Chapter 2: The Structure of the Atom

2.1 Matter

1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass; exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas.

2. Matter is made up of tiny and discrete particles.

3. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.

4. An ion is a positively-charged or negatively-charged particle.

5. Particles in matter are in motion.

6. Diffusion occurs when particles of a substance move in between the particles of another substance.

7. Diffusion of matter occurs most rapidly in gases, slower in liquids and slowest in solids, due to the
different arrangement and movement of particles in the three states of matter.

The kinetic theory of matter

(diagram)

i) The change in heat changes the state of matter.

ii) When a substance is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
iii) When a substance is cooled, the particles loss their kinetic energy and move slower.

State of Matter Solid liquid gas

Characteristic
Arrangement of particles
Forces of attraction
Movement of particles
Shape / volume
compressibility
are packed closely are packed closely Very far apart and in a
together in an orderly together but not in random motion
manner orderly manner
Strong forces Strong forces but Weak forces
weaker than the forces
in a solid
Particles vibrate and Particles vibrate, Particles vibrate,
rotate about their rotate and move rotate and move
fixed position throughout the liquid. freely. The rate of
They collide against collision is greater
each other than in liquid
- has a fixed volume - has a fixed volume Does not have a fixed
and shape and follows the shape shape of volume
of the container
Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed Can be compressed
easily easily

1
Do it yourself 2.1

1. Figure 1 below shows the heating curve of a pure substance at room temperature and pressure.

Temperature/oC U

S T

119 Q R

Time / minute

Figure 1

(a)Describe the movement of the particles of the pure substance at stage PQ of the curve?

(b)Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of particles of the substance at stage QR in the box below.

(c)Explain why the pure substance is not water?

2
(d)Samples of the pure substance at stage RS and TU are taken. Compare the movement of the particles of the
substance at these two stages.

(e)After heating at 500oC, the substance is cooled. Draw and label the cooling curve.

2. P Q
Ice water Salt solution

Apply Saturate it then Boil it, then cool

heat U Apply T cool the solution S R the vapour
heat

water steam salt water

(a)Name the process in

P: Q:

R: S:

T: U:

(b)What will occur if matter undergoes a change of state?

(c)Compare the intermolecular distance and the packing of particles in the solid state and the liquid state.

3
2.2 The Atomic Structure

The historical development of atomic models.

Scientist Atomic Models

1. John Dalton

- imagined the atom as a small indivisible ball similar to a very tiny ball

2.J.J. Thomson

- described the atom as a sphere of positive charge which contains a few

negatively-charged particles called electrons.

3. Ernest Rutherford

discovered proton
the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated in a
small, central region called the nuclues
electrons move in a space that is larger than the space occupied by the nucleus

4
4.Neils Bohr

Subatomic Symbol Relative Charge Location

particle mass
Proton p 1 +1 In the nucleus
In orbits around
Electron e electrons
proposed that the 1/1840
in an atom-1move in shells around the nucleus
the nucleus
Neutron n 1 0 In the nucleus

5.James Chadwick

proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles in the nucleus. Neutrons
contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom.

Protons, neutrons and electrons are subatomic particles of an atom.

i) Atoms are electrically neutral.

ii) The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
iii) The proton number of an element is the number of protons in its atom.
iv) The nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in its atom.
Therefore,

Nucleon number = proton number + number of neutrons

v) Each element has its own proton number.
vi) Each element is given a name and a symbol

Proton Element symbol Proton Element symbol

number number
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminium Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorus P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Flourine F 19 Potassium K

5
 10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca

An atom of an element can be written as A

X
Z

Where A is the nucleon number,

X is the symbol of an element,
Z is the proton number.

Do it yourself 2.2

Complete the table below.

27 19 23
Symbol of atom Al F Na
13 7 11
Proton number

Nucleon number

Number of protons

Number of electrons

Number of neutrons

Complete the table below

Element number of protons Number of neutrons Symbol of atoms

(symbol
)
Lithium
(Li)
Neon
(Ne)
Zinc
(Zn)

6
2.3 Isotopes and Their Importance

1. The isotopes of an element are the atoms of that element which contain a same number of
protons, but a different number of neutrons.

