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Received 8 April 2003; received in revised form 2 August 2004; accepted 5 August 2004
Abstract
Fault intersections are identified as important sites for hydrocarbon leakage from the Skua oil field in the Timor Sea, Australia. Integrated
structural and fluid history data sets suggest that these fault intersections may be efficient and long-lived fluid conduits. Three-dimensional
(3D) numerical modelling, based on fault patterns observed in the Skua Field, generated zones of high dilation in the vicinity of fault
intersections during contraction, even at low bulk strain values. In nature, these dilational zones are likely to be sites of high structural
permeability containing concentrated open fracture networks ideal for high fluid flux. The potential for fluid leakage from these zones may be
further enhanced where low shear strain occurs due to mechanical locking at the fault intersection. Although not tested in the numerical
experiments, fault gouge development is likely to be less extensive in these zones of low shear strain, reducing the probability of forming
membrane seals. The modelling results support previously published charge and leakage history studies of the Skua Field and highlight the
potential for large volumes of hydrocarbons to be lost where fault intersection zones breach the top seal. Fault intersections may therefore
play a significant role in influencing trap integrity conditions in other areas.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fig. 2. Regional setting of the Skua Field. (A) Simplified structural elements map of the southern Timor Sea region. (B) Schematic cross-section through the
Rowan, Skua and Swift fault blocks (modified from Fittall & Cowley, 1992).
margin (Etheridge et al., 1991). The Solomon Sea plate was Rowan Fault may have partitioned strain in the Skua area
obducted onto the Australian plate at Papua New Guinea so that the Skua Fault appears to have been largely
during this event (Smith, 1990). unaffected by this event (Gartrell et al., 2002).
Convergence and collision between the Australian Plate
and Banda Arc (Fig. 1) in the Late Miocene and Early
Pliocene (Mio-Pliocene) resulted in increased rates of 3. Trap integrity and the role of fault
subsidence, as well as wide-spread fault reactivation intersections in the Skua region
observed throughout the Timor Sea region (e.g. O’Brien
& Woods, 1995; Woods, 1992). However, Mio-Pliocene 3.1. Hydrocarbon leakage indication
normal faulting in the Skua region is localised above the
Rowan Fault, with no seismic evidence for reactivation of Trap integrity issues were highlighted during appraisal of
the Skua Fault during this time (Fig. 5B). Strong the Skua Field with the extent of the accumulation
Mio-Pliocene extensional reactivation of the nearby turning out to be significantly smaller than that suggest by
1168 A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179
Fig. 4. Fault patterns (map view) at base Cretaceous seal (Base Seal) level. (A) Two way time structure map for the Base Seal horizon showing fault trends. (B)
Interpretation of fault patterns observed at Base Seal level. A network of intersecting faults comprises a set of NE–SW trending Jurassic rift faults (thick solid
black lines) and a set of NNW–SSE and N–S trending basement faults (dashed lines). An array of ENE–WSW trending post-rift faults are observed above the
Jurassic fault blocks. The position of the present day OWC corresponds with location of fault intersections at the northeastern and southwestern ends of the
Skua Field. (C) Relationship between fault patterns, field extent and direct leakage indicators in the Skua/Swift area. Seismic velocity anomalies (HRDZs)
typically located above fault intersections. Airborne laser fluorosensor (ALF) anomalies show a general N–S alignment and also correlate with the position of
fault intersections in some cases.
1170 A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179
Fig. 5. Seismic sections through the Skua Field (see Fig. 4A for locations). (A) Seismic section through southern end of the Skua Field showing Late Cretaceous
to Early Tertiary inversion anticline above the main trap bounding Skua Fault. (B) Seismic section through the northern end of the field showing Late
Cretaceous to Early Tertiary extensional faulting above the Skua Fault. Late Miocene extensional faulting is localised above the Rowan Fault.
A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179 1171
Fig. 7. Summary of GOI fluid inclusion data from the Skua Field. Palaeo-oil–water contacts determined using the GOI technique show increasing depth to the
southwest.
4. Numerical modelling methods components were taken from Turcotte and Schubert (1982)
and are listed in Table 1.
