling case histories.

Q 2 b. Briefly explain Independent, dependent and

extraneous variables in a research design.

Ans:-

Independent Variable:

A variable that you believe might influence your outcome measure.

This might be a variable that you control, like a treatment, or a
variable not under your control, like an exposure. It also might
represent a demographic factor like age or gender. Contrast this
with the definition of the dependent variable. An independent
variable is a hypothesized cause or influence on a dependent
variable. One way to distinguish these variables is to ask yourself
what you are want to learn from this research. The dependent
variable is a variable you are trying to predict. Any variable that you
are using to make those predictions is an independent variable. A
recently published research study examined the relationship of
dietary fat consumption and the development of ischemic
stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free of cardiovascular
 4

disease at baseline (1966-1969) and who were followed for a

twenty year period. In this study, the independent variables
were:

• percentage of total fat in the diet,

• percentage of saturated fat, and
• the percentage of monounsaturated fat.

Dependent variable:

In a research study, the variable that you believe might be

influenced or modified by some treatment or exposure. It may also
represent the variable you are trying to predict. Contrast this with
the definition of an independent variable. Sometimes the dependent
variable is called the outcome variable. This definition depends on
the context of the study. In a study of prenatal care, the
birthweight is an outcome or dependent variable, but in
neonatology, it is more likely to be an independent variable. A
recently published research study examined the relationship of
dietary fat consumption and the development of ischemic
stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free of cardiovascular
disease at baseline (1966-1969) and who were followed for a
twenty year period. In this study, the dependent variable was:

• incidence of ischemic stroke.

Extraneous variable:

The independent variables which are not directly related to

the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are

known as extraneous variables. For eg, if a researcher wants to test

the hypothesis that there is relationship between children’s school

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performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an

independent variable and the former is

the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also

influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly

related to the purpose of

the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as

extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous

variable on the dependent

variable is technically called as an ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a

research study should always be framed in such a manner that the

dependent variable completely influences the change in the

independent variable and any other extraneous variable or

variables.

Q 3. a. Differentiate between ‘Census survey’ and ‘ Sample

Survey’.

Ans:

Difference between Census and Sampling

Practically every country in the world conducts censuses and

sampling surveys on a regular basis in order to get valuable data
from and about their populations. This data is used by the federal
and state governments in making numerous decisions with regard
to various health care, housing, and educational issues, among
others. While both these two data-gathering methods essentially
serve the same purpose, they have a number of differences with
regard to approach and methodology, as well as scope. These two
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methods may also differ in terms of the variance in the data

gathered, as you will see later.

Scope

A census involves the gathering of information from every person in

a certain group. This may include information on age, sex and
language among others. A sample survey on the other hand
commonly involves gathering data from only a certain section of a
particular group.

Sampling Variance

The main advantage of a census is a virtually zero sampling

variance, mainly because the data used is drawn from the whole
population. In addition, more precise detail can generally be
gathered about smaller groups of the population.
As for sampling, there is a possibility of sampling variance, since
the data used is drawn from only a small section of the population.
This makes sampling a much less accurate form of data collection
than a census. In addition, the sample may be too small to provide
an accurate picture of the population.

Cost And Timetable

A census can be quite expensive to conduct, particularly for large

populations. In most cases, they are also a lot more time-
consuming than sample surveys. Adding considerably
to the timetable is the necessity of gathering data from every single
member of the population. The huge scope of a census also makes
it harder to maintain control of the quality of the data. For instance,
anyone who does not complete a census form will be visited by a
government representative who’s only job to is to gather census
data.
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A sample survey for its part costs quite a bit less than a census,
since data is gathered from a much smaller group of people. In
addition, sample surveys generally take a much shorter time to
conduct, again given the smaller scope. This also means reduced
requirements for respondents, which in turn leads to better data
monitoring and quality control.

