Halogens

• Flourine
o Used to make PTFE & HCFCs
• Chlorine
o Used in the manufacture of Hydrochloric acid
o Used for PVC
o Used for water treatment
• Bromine
o Used in the manufacture of flame retardants
o Used in photography
• Iodine
o Used in antiseptic

Ions in solids and solutions

• E.g. Salt
o Ionic Lattice
 Negatively charged chlorine ions
 Positively charged Sodium ions
 Any water molecules in the ionic lattice are called water of crystallisation
• The crystals are said to be hydrated
o In Solution
 The hydrated ions are randomly arranged and behave independently
• Ionic equations
o If two react to form a solid it is a precipitation reaction.
o In a neutralisation an acid and an alkali react to form a covalent compound

Concentrations
• Concentration of solutions
o C = concentration
o N = amount of substance in moles
o V = volume of solution
o Concentration
 C=N/V
o Amount
 N=CxV
o Volume
 V=N/C
o N is always the one which gets divided (if at-all)

Ionisation Enthalpy
• The first ionisation enthalpy increases as the atomic number increases
o First ionisation enthalpy is the energy required to remove one electron from one
mole of isolated gaseous atoms
• First ionisation enthalpy decreases as you go down a group
o Because the attraction between the outermost electron and the nucleus decreases
o Because there are more filled electron shells
 The outermost electron if further from the nucleus
 The filled electron shells shields the positively charged nucleus from the
outermost electrons

Successive ionisation enthalpies

• First: X(g) -> X+(g) +e-
 • Second: X+(g) -> X2+(g) +e-
• Third: X2+(g) -> X3+(g) +e-
• Forth: X3+(g) -> X4+(g)+e-
• The second and subsequent ionisations involve the removal of an electron from a positive
ion
• Ionisation enthalpies increase as successive electrons are removed
• There is a sharp jump in ionisation enthalpy when an electron is removed from a full
electron shell

Oxidation
• When an oxidation and reduction reaction occurs simultaneously it is called a redox
reaction
o When an element is oxidised its oxidation state is increased
o When an element is reduced its oxidation number is decreased
• Atoms in elements always have an oxidation state of zero
• In compounds or ions oxidation states are assigned to each atom or ion
o Since compounds have no overall charge, the oxidation states of all the constituents
must add up to zero
o In ions the sum of the oxidation states is equal to the charge of the ion
• Some consistent oxidation states
o O is –2, F is –1
 Except for O2- and OF2
o H is +1
o Cl is –1
 Except when combined with O or F
• Some compounds contain elements that can exist in more than one oxidation state
o When this occurs, the systematic name for the compound includes the oxidation
state
 E.g. FeO is iron(II) oxide, Fe2O3 is iron(III) oxide
• A displacement reaction is when a more reactive halogen is passed into a solution of less
reactive halide ions
o E.g putting Cl2 into a solution of I

Group 7
• Fluorine
o Pale yellow gas
o Reacts with water
o Soluble in water and organic solvents
• Chlorine
o Green gas
o Slightly soluble to give a pale green solution (in water and organic solvents)
o White precipitate of silver chloride
• Bromine
o Dark red liquid
o Forms brown gas when heated
o Slightly soluble to give red/brown solution
o Soluble to give a red solution in organic solvents
o Cream precipitate of silver bromide
• Iodine
o Shiny black solid
o Sublimes when heated to give a purple vapour
o Not very soluble (in water) gives a brown solution
o Soluble in organic solvents to give a violet solution
 o Yellow precipitate of silver iodide
• General reaction
o X-=halide ion
 Ag+(aq) + X-(aq)-> AgX(s)

Electron structure: sub shells and orbitals

• Electrons exist in shells
o Theses are designated n=1, n=2, n=3 etc
 The further away a shell is from the nucleus the larger its n number
• These shells are sub dived unto sub-shells labelled s, p, d and f
o Each sub-shell is further divided into atomic orbitals
 Each atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons
• These two electrons must have opposite (or paired) spins
• Distribution of electrons in atomic orbitals
o n=1 has one sub-shell
 s
o n=2 has two sub-shells
 s and p
o n=3 has 3 sub-shells
 s, p and d
o n=4 has 4 sub-shells
 s, p, d and f
• Sub-shells
o S
 1 orbital
 2 maximum electrons
o P
 3 orbitals
 6 maximum electrons
o D
 5 orbitals
 10 maximum electrons
• The arrangement of electrons in shells and orbitals is called the electronic configuration
o The orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy
o Where there is more than one orbital at the same energy
 The orbitals are first occupied singly by electrons
• When each orbital is singly occupied then electrons pair up in
orbitals
o Electrons in singly occupied orbitals have parallel spins
o Electrons in doubly occupied orbitals have opposite spins
• Each orbital can be represented as a box, and each electron an arrow