The numerical code FLAC3D (Finite Langrangian The first model incorporated a simple triple junction fault
Analysis of Continua, Cundall & Board, 1988) was used geometry made up of three vertical faults that intersect at 1208
for the modelling performed in this study. It treats rock as to each other (Fig. 10A). The second model was designed to
a continuum, represented by average values of mechanical, more closely imitate the structural architecture of the critical
fluid flow and heat transport properties. However, only the fault intersection at the northeastern end of the Skua Field
mechanical component of the modelling is described here. (Fig. 10B). A relatively complex fault geometry was
FLAC3D allows the user to create interfaces, which join constructed comprising a vertical fault (representing the
various 3D meshes. The interfaces can be assigned properties basement fault) that changes strike by 108 at the fault
of friction, cohesion, normal and shear stiffness, and tensile intersection and a fault dipping at 608 (representing the rift
strength in order to represent faults on which sliding occurs. fault). Each model was subjected to 3% shortening in a
Two 3D models were constructed, both comprising a 1 km number of directions (E–W, N–S, NE–SW, NW–SE). Only
thick sandstone layer overlain by a 500 m thick shale results from the experiments with E–W contraction are
(Fig. 10), representing the basic stratigraphy of the Skua illustrated here, as this orientation is thought to best represent
Field at the time of initial reactivation in the Late Cretaceous the situation at Skua during Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary
(Gartrell et al., 2002). During deformation, a constant deformation (Gartrell et al., 2002).
displacement rate is applied to two opposing vertical sides The parameters calculated during the numerical exper-
of the model (depending on the shortening direction), while iments were displacement, shear strain, volumetric strain
the other vertical edges are supported by crustal stress (so (dilation), the orientation and magnitude of the maximum
they do not collapse under gravity). The bottom boundary of (s1) and minimum principle stresses (s3), and the differential
the model can move freely in the horizontal direction, but is stress (s1Ks3). The differential stress was used to map the
not allowed to move in the vertical direction. Mechanical likely fracture failure mode within the seal layer for
deformation of the models was governed by Mohr-Coulomb experiments with E–W shortening. Following Sibson
elastic–plastic rheology, where rocks initially deform (1996) we assume a composite Griffith-Coulomb failure
elastically, but continue to deform plastically to large strain envelope so that if (s1Ks3)!4T (where T is tensile strength)
once the maximum shear stress reaches the yield stress (e.g. then tensile failure is predicted, if 4T!(s1Ks3)!6T then
Ord, 1991; Zhang, Hobbs, Ord, & Muhlhaus, 1995). hybrid tensile-shear failure is predicted, and if (s1Ks3)O6T
The geomechanical parameters used for the model then shear failure is predicted.
A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179 1173
5.2. Model 2
Fig. 9. Integrated structural and charge history schematic model for the Skua Field (not to scale). (a) Prior to reactivation and hydrocarbon charge. (b) Late
Cretaceous to early Tertiary reactivation of basement fault and subordinate rift fault causes intense seal damage at the intersection of the faults. (c) Initial oil
charge around the mid-Eocene. Extent of the palaeo-field is controlled by the location of the fault intersection (leak zone). (d) Palaeo-OWC is tilted due to post
rift subsidence and faulted due to Early Miocene deformation. Tilting of the trap also causes hydrocarbons to flow up-dip towards the NE to continually feed the
leak zone. Note: leakage of hydrocarbons is into overlying strata and not directly to the seafloor (modified from Gartrell et al., 2002).
Table 1
Geomechanical parameters taken from Turcotte and Schubert (1982) used for the models
Density Young’s Poisson’s Bulk mod- Shear mod- Cohesion Tensile Friction Dilation
(kg mK3) modulus ratio ulus (GPa) ulus (GPa) (MPa) strength angle (8) angle (8)
(GPa) (MPa)
Seal (shale) 2400 20 0.2 11 8.3 10 5 30 2
Sandstone 2450 35 0.25 23 14 15 7.5 30 2
Fault 2300 10 0.15 48 43.5 1 0.5 10 2
natural rocks (e.g. Sibson, 1996). A direct analogy would be the development of fault gouge was not modelled during the
the efficient fluid flow systems associated with dilational numerical experiments.
fault jogs described by Sibson (1985). Non-locking fault intersections may also exist where no
The fault geometries modelled here are examples of kinematic incompatibility develops at the point of intersec-
locked fault intersections, where the slip vectors of tion during deformation (Fig. 13E, Curewitz & Karson,
intersecting faults have non-parallel or opposing directions 1997). Previous numerical modelling has shown that in this
(Fig. 13A–D, Curewitz & Karson, 1997). This locking case, fault intersections can be zones of relatively high shear
geometry resulted in relatively low shear strain occurring at strain (Maerten, Willemse, Pollard, & Rawnsley, 1999).