Summary

Census

• Gathers information from every individual in a certain group

• Since data from the entire population is used, there is no
sampling variance
• Provides detailed information about smaller groups
• Can be quite costly, particularly for large populations, due to
census tally workers as well as hiring temporary census home
visitors
• Includes an uncomfortable visit from a government worker if
the census is not filled out on time

Sampling

• Gathers information from only a section of the population

• May have a significant degree of sample variance, since the
data is derived from only a small section of a population
• May not provide enough information about smaller groups or
smaller geographical sections of a place
• Costs much less than a census, since data is gathered from
only a small section of a group

Q 3. b. Analyze multi-stage and sequential sampling.

Ans:-
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Multistage sampling

Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. Using

all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be
prohibitively expensive or not necessary. Under these
circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful. Instead
of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the
researcher randomly selects elements from each cluster.
Constructing the clusters is the first stage. Deciding what elements
within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is used
frequently when a complete list of all members of the population
does not exist and is inappropriate.

In some cases, several levels of cluster selection may be applied

before the final sample elements are reached. For example,
household surveys conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics
begin by dividing metropolitan regions into 'collection districts', and
selecting some of these collection districts (first stage). The selected
collection districts are then divided into blocks, and blocks are
chosen from within each selected collection district (second stage).
Next, dwellings are listed within each selected block, and some of
these dwellings are selected (third stage). This method means that
it is not necessary to create a list of every dwelling in the region,
only for selected blocks. In remote areas, an additional stage of
clustering is used, in order to reduce travel requirements.[1]

Although cluster sampling and stratified sampling bear some

superficial similarities, they are substantially different. In stratified
sampling, a random sample is drawn from all the strata, where in
cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied, either in
single stage or multi stage.

Sequential sampling
 9

Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique

wherein the researcher picks a single or a group of subjects in a
given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results then
picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of
fine tuning his research methods and gaining a vital insight into the
study that he is currently pursuing.

Q 4. List down various measures of central tendency and

explain the difference between them?

Ans:-

Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central

tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number
of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population.
The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m
is shown below:

where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the

sample and N is the number of numbers in the sample. As an
example, the mean of the numbers

regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population

or just a sample from the population.

The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of

touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the
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National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of

touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below.

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a
geometic mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if
the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the
arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is
assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean.

Median

The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency.

The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same numbers of
scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table,
Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th
highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15
scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score.
The median can also be thought
of as the 50th percentile.
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Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made
a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to
Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For
Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the
median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally
for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above
the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution.

Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of

numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example,
the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of
numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
Thus, the median of the numbers

Mode
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The mode is the most frequently occuring value.For the data in the
table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more
teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of
touchdown passes. With continuous data such as
response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each
value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same.
Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a
grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency
distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the
target response time data. Since the interval with the highest
frequency is 600-700, the mode is
the middle of that interval (650).

Q.5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will
use both secondary and primary sources to gather the
required information.

Ans:

Primary Sources of Data

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Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher

directly collects data that has not been previously collected, e.g.,
collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness,
brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer
behavior, from a sample of consumers by interviewing them.
Primary data is first hand information collected through various
methods such as surveys, experiments and observation, for the
purposes of the project immediately at hand.
The advantages of primary data are –
1 It is unique to a particular research study
2 It is recent information, unlike published information
that is already available

The disadvantages are –

1 It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering
information from available sources
2 Data collection is a time consuming process
3 It requires trained interviewers and investigators

2 Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data, which has been collected and
compiled for another purpose. Secondary sources may be internal
sources, such as annual reports, financial statements, sales reports,
inventory records, minutes of meetings and other information that
is available within the firm, in the form of a marketing information
system. They may also be external sources, such as government
agencies (e.g. census reports, reports of government departments),
published sources (annual reports of currency and finance published
by the Reserve Bank of India, publications of international
organizations such as the UN, World Bank and International
Monetary Fund, trade and financial journals, etc.), trade
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associations (e.g. Chambers of Commerce) and commercial services

(outside suppliers of information).
Methods of Data Collection:
The researcher directly collects primary data from its original
sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required data
precisely according to his research needs and he can collect them
when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the collection
of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types
of social science research, required data is not available from
secondary sources and it has to be directly gathered from the
primary sources.
Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data is
inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete. It includes: socio economic
surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and
tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social
institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls,
attitudinal surveys, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys,
knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm management
studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of primary data collection, including
surveys, audits and panels, observation and experiments.
1 Survey Research
A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving
collection of data directly from a population or a sample at a
particular time. A survey has certain characteristics:
1 It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study.
2 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3 It can cover a very large population.
4 It may include an extensive study or an intensive study
5 It covers a definite geographical area.