2. Isotopes of some element

Element Isotopes
Hydrogen 1 2 3
1H 1H 1H
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutron 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Carbon 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons
Oxygen 16 17 18
8O 8O 8O
8 protons 8 protons 8 protons
8 neutrons 9 neutrons 10 neutrons
Sulphur 32
S 34
S
16 16
16 protons 16 protons
-
16 neutrons 18 neutrons
Bromine 79 81
35 Br 35 Br
35 protons 35 protons
-
44neutrons 46 neutrons

3. The uses of isotopes in daily life

7
4. The electron arrangement of elements with proton number 1 to 20.
( must know how to memorize)

2.4 Electron Arrangements / Electron Structures

Field Isotopes applications

Medical • Gamma rays from cobalt- 60 are used to kill
cancer cell without surgery in patient. This
treatment is known as radiotherapy.
• Medical instrument are sterilized using gamma
rays.
• Radioactive materials such as iodide-131 are
injected into patients to detect malfunction of
thyroid glands.
Archeology • Radioisotope carbon -14 is used to study the
age of ancient artifacts.
• Carbon -14 is used to study the passage of
Agricultural carbon in photosynthesis of green plants.

Industrial • Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of

underground pipes.

8
 First shell: 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons

Third shell: 8 electrons

Last electron/s in the last outermost shell, we

called as valence electron.

Nucleus ( contains protons and nucleus)

Element Number of Number of Number of Number of Electron Number of

neutrons protons electrons nucleon arrangement valence
electrons
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Potassium
Calcium

Chapter 3: Chemical Formulae and Equations

Subtitle 3.1: Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass How to measure
mass of an atom?
Concept:

9
We can determine the mass of an atom relative to a standard atom Standard atom
1. hydrogen
2. oxygen
✄ not use any more
because gaseous form
are difficult to handle
Hydrogen as helium atom
standard atom 3. carbon-12
✔ Solid & easy to
handle
A Helium atom is 4 times heavier compare to a hydrogen atom. ✔ Also used as
Helium is said to have relative atomic mass of 4 standard for
mass
spectrometer

Check to:
Look at Ar of all
elements listed in
1/12 of one How many helium
periodic table
atom atoms are
carbon-12 here?????
from periodic table:
Important !!! Ar of Nitrogen is14
Define: The average mass
of a nitrogen atom is
Relative atomic mass, A r 14 times larger than
- of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element when 1/12 of a carbon-12
compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 atom.

Mr of Water
Relative atomic mass of an element Molecule is 18
= The average mass of one atom of an element The average
1/12 x the mass of an atom of carbon -12 mass of one water
molecule is 18 times
Define larger than 1/12
of a carbon-12 atom
Relative molecular mass, Mr
-of a molecule is the average mass of the molecule when compared with
1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

Relative molecular mass of an element

= The average mass of one molecule
1/12 x the mass of an atom of carbon -12
Get Ar value from
Important!!!! periodic table
Relative mass does not have any unit.

Numerical problems
A. About Relative Atomic Mass

1. How many times is copper atom heavier than two helium atom?
Solution:
Mass of a copper atom = Ar of copper
Mass of 2 helium atom 2 x Ar of helium
= 64
2x4

10
 = 8 times

2. How many magnesium atom have the same mass as two silver atoms?
Solution:
Lets the number of magnesium atoms = n
Mass of n magnesium atoms = mass of 2 silver atoms
So, n x Ar of magnesium = 2 x __________
n x 24 =

Do It Yourself

1. How many times is one atom of silicon heavier than one atom of lithium

2. Calculate the number of atoms of lithium that have the same mass as two atoms of nitrogen

3. The mass of one atom Y is A times larger than the mass of one nitrogen .Calculate the
relative atomic mass of Y.

B. About Relative Molecular Mass

To determine Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

Molecular Relative Molecular Mass

substance

Carbon dioxide, Ar of C + ( 2 x Ar of O) = 12 + (2 x 16 ) = 44

11
 CO2

Nitrogen gas, N2 2 x Ar of N = 2 x 14 = 28

Relative formula mass is used to replace Mr for ionic substances

Ionic substance Relative formula mass

Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH Ar of Na + Ar of O + Ar of H
= 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Aluminium sulphate, Al2 (SO4)3 2 x Ar of Al +3 ( Ar of S + 4 x Ar of O )
=

Hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4. Ar of Cu + Ar of S + 4 x Ar of O +

5H2O 5 ( Mr of H2O)
=

Do it yourself

1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of

a) Bromine, Br2 c) Ammonia, NH3

b) Methane, CH4 d) Glucose, C6H12O6

2. Calculate relative formula mass of

a) Zinc oxide, ZnO c) Copper(II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2

b) Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO)3 d) Hydrated sodium carbonate,

Na2CO3.10H2O

B. The Mole and the Number of Particles

Definition of mole

• The word ‘pair’ and ‘dozen’ represent a fixed number of objects.

