10m 1 0 0m m 1 0m m 1 mm 1 0 0p m 1 0 ilm

Wavelength

1 0 0M H z 1 GHz 1 0G H z 1 0 0G H z 1 THz 10THz 100 THz 1 PHz

Frequency
Figure I a4
Skynoisetemperature fromradioto x-rays.Insetgivesattenuationby the atmosphere
and by rain. Thisfigurealso
appearsas Fig.2'l-44butis duplicated
herelor convenience.

brr**

P
N

2 ,
2
'egB o x >'tl
" = s S = 5g I
^:r =. *i i BI AE' a r ? : t ' - ai l v
'
l \ s' i .l . s ; F ; r ' 3 f F F ' l 5
- 0s ! f=
X ,?T q'B; 6 3 E S i l=g a
rl ! i' R l t1 l l 1 1 u
6-4=il
!.
3leF=i il )
3 *a" V i s - ? 2 i8 F
e a 1i - ta 1 a EIE
EE*i3 o = .
=
= :
t r - . >
l . ' - c
i = {
C
=
7
 124 Passive Remote Sensins 415

Earth-based Celestial

( #^
radiotelescope source
Cloud

at
(a)

Radiotelescope
on satellite Forest --*

Figure 12-7 ,{
(a) Earth-basedradiotelescope
remote-sensing celestialsource
throughintervening interstellar
cloud.
(b) Radiotelescopeon satellite
Antenna
remote-sensing the earththrough Receiver
, terminals terminals. Antenna
forest.(c) Receiverdetectingantenna /'""""-: ,line \ /
outputthroughtransmission line.The / Transmission \ /
cloud,forestand transmissionline have T T ' " \
analogousemitting-absorbing
properties. (c)

telescopeoriginates in the objects being observed,making for a passive remote sensing

system in distinction to radar or active remote sensingwhere signals are transmitted and
their reflectionsobservedand analyzed.The active caseis discussedin the next section.
Considerthe situation of Fig. l2-7a, in which the earth-basedradio telescopeantenna
beam is completely subtendedby a celestial sourceof temperature4 with an intervening
absorbing-emittingcloud of temperatureTr. With no cloud present,the incrementalantenna
temperature A,Tx: Tr, bu.t with the cloud it may be shown that the observed antenna
temperature

A,Ta - Tr(1 - e-',) * T, s-', (K) (1)

where rc : &bsorptioncoefficientof the cloudl (: 0 for no absorptionand : oo for infinite
absorption).Thus, knowing Z, and r,,the cloud's equivalentblackbody temperatureT, can
be determined.
Now, referring to Fig. I2-7b,let us reversethe situation and put the radio telescopeon
an orbiting satellitefor observingthe surfaceof the earthat temperatureT, with the antenna
beam completely subtendedby a large forest at a temperatureT1.The incremental satellite
antennatemperatureis then

LTa - Tf (1 - e-'r) * T, e-'.t (K) (2)

rt
le
lAstronomers call r. the "optical depth."
le The quantity e ', is equivalentto the efficiency factor e in (12_ 2-l).
420 chapter 12 Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing and Radar
cross Section

RESONANCES
SPHERE:D : 0.33,\,O.7SI STRAIGHTWIRE:L :
0.46A
LOOP:D : 0.35I HELIX(ct: 4.5.):Z : 0.55,tr
DISK:D : 0.45tr HELTXict : r f|: L: 0.72i

(C

61.2
O
E, H E LTX
1.0 {6 0.001i

r I wlRE 190.001,\
l5
19*O.OrZ,l
)p
a :11"
* l E * 0.012,1E
) 5 \
lQ a :4.5' \
R'8s:o.oo$,rh

v.+ U.5 0.6

LENGTH r OR DIAMETER D(i)
Figure 12-g
Rc_s(Radarcrosssection)varuesof wire,roop,disk,sphere
helices. and
Thewire,loop,anddiskvaruesarefromr<ouvoumiiunli),
spherefromMie(1)whire the
theherixvarues
arefrommeasurements by
Kraus(1).

rn doppler radarthe changein frequency Lf of the echo

with respectto the transmitted
frequency /s gives the velocity u of the obiect as

", : l\"f _,.

" r c (ms-,)
L .10 (t)
where

Lf : (doppler) shift of frequency,Hz

fo : transmitting frequency,Hz
c - 300 Mm s-r (for air)

For positive values of Lf (increasein echo frequency),

the object is approaching; for
negativevalues (decreasein echo frequency),it is receding (going
away).
By moving or scanningthe antennabeam, arad,arcanprovide
information on thedirec-
tion' distance, and velocity of objects within its view.
Also, since a returning pulse carries
426 Chapter 12 Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing and Radar Cross Section

RE]

o Mars 1030

Comet Hyakataki1018

Spaceshuttle10 to 10'

a,: I tX,l
.q;
Stealthaircraft< 10 " PRO
Jet liner103

Executivejet 10' * ){{

Barn swallow1o-2 Mosquito10 - 4

Trihedral
corner102

C r u i s es h i p1 0 "

Yacht1 to 10

6
e /
#'/
t=r
til
ff
--*_-_f{-

Adulthuman1
Automobile102
Figure 12-15
Land,sea,airandspaceobjectswith RCS valuesin squaremetersat 10 GHz.