A survey involves the following steps -

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1 Selection of a problem and its formulation

2 Preparation of the research design
3 Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and
scales
4 Sampling
5 Construction of tools for data collection
6 Field work and collection of data
7 Processing of data and tabulation
8 Analysis of data
9 Reporting

There are four basic survey methods, which include:

1 Personal interview
2 Telephone interview
3 Mail survey and
4 Fax survey
Personal Interview
Personal interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data
collection. It may be defined as a two-way systematic conversation
between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only
conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gestures,
facial expressions and pauses, and his environment.
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a
supplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only
suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less
educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of
data, from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate
information relating to a person’s opinions, attitudes, values,
beliefs, experiences and future intentions. Interviewing is
appropriate when qualitative information is required, or probing is
necessary to draw out the respondent fully. Where the area covered
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for the survey is compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified

interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People
are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is
established, even confidential information may be obtained. It
permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to
questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the
investigator to grasp the behavioral context of the data furnished by
the respondents. It permits the investigator to seek clarifications
and brings to the forefront those questions, which for some reason
or the other the respondents do not want to answer. Interviewing
as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. They are:
1. The participants – the interviewer and the
respondent – are strangers; hence, the
investigator has to get himself/herself introduced
to the respondent in an appropriate manner.
2. The relationship between the participants is a
transitory one. It has a fixed beginning and
termination points. The interview proper is a
fleeting, momentary experience for them.
3. The interview is not a mere casual conversational
exchange, but a conversation with a specific
purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a
study.
4. The interview is a mode of obtaining verbal
answers to questions put verbally.
5. The interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent need not necessarily be on a face-to-
face basis, because the interview can also be
conducted over the telephone.
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6. Although the interview is usually a conversation

between two persons, it need not be limited to a
single respondent. It can also be conducted with a
group of persons, such as family members, or a
group of children, or a group of customers,
depending on the requirements of the study.
7. The interview is an interactive process. The
interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent depends upon how they perceive each
other.
8. The respondent reacts to the interviewer’s
appearance, behavior, gestures, facial expression
and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the
questions and his own personal needs. As far as
possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to
the social-economic level of the respondents.
9. The investigator records information furnished by
the respondent in the interview. This poses a
problem of seeing that recording does not
interfere with the tempo of conversation.
10. Interviewing is not a standardized process
like that of a chemical technician; it is rather a
flexible, psychological process.
3 Telephone Interviewing Telephone interviewing is a non-
personal method of data collection. It may be used as a major
method or as a supplementary method. It will be useful in the
following situations:
11. When the universe is composed of those
persons whose names are listed in telephone
directories, e.g. business houses, business
executives, doctors and other professionals.
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12. When the study requires responses to five

or six simple questions, e.g. a radio or television
program survey.
13. When the survey must be conducted in a
very short period of time, provided the units of
study are listed in the telephone directory.
14. When the subject is interesting or important
to respondents, e.g. a survey relating to trade
conducted by a trade association or a chamber of
commerce, a survey relating to a profession
conducted by the concerned professional
association.
15. When the respondents are widely scattered
and when there are many call backs to make.
4 Group Interviews A group interview may be defined as a
method of collecting primary data in which a number of individuals
with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal
interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group
may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common
interest. The interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free
discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the subject under
study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members to
interact with each other. The desired information may be obtained
through self-administered questionnaire or interview, with the
discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of
concern. In particular, the interviewers look for evidence of common
elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among
individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a
single comment by a member can provide important insight.
Samples for group interviews can be obtained through schools,
clubs and other organized groups.
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5 Mail Survey The mail survey is another method of collecting