the intersections. Hence, it seems reasonable to predict that These fault systems are likely to behave differently to
the opportunity for fault rock membrane seals to develop in locked systems with respect to fluid flow, highlighting the
the vicinity of the modelled fault intersections would be low importance of the fault intersection configuration.
relative to the fault planes segments away from the In the Skua Field, the main fault intersection appears to
intersection where slip is greater. In natural systems, this have been transmissive to fluids from the time of initial oil
may further enhance the fluid flow efficiency of such fault charge (Mid-Eocene) to the present day. Furthermore, the
intersections relative to the surrounding faults. However, low GOI values obtained at Skua-6 suggest that
Fig. 11. Results from the simple fault model (Model 1) with E–W contraction. (A) Perspective view of the model after 3% contraction. (B) Plan view of the
model after 3% contraction with arrows indicating displacement vectors. (C) Stress distribution calculated on the surface of the model after 1% contraction. (D)
Colour contour of volumetric strain increment (dilation) after 1% contraction. (E) Colour contour of shear strain increment after 1% contraction. (F) Colour
contour of differential stress distribution (s1–s3) calculated on the surface of the model after 1% contraction. Areas of tensile, hybrid tensile-shear and shear
fracture mode (if failure criteria reached) distinguished (see text).
1176 A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179
Fig. 12. Results from the relatively complex fault model (Model 2) with E–W contraction. (A) Perspective view of the model after 3% contraction. (B) Plan
view of the model after 3% contraction with arrows indicating displacement vectors. (C) Stress distribution calculated on the surface of the model after 1%
contraction. (D) Colour contour of volumetric strain increment (dilation) after 1% contraction. (E) Colour contour of shear strain increment after 1%
contraction. (F) Colour contour of differential stress distribution (s1Ks3) calculated on the surface of the model after 1% contraction. Areas of tensile, hybrid
tensile-shear and shear fracture mode (if failure criteria reached) distinguished (see text).
accumulation did not extend beyond the main fault However, these porosity destruction processes are likely to
intersection at the north eastern end of the field, and be less effective at depths of investigation relevant to
therefore, hydrocarbon leakage from this zone appears to hydrocarbon exploration (!4 km), where lower tempera-
have been both efficient and long-lived. Similarly, studies tures occur and hydrothermal processes are not as active
on hot springs show that significant fluid flow tends to focus (Cox et al.).
at dilational sites, such as fault intersections and fault tips, The presence of hydrocarbons in the system may also
and that high permeability and hydrothermal fluid circula- help to maintain structural porosity and permeability.
tion can be long-lived in these zones (Curewitz & Karson, Interactions between faults at the intersection create
1997). These observations suggest that open fracture porosity and permeability by concentrating stresses and
network can be maintained by stress focussing on the fracturing. The observations made at the Skua Field
complex fracture system likely to develop at the fault suggest that this localised zone of enhanced permeability
intersection, providing many fracture orientations suscep- leads to focussed hydrocarbon fluid flow. High concen-
tible to reactivation. Alternatively, fault and fracture zones trations of hydrocarbons, at the expense of hydrothermal
may not necessarily need to be mechanically active in order fluids, in the localised fracture system may reduce the
to transmit fluids in all cases (cf fault-valve model; Sibson, potential for mineral precipitation and fracture blockage to
1996). At depth in the Earth’s crust, and especially at occur. Experiments show that, in the absence of
elevated temperatures in active hydrothermal systems, cementation, faults and fractures are very difficult to
porosity destruction (such as healing and sealing of fractures close to fluids due to natural fracture surface roughness
by cementation) can cause permeability to decrease on (Gutierrez, Oino, & Nygard, 2000). In addition, partial
timescales that are relatively short (Cox et al., 2001). filling of fractures by mineral cements can actually act to
Further deformation is then required to reopen the fractures maintain structural permeability by holding open the
to allow further fluid movement. Crack-seal microstructures fractures (e.g. Stowell, Laubach, & Olson, 2001). Fluid
in veins indicate that macroscopic veins in some deep focussing at the fault intersection may also contribute to
hydrothermal regimes can open and seal up to several increased pore pressures in the fracture zone, which may
thousand times (Cox, 1995; Cox et al.; Ramsay, 1980). enhance fracture activity.
A. Gartrell et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 (2004) 1165–1179 1177
7. Conclusions
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