•
Bonds between molecules: temporary and permanent dipoles
• In any liquid or solid there are bonds between molecules, these are called intermolecular
bonds
• A dipole is when a molecule (or part of a molecule) has a positive end and a negative end
o A molecule with a dipole is said to be polarised
o Molecules with permanent dipoles are polar molecules
• If a molecule does not have a permanent dipole then the electron density in the molecule
may be unevenly distributed at any one time
o This is called an instantaneous dipole
 The electron density changes and so does the polarity
o If molecules are close to a molecule with a dipole this may cause their electron
density to change
 This is called an induced dipole
• Molecular substances with dipoles attract each other
o There are two kinds
 Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole bonds
• The weakest kind of intermolecular bond
• Can happen to any type of molecule (even those with a permanent
dipole already)
• Because the electron clouds of every molecule are constantly
moving instantaneous dipole induced dipoles are being constantly
created and broken as the cloud swirls
o The more electrons an atom or molecule has the greater its
boiling point
 Permanent dipole-induced dipole bonds
• Molecules with permanent dipole have atoms with different electro
negativity values
• The slightly positively charged end of one molecule attracts the
slightly negative charged end of another molecule and so creates a
bond
• Permanent dipole-induced dipole bonds are stronger than
instantaneous dipole induced dipole bonds
o But are weaker than hydrogen bonds
• The degree to which an atom of an element attracts electrons is called its electronegativity
o The more electronegative an element the greater its attraction for electrons
 F>O>Cl>Br&N>I>S>C>H
• The difference between the electronegatives of C and H is so small
the bonds between them are considered non-polar

Halogenoalkanes
• The alkane chain name is prefixed with the name of the halogen
• Halogens are listed in alphabetical order
o With a number indicating the position of each
 E.g. 3-bromo-1-chlorobutane
• Boiling point increases with heavier halogen atoms
o OR with increasing numbers of halogen atoms
 This is because having heaver or more atoms increases the number of
electrons and so increases the instantaneous dipole induced dipole bonds
• Bond enthalpies and reactivity of Halogenoalkanes
o C-F strongest bond
o C-Cl
o C-Br
o C-I most reactive
 • Reactions of halogenoalkanes
o Homolytic fission (forming radicals)
 R-Cl -> R*+Cl*
o Heterolytic fission (Hal = any halogenoalkane)
 R-Hal -> R++Hal-
o substitution reactions
 R-Hal+X- -> R-X + Hal-
• Preparation of Halogenoalkanes e.g.
1. A tertiary alcohol (e.g. 2-methylpropan-2-ol) reacts (in standard conditions)
with concentrated hydrochloric acid
2. The reaction is carried out in a separation funnel
a. The chloroalkane forms a layer above the water
3. the chloroalkane layer (the upper one) is run off into a clean beaker
4. the chloroalkane solution is shaken with a solution of sodium
hydrogencarbonate
a. to remove any acidic impurities
5. the chloroalkane layer is run off a second time
6. anhydrous sodium sulphate ( a drying agent) is added
a. to remove any water
7. the chloroalkane is purified by distillation

Greener industry
• a chemical plant is a place that manufactures chemicals
o plant can also be used to describe and site equipment
 e.g. reactor vessels and storage facilities
• when chemicals are manufactured using a batch process
o the reactants are placed in a reaction vessel and allowed to react
o once they have finished reacting, the products are removed
o the vessel is cleaned and made ready for the next batch
• in a continuous process
o the starting materials are regularly fed at one end of the plant
o the product emerges at the other end
• Pros and cons
o Batch process
 Pros
• Cost effective
o For small quantities
• Low capital costs for plant
• Different products can be made with the same vessel
 Cons
• Filling, emptying and cleaning vessel is time consuming
• May require larger workforce
• Contamination possible if making different products in same vessel
o Continuous process
 Pros
• Suited to high tonnage products
• Can operate for months without stopping
• Easily automated
o So workforce can be smaller
 Cons
• Less flexible
o Designed for one product
• Much higher capital costs for the building the plant
 • Not cost effective if run below full capacity
• Raw materials are usually obtained form the ground or the atmosphere
o Raw materials can be converted into feedstocks
 The reactants that are fed in at the start of the process
• E.g. rock salt -> Brine -> products
o Brine is the feedstock
• Products made in reactions alongside the wanted product are called co-products
o They may, or may not, be useful
• By-products are the result of unwanted side reactions forming in a reaction
o The conditions of a reaction are designed to minimise by-products and maximise
desired products
• Fixed costs are costs in the manufacturing process which stay the same
• Variable costs are cost that depend on the amount of product made
• Recycling unreacted feedstock is a good way of reducing costs
• Factors potentially effecting the plants location
o A good transport network
o Labour availability
o Shared facilities
 The product of one plant may be the feedstock of another
o Cheap energy
o Water
 Can be important in the manufacturing process
• Percentage Yield
o Yield= Actual mass of product/ theoretical maximum mass of product
• Atom economy
o Atom economy= relative formula mass of useful product/ relative formula mass of
reactants used