primary data. This method involves sending questionnaires to the
respondents with a request to complete them and return them by
post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only.
The mail questionnaires should be simple so that the respondents
can easily understand the questions and answer them. It should
preferably contain mostly closed-ended and multiple choice
questions, so that it could be completed within a few minutes. The
distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is
self-administered by the respondents themselves and the responses
are recorded by them and not by the investigator, as in the case of
personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face
conversation between the investigator and the respondent.
Communication is carried out only in writing and this requires more
cooperation from the respondents than verbal communication. The
researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected
respondents, by collecting the addresses from the telephone
directory of the association or organization to which they belong.
The following procedures should be followed –
 a covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire.
It must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the
importance of his cooperation to the success of the project.
 Anonymity must be assured.
 The sponsor’s identity may be revealed. However, when such
information may bias the result, it is not desirable to reveal it. In
this case, a disguised organization name may be used.
 A self-addressed stamped envelope should be enclosed in the
covering letter.
1 After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to
the respondents, the researcher can expect the return of completed
ones from them. The progress in return may be watched and at the
appropriate stage, follow-up efforts can be made.
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The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in

developing countries like India. Certain techniques have to be
adopted to increase the response rate. They are:
11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed
on quality light colored paper, so as to attract the attention of
the respondent.
22. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a
pleasant style, so as to attract and hold the interest of the
respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer them
briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name.
33. Advance information: Advance information can be provided
to potential respondents by a telephone call, or advance
notice in the newsletter of the concerned organization, or by a
letter. Such preliminary contact with potential respondents is
more successful than follow-up efforts.
44. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other
incentives are also used to induce respondents to complete
and return the mail questionnaire.
55. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging
to an organization, they may be approached through someone
in that organization known as the researcher.
66. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than
the estimated sample size. For example, if the required
sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be drawn. This
may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size
closer to the required size.
7

Q 6. a. Explain the role of Graphs and Diagrams?

Ans:-
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Roles of Graphs

Graph is a diagram, as a curve, broken line, or series of bars,

representing various kinds of quantitative information and
relationships, such as the successive changes in a variable quantity
or quantities.

The graphs which are most commonly used in visual aids are Bar
graphs, Pie Charts, Line graphs and Scatter diagrams. Graphs play
a very important role during presentations because they make the
data easier to understand and interpretations and comparisons can
be made quickly. They are useful in presentations also because they
can summarize large amounts of data and can convey the basic
idea of the research.

Graphs really help the audience in absorbing the data as they are
simple to interpret and are appealing. By using graphs, variations
and trends in data can be showed clearly and they show how the
values of particular variables change over time. Graphs also help in
determining the relationship between variables.

A graph is an abstract data structure that is meant to implement

the graph and hypergraph concepts from mathematics.

A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable)

set of ordered pairs, called edges or arcs, of certain entities called
nodes or vertices. As in mathematics, an edge (x,y) is said to
point or go from x to y. The nodes may be part of the graph
structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices
or references.
 22

A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge
value, such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost,
capacity, length, etc.).

Roles of Diagrams

Diagram is a graphic representation of an algebraic or geometric

relationship. Role Activity Diagrams (RADs) are a useful way of
describing processes. They are valuable in documenting processes
as they are now, and as they might be in the future. The main part
of the SPRINT BPR Methodology describes the ways in which Role
Activity Diagrams can be used within a broader change project. This
guide tells you how to draw Role Activity Diagrams.

The guide will show you that Role Activity Diagrams are a
reasonably simple diagramming technique. It is not difficult to learn
how to draw them and it is not difficult for most people to interpret
them.

The guide progresses by introducing each of the main constructs of

the Role Activity Diagram. It describes these in turn, giving advice
about the drawing conventions. This is syntactic guidance. In
addition to these syntactic skills, the creation of Role Activity
Diagrams relies upon an ability to scope a study, to decide on the
level of interest and to determine the boundaries of each role in a
diagram. This is where the real skill of using Role Activity Diagrams
comes in but such issues are addressed only partially in this report.
In reality the reader will rely upon experience gained through using
Role Activity Diagrams in projects. This experience will teach how
Role Activity Diagrams can best be used, and what they are most
useful for.