12
• In chemistry, we use the unit ‘mole’ to measure the amount of substance. The symbol of mole is mol.
• 1 mol of substance = the number of particles in 12 g of carbon-12.
= 6.02 x 1023 particles.

• The value of 6.02 x 1023 is called as the Avogadro constant (NA).

• To determine the number of moles or the number of particles:

Number of particles = Number of moles × 6.02 x 1023

Number of particles
Number of moles =
6.02 x 10 23
Example 1:
i. 1 mol of iron atom = 6.02 x 1023 iron atoms
ii. 1 mol of hydrogen molecule = 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen molecules
iii. 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

Example 2:
A closed glass bottle contains 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O2.
i. How many oxygen molecules, O2 are there in the bottle?
ii. How many oxygen atoms are there in the bottle?

Solution:
i. Number of oxygen molecules = 0.5 x 6.02 x 1023
= 3.01 x 1023

ii. 1 oxygen molecule, O2 has 2 oxygen atoms.

Therefore, number of oxygen atoms
= number of oxygen molecules × 2
= 3.01 × 1023 × 2
= 6.02 × 1023

Example 3:
Find the number of moles of molecules in a sample containing 9.03 × 1023 molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2.

Solution:
9.02 × 10 23
Number of moles =
6.02 × 10 23
= 1.5 mol.

Do it yourself

[Avogadro constant = mol-1]

1 Define a mole?

13
 A mole is the

2 Calculate the number of atoms in 2 mol carbon.

Number of atoms =

3 How many ions are there in 1.5 mol sodium chloride, NaCl?

1 formula unit sodium chloride, NaCl has 2 ions which are 1 sodium ion and 1 chloride ion.
Thus, number of ions = number of formula units x 2
=

4 Calculate the number of moles of bromine molecules which consists 1.5 × 1022 of bromine
molecules.

Number of moles =

5 How many atoms are there in 2 mol of ammonia, NH3?

1 ammonia molecule, NH3 has 4 atoms which are 1 nitrogen atom and 3 hydrogen atoms.
Thus, number of atoms =

C. The mole and the mass of substances

Molar mass is

Unit of molar mass is g mol-1 or grams per mole.

The molar mass of a substance = the mass of 1 mol of the substance

= the mass of NA number of particles
= the mass of 6.02 x 1023 particles
Example:

Element/ Compound Relative mass Mass of 1 mol Molar mass

Lithium, Li 7 7g 7g mol-1
Iron, Fe 56 56g *122
Magnesium oxide, MgO 24+16=40 40g mol -1 2222
*2
Carbon dioxide, CO2 12+16x2=44

*1 : The value of molar mass of an element is equal to its relative atomic mass
*2 : The value of molar mass of a compound is equal to its relative molecular or formula mass

Formula: Number of moles = mass

Relative atomic mass

(or relative molecular mass or relative formula mass)

Example:

14
1. Calculate the number of moles found in 20g of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)

Solution:

Number of moles = mass

Relative formula mass
= 20
24 + 16
= 0.5 mol

2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.2 mol of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16)

Solution:
Number of moles = mass

Relative formula mass

Mass = number of moles x relative formula mass

= 0.2 x (24 + 16)g
= 8g

3. How many magnesium ions are there in 30g of magnesium oxide, MgO.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023)

Solution:

The relative formula mass of magnesium oxide, MgO = 24 + 16

= 40
Therefore, the molar mass of magnesium oxide, MgO = 40g mol-1

Number of moles of 30g magnesium oxide, MgO =

mass of MgO
Relative formula mass of MgO
= 30g
40 g mol-1
= 0.75 mol

The number of formula units of MgO = 0.75x 6.02 x 1023

= 4.515 x 1023
Each formula units of MgO has 1 magnesium ions.