Q.6. b. What are the Types and General rules for graphical
representation of data?
 23

Ans:-

REPRESENTATION OF DATA
Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some
graphic or diagrammatic form.
“The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs,
diagrams, maps and charts is called representation of data.”

The need of representing data graphically:

Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to

represent large volume of data.
They are necessary:
 the information is presented in tabular form or in a descriptive
If
record, it becomes difficult to draw results.
Graphical
 form makes it possible to easily draw visual impressions
of data.
The
 graphic method of the representation of data enhances our
understanding.
 makes the comparisons easy.
It
Besides,
 such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer
time.
 is a time consuming task to draw inferences about whatever is
It
being presented in non–graphical form.
 presents characteristics in a simplified way.
It
These
 makes it easy to understand the patterns of population
growth, distribution and the density, sex ratio, age–sex
composition, occupational structure, etc.
General Rules for Drawing Graphs, Diagrams and Maps

1. Selection of a Suitable Graphical Method

Each characteristic of the data can only be suitably represented by
an appropriate graphical
method. For example,
 24

To
 show the data related to the temperature or growth of
population between different periods in time line graph are used.
Similarly,
 bar diagrams are used for showing rainfall or the
production of commodities.
The
 population distribution, both human and livestock, or the
distribution of the crop producing areas are shown by dot maps.
The
 population density can be shown by choropleth maps.
Thus, it is necessary and important to select suitable graphical
method to represent data.

2. Selection of Suitable Scale

Each diagram or map is drawn to a scale which is used to measure

the data. The scale must cover the entire data that is to be
represented. The scale should neither be too large nor too small.

S 3. Design

The diagram or map should have following design:

 Title: The title of the diagram/map must be clear and include -
o The name of the area,
o Reference year of the data used and
o The caption of the diagram.
These are written with different font sizes and thickness. The title,
subtitle and the corresponding year is shown in the centre at the
top of the map/diagram.
 Legend or Index: The index must clearly explain the colours,
shades, symbols and signs used in the map and diagram. A legend
is shown either at the lower left or lower right side of the map
sheet.
 Direction the maps should show the direction North and properly
placed on the top.
Types of Diagrams
 25

The diagrams and the maps is of following types:

(i) One-dimensional diagrams such as line graph, poly graph, bar
diagram, histogram, age, sex, pyramid, etc.;
(ii) Two-dimensional diagram such as pie diagram and rectangular
diagram;
(iii) Three-dimensional diagrams such as cube and spherical
diagrams.
The most commonly drawn diagrams and maps are:
• Line graphs
• Bar diagrams
• Pie diagram
• Wind rose and star diagram
• Flow Charts

1. Line Graph
The line graphs are usually drawn to represent the time series data
related to the temperature, rainfall, population growth, birth rates
and the death rates.
Construction of a Line Graph
1st step: Round the data to be shown upto the 1 digit of even
numbers.
2nd step: Draw X and Y-axis. Mark the time series variables
(years/months) on the X axis and the data quantity/value to be
plotted on Y axis.
3rd step: Choose an appropriate scale to show data and label it on
Y-axis. If the data involves a negative figure then the selected scale
should also show it.
4th step: Plot the data to depict year/month-wise values according
to the selected scale on Y-axis, mark the location of the plotted
values by a dot and join these dots by a free hand drawn
line.
 26

☞ Example 1: Construct a line graph to represent the data

2. Polygraph
Polygraph is a line graph in which two or more than two variables
are shown on a same diagram by different lines. It helps in
comparing the data. Examples which can be shown as
polygraph are:
The
 growth rate of different crops like rice, wheat, pulses in one
diagram.
The
 birth rates, death rates and life expectancy in one diagram.
Sex
 ratio in different states or countries in one
diagram.Construction of a Polygraph.
All steps of construction of polygraph are similar to that of line
graph. But different lines are drawn to indicate different variables.
☞ Example 2: Construct a polygraph to compare the
variables.
 27

3. Bar Diagram
It is also called a columnar diagram. The bar diagrams are drawn
through columns of equal
width. Following rules were observed while constructing a bar
diagram:
(a) The width of all the bars or columns is similar.
(b) All the bars should are placed on equal intervals/distance.
(c) Bars are shaded with colours or patterns to make them distinct
and attractive.
Three types of bar diagrams are used to represent different data
sets:
The
 simple bar diagram
Compound
 bar diagram
Polybar diagram.

Simple Bar Diagram

A simple bar diagram is constructed for an immediate comparison.
It is advisable to arrange
the given data set in an ascending or descending order and plot the
data variables
 28

accordingly. However, time series data are represented according to

the sequencing of the
time period.
☞ Example 3: Construct a simple bar diagram.

Construction Steps:
Draw X and Y-axes on a graph paper. Take an interval and mark it
on Y-axis to plot data.
Divide X-axis into equal parts to draw bars. The actual values will
be plotted according to the
selected scale.
4. Line and Bar Graph
The line and bar graphs as drawn separately may also be combined
to depict the data related to some of the closely associated
characteristics such as the climatic data of mean monthly
temperatures and rainfall.

☞ Example 4: Construct a Line and bar Graph.

 29

Construction:
(a) Draw X and Y-axes of a suitable length and divide X-axis into
parts to show months in a year.
(b) Select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-axis and
label it at its right side.
(c) Similarly, select a suitable scale with equal intervals on the Y-
axis and label at its left side.
(d) Plot data using line graph and columnar diagram.

5. Multiple Bar Diagram

Multiple bar diagrams are constructed to represent two or more
than two variables for the purpose of comparison. For example, a
multiple bar diagram may be constructed to show proportion of
males and females in the total, rural and urban population or the
share of canal, tube well and well irrigation in the total irrigated
area in different states.
 30

(a) Mark time series data on X-axis and variable data on Y-axis as
per the selected scale.
(b) Plot the data in closed columns.
☞ Example 5: Construct a Multiple bar Diagram.
6. Compound Bar Diagram
When different components are grouped in one set of variable or
different variables of one component are put together, their
representation is made by a compound bar diagram. In this
method, different variables are shown in a single bar with different
rectangles.
 31

Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(b) A single bar will depict the set of variables by dividing the total
length of the bar as per percentage.
☞ Example 6: Construct a Compound Bar Diagram.
7. Pie Diagram
Pie diagram is another graphical method of the representation of
data. It is drawn to depict
the total value of the given attribute using a circle. Dividing the
circle into corresponding
degrees of angle then represent the sub– sets of the data. Hence, it
is also called as Divided
Circle Diagram. The angle of each variable is calculated using the
following formulae.
 32

If data is given in percentage form, the angles are calculated using

the given formulae.

Calculation of Angles
(a) Arrange the data on percentages in an ascending order.
(b) Calculate the degrees of angles for showing the given values
(b) It could be done by multiplying percentage with a constant of
3.6 as derived by dividing the total number of degrees in a circle by
100, i. e. 360/100.
(c) Plot the data by dividing the circle into the required number of
divisions to show the share different regions/countries Construction
(a) Select a suitable radius for the circle to be drawn. A radius of 3,
4 or 5 cm may be chosen for the given data set.
 33

(b) Draw a line from the centre of the circle to the arc as a radius.
(c) Measure the angles from the arc of the circle for each category
of vehicles in an ascending order clock-wise, starting with smaller
angle.
(d) Complete the diagram by adding the title, sub – title, and the
legend. The legend mark be chosen for each variable/category and
highlighted by distinct shades/colours.
Precautions
(a) The circle should neither be too big to fit in the space nor too
small to be illegible.
(b) Starting with bigger angle will lead to accumulation of error
leading to the plot of the smaller angle difficult.
☞ Example 7: Construct a Pie Diagram.