Therefore, the number of magnesium ions = the number of formula units of MgO x 1
= 4.515 x 1023 x 1
= 4.515 x 1023

4. Calculate the mass in gram of 3 x 1022 units of magnesium oxide, MgO.

(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; O, 16. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023)

Solution:
Number of moles = number of particles
NA

15
 Mass = number of particles
Relative formula mass NA

Mass = number of particles x relative formula mass

NA
Mass of 3x1022 units of magnesium oxide, MgO= 3 x 1022 x (24+16)
6 X 1023

= 0.05 X 40
= 2g

Do It Yourself

1. Calculate the number of moles found in 9.5g of magnesium chloride, MgCl2.

(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5)

2. Calculate the mass in gram found in 0.3 mol of magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5)

3. How many chloride ions are there in 19g of magnesium chloride, MgCl2.
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023)

Form 4 TextBook
4. Calculate the mass in gram of 3 x 1022 units of magnesium chloride, MgCl2 . Work This Out 3.2
(Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5. Avogradro constant: 6.02 x 1023) Page 35

Quick Review C
Page 35

E. Chemical Formulae

A chemical formula is a representation of a chemical substance using letters for atoms and subscript
numbers to show the numbers of each type of atoms that are present in the substance.

Examples : (a) Glucose

Show the symbols for

carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
16
 C6 H12O6
Show the numbers of
carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
(b) Sodium hydroxide

Show the symbols for

magnesium, oxygen
and hydrogen. Mg (OH)2
Show the numbers of
magnesium, oxygen
and hydrogen.

(1) Empirical Formulae

(i) The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each
element present in the compound.

(ii) Steps in determining the empirical formula of a compound.

i. find the mass of each element in the compound
ii. convert the masses to the numbers of moles of atoms
iii. find the simplest ratio of moles of the elements

Example : 2.24 g of iron combines chemically with 0.96g of oxygen to form an oxide. What is the empirical
formula of the oxide ?
[ Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Fe, 56 ]

Element Iron, Fe Oxygen, O

Mass (g) 2.24 0.96

Number of moles of atoms 2.24 = 0.04 0.96 = 0.06

56 16
Ratio of moles 0.04 =1 0.06 =1.5
0.04 0.04
Simplest ratio of moles 1×2=2 1.5 × 2 = 3

The empirical formula of the oxide is Fe2O3.

Do it Yourself

1. The table below shows the relative atomic mass and the mass of elements V and O in an oxide.
Element V O
Relative Atomic Mass 56 16

17
 Mass(g) 5.6 2.4

What is the empirical formula of this compound ?

element V Oxygen, O
Mass (g) 5.6 2.4
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of moles

The empirical formula of the oxide is ……………………

2. Copper (II) iodide constains 20.13% of copper by mass. Find its empirical formula. [ Relative atomic
mass : Cu,64 ; I, 127 ]

Based on its percentage composition, 100g of copper(II) iodine contains 20.13g of copper. So, taking
100g of the compound.

element K Cl
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of moles

The empirical formula of the oxide is ………………….

3. A potassium compound has a percentage composition as the following

K, 31.84% ; Cl, 28.8% ; O, 39.18%
What is the empirical formula of the potassium compound ? [ Relative atomic mass : O, 16;
Cl,35.5; K, 39 ]

Based on its percentage composition, 100g of compound contains 31.84g of potassium, 28.98g of
chlorine and 39.18g of oxygen. So, by taking 100g of the compound:

element K Cl O
Mass (g)
Number of moles of
atoms
Ratio of moles

Simplest ratio of
moles

1 mole of potassium atoms combines with 1 mole of chlorine atoms and 3 moles of oxygen atoms.Therefore,
the empirical formula of the potassium compound is KClO3.
Form 4 TextBook
Work this out 3.7
(2) Molecular Formulae Page 42

(i) The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms of each element present
in a molecule of the compound.

(ii) The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula.

Molecular formula = ( Empirical formula )n

18
(iii) Relating empirical formula to molecular formula

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula n

Water H2O H2O = (H2O)1 1
Ethene CH2 C2H4 = (CH2)2 2
Ethane CH3 C2H6 = (CH3)2 2
propane CH2 C3H9 = (CH3)3 3
glucose CH2O C6H12O6 = (CH2O)2 6

(iv) Calculation involving molecular formulae

Example :
The empirical formula of a compound is CH. Its relative molecular mass is 78. Find its molecular
formula. [ Relative atomic mass : H, 1; C, 12 ]

Let the molecular formula be (CH)n.

The relative molecular mass = n[ 12 + 1 ]

= 13n

However, its molar mass is 78.

Therefore, 13n = 78
n = 78/13
=6

Hence, the molecular formula of the compound is (CH)6 or C6H6.