8. Flow Maps/Chart
Flow chart is a combination of graph and map. It is drawn to show
the flow of commodities or people between the places of origin and
destination. It is also called as Dynamic Map.
Transport map, which shows number of passengers, vehicles, etc.,
is the best example of a flow chart. These charts are drawn using
lines of proportional width. Many government agencies prepare flow
maps to show density of the means of transportation on different
routes.
The flow maps/ charts are generally drawn to represent two the
types of data as given below:
1. The number and frequency of the vehicles as per the direction of
their movement
2. The number of the passengers and/or the quantity of goods
transported.
Requirements for the Preparation of a Flow Map:
(a) A route map depicting the desired transport routes along with
the connecting stations.
 34

(b) The data pertaining No. of trains of selected routes of to the

flow of goods, Delhi and
adjoining areas services, number of vehicles, etc., along with the
point of origin and destination of the movements.
(c) The selection of a scale through which the data related to the
quantity of passengers and goods or the number of vehicles is to be
represented.

Construction
(a) Take an outline map of Delhi and adjoining areas in which
railway line and the nodal stations are depicted.
(b) Select a scale to represent the number of trains. Here, the
maximum number is 50 and the minimum is 6. If we select a scale
of 1cm = 50 trains, the maximum and minimum numbers will be
represented by a strip of 10 mm and 1.2 mm thick lines
respectively on the map.
(c) Plot the thickness of each strip of route between the given rail
route.
(d) Draw a terraced scale as legend and choose distinct sign or
symbol to show the nodal
points (stations) within the strip.
 35

☞ Example 8: Construct a Flow Map of Train movements in

and around Delhi.

Thematic Maps
Varieties of maps are drawn to understand the patterns of the
regional distributions or the characteristics of variations over space
these maps are known as the distribution maps or thematic maps.
Requirements for Making a Thematic Map
(a) State/District level data about the selected theme.
(b) Outline map of the study area along with administrative
boundaries.
(c) Physical map of the region. For example, physiographic map for
population distribution and relief and drainage map for constructing
transportation map.
Rules for Making Thematic Maps
(i) The drawing of the thematic maps must be carefully planned.
The final map should properly reflect the following components:
a. Name of the area
b. Title of the subject-matter
c. Source of the data and year
d. Indication of symbols, signs, colours, shades, etc.
e. Scale
(ii) The selection of a suitable method to be used for thematic
mapping.
Classification of Thematic Maps based on Method of Construction
The thematic maps are generally, classified into quantitative and
non-quantitative maps.
The quantitative maps are drawn to show the variations within the
data. For example, maps depicting areas receiving more than 200
cm, 100 to 200 cm, 50 to 100 cm and less than 50 cm of rainfall
are referred as quantitative maps. These maps are also called as
statistical maps.
 36

The non-quantitative maps, on the other hand, depict the non–

measurable characteristics in
the distribution of given information such as a map showing high
and low rainfall-receiving
areas. These maps are also called as qualitative maps.
The construction of quantitative maps: There are three types of
quantitative maps -
(a) Dot maps
(b) Choropleth maps
(c) Isopleth maps
9. Dot Maps
The dot maps are drawn to show the distribution of phenomena
such as population, cattle,
types of crops, etc. The dots of same size as per the chosen scale
are marked over the given
administrative units to highlight the patterns of distributions.
Requirement
(a) An administrative map of the given area showing
state/district/block boundaries.
(b) Statistical data on selected theme for the chosen administrative
units, i.e., total
population, cattle etc.
(c) Selection of a scale to determine the value of a dot.
(d) Physiographic map of the region especially relief and drainage
maps.
Precaution
(a) The lines demarcating the boundaries of various administrative
units should not be very thick and bold.
(b) All dots should be of same size.
 37

Construction
(a) Select the size and value of a dot.
(b) Determine the number of dots in each state using the given
scale. For example, number of dots in Maharashtra will be
9,67,52,247/100,000 = 967.52. It may be rounded to 968, as the
 38

fraction is more than 0.5.

(c) Place the dots in each state as per the determined number in all
states.
(d) Consult the physiographic/relief map of India to identify
mountainous, desert, and/or snow covered areas and mark lesser
number of dots in such areas.
☞ Example 9: Construct a Dot Map.
10. Choropleth Map
The choropleth maps are also drawn to depict the data
characteristics as they are related to the administrative units. These
maps are used to represent the density of
population,literacy/growth rates, sex-ratio, etc.
Requirement for drawing Choropleth Map
(a) A map of the area depicting different administrative units.
(b) Appropriate statistical data according to administrative units.
Steps to be followed
(a) Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.
(b) Group the data into 5 categories to represent very high, high,
medium, low and very low concentrations.
(c) The interval between the categories may be identified on the
following formulae i.e. Range/5 and Range = maximum value –
minimum value.
(d) Patterns, shades or colour to be used to depict the chosen
categories should be marked in an increasing or decreasing order.
 39

Construction
(a) Arrange the data in ascending order as shown above.
(b) Identify the range within the data. In the present case, the
states recording the lowest and highest literacy rates are Bihar
(47%) and the Kerala (90.9%) respectively. Hence, the range
would be 91.0 – 47.0 = 44.0
 40

(c) Divide the range by 5 to get categories from very low to very
high. (44.0/ 5 = 8.80). We can convert this value to a round
number 9.0.
(d) Determine the number of the categories along with range of
each category. Add 9.0 to the lowest value of 47.0 as so on. We will
finally get following categories:
47 – 56 Very low (Bihar, Jharkhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir)
56 – 65 Low (Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Orissa, Assam,Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh)
65 – 74 Medium (Nagaland, Karnataka, Haryana, West Bengal,
Sikkim, Gujarat,Punjab, Manipur, Uttaranchal, Tripura, Tamil Nadu)
74 – 83 High (Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Delhi, Goa)
83 – 92 Very High (Mizoram, Kerala)
(e) Assign shades/pattern to each category ranging from lower to
higher hues.
(f) Prepare the map as shown in Fig.
(g) Complete the map with respect to the attributes of map design.
☞ Example 10: Construct a Choropleth Map.
11. Isopleth Map
Variations in the degrees of slope, temperature, occurrence of
rainfall, may be represented by drawing the lines of equal values on
a map. All such maps are termed as Isopleth Map. The word
Isopleth is derived from Iso meaning equal and pleth means lines.
Thus, an imaginary line, which joins the places of equal values, is
referred as Isopleth. The more frequently drawn isopleths include
Isotherm (equal temperature), Isobar (equal pressure), Isohyets
(equal rainfall), Isonephs (equal cloudiness), Isohels (equal
sunshine), contours (equal heights),Isobaths (equal depths),
Isohaline (equal salinity), etc.
Requirement
(a) Base line map depicting point location of different places.
 41

(b) Appropriate data of temperature, pressure, rainfall, etc. over a

definite period of time.
(c) Drawing instrument specially French Curve, etc.
Rules to be observed
(a) An equal interval of values be selected.
(b) Interval of 5, 10, or 20 is supposed to be ideal.
(c) The value of Isopleth should be written along the line on either
side or in the middle by
breaking the line.

Interpolation
Interpolation is used to find the intermediate values between the
observed values of at two
stations/locations. Generally, drawing of isopleths joining the places
of same value is also termed as interpolation.
Method of Interpolation: For interpolation, follow the following
steps:
(a) Firstly, determine the minimum and maximum values given on
the map.
(b) Calculate the range of value i.e. Range = maximum value –
minimum value.
(c) Based on range, determine the interval in a whole number like
5, 10, 15, etc.
The exact point of drawing an Isopleth is determined by using the
following formulae.

The interval is the difference between the actual value on the map
and interpolated value. For example, in an Isotherm map of two
places show 28º C and 33º C and you want to draw 30ºC isotherm,
measure the distance between the two points. Suppose the distance
 42

is 1cm or 10 mm and the difference between 28 and 33 is 5, thus,

exact point of 30 will be plotted 4mm away from 28ºC or 6mm
ahead of 33ºC.

☞ Example 11: Construct an Isopleth Map.