Do it yourself

1. A carbon compound has an empirical formula of CH2 and a relative molecular

mass of 70. Find the molecular formula of the compound. [ Relative atomic mass : H, 1; C, 12 ]

Hence, the molecular formula of the compound is (CH2)5 or C5H10.

2. 2.07 g of element Z reacts with bromine to form 3.67g of a compound with an
empirical formula of ZBr2. Find the relative atomic mass of element Z. [ Relative atomic mass: Br,
80 ]

element Z Br
Mass (g)

19
 Number of moles of
atoms

Simplest ratio of moles

(from the emp for given)

Based on the empirical formula ZBr2 , the ratio of

atoms of Z : Br is 1 : 2
FORM 4 Textbook
herefore, Work this out 3.8
2.07 : 0.02 = 1 : 2 Page 44
z

2.07/0.02z = ½

z = 207

The atomic mass of the element Z is 207.

(3) Ionic Formulae

(i) Ionic compounds are compounds consisting of anions and cations.

(ii) The formulae of some common cations

Cation ( positive ion ) Formula of cation Charge of cation

Sodium ion Na+ +1
Potassium ion K+ +1
Silver ion Ag+ +1
Hydrogen ion H+ +1
Ammonium ion NH4+ +1
Copper (II) ion Cu2+ +2
Calcium ion Ca2+ +2
Magnesium ion Mg2+ +2
Zinc ion Zn2+ +2
Barium ion Ba2+ +2
Iron (II) ion Fe2+ +2
Copper (I) ion Cu+ +1
Tin (II) ion Sn2+ +2
Lead (II) ion Pb2+ +2
Aluminium ion Al3+ +3
Iron (III) ion Fe3+ +3
Chromium (III) ion Cr3+ +3

(iii) The formulae of some common anions

20
 Anion ( negative ion ) Formula of anion Charge of anion
Fluoride ion F- -1
Chloride ion Cl- -1
Bromide ion Br- -1
Iodide ion I- -1
Hydroxide ion OH- -1
Nitrate ion NO3- -1
Nitrite ion NO2- -1
Hydride ion H- -1
Oxide ion O2- -2
Phosphate ion PO43- -3
Carbonate ion CO32- -2
Sulphate ion SO42- -2
Chromate (VI) ion Cr2O72- -2

(iv) The chemical formulae of ionic compounds are electrically neutral because the total of positive
charges are equal to the total of negative charges

(v) The chemical formula of an ionic compound can be constructed as the following :
i. identify and write down the formula of its cation and anion
ii. determine the number of cations and anions by balancing the positive and
negative charges.
iii. Write the formula of the compound
iv. The number of cations and anions are written as subscript numbers.

Magnesium chloride

Magnesium ion, Mg2+ Chloride ion, Cl-

1 magnesium ion, Mg2+ 2 chloride ions, Cl-

Total of positive charges Total of negative charges
=1 (+2) = 2 (-1)
=+2 = -2

MgCl2

Do it yourself

1. magnesium chloride

21
 2. aluminium oxide

Form 4 Textbook
3. aluminiuim hydroxide
Work This Out 3.9
Page 46
4. sodium sulphate

(4) Naming of chemical compounds

1. Chemical compounds are named systematically according to the guidelines given by the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
2. For ionic compounds, the name of the cation comes first, followed by the name of anion.

cation anion Name of ionic compound

Sodium ion Chloride ion Sodium chloride
Magnesium ion Oxide ion Megnesium oxide
Aluminium ion Oxide ion Aluminium oxide
Zinc ion Sulphate ion Zinc sulphate

3. Transition metals can form more than one ions, Roman numerals ( such as I, II, III ) are used to
differentiate the ions.
Fe2+ - iron (II) ion
Fe3+ - iron (III) ion

4. For simple molecular compounds, the name of the first element is maintained. However, the name of
the second element is added with an “ –ide “.
Examples : HCl – hydrogen chloride
HF - hydrogen flouride

5. Greek prefixes are used to show the number of atoms of each element in a compound.
Examples : CO – carbon monoxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide
CCl4 – carbon tetrachloride / tetrachloromethane
SO3 – sulphur trioxide

6. Table below shows the meaning of the prefixes.

prefix meaning prefix meaning

Mono- 1 Hexa- 6
di- 2 Hepta- 7
Tri- 3 Octa- 8
Tetra- 4 Nona- 9
Penta- 5 Deca- 10

Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.10
Page 47
F. CHEMICAL EQUATION

A) Qualitative aspect of chemical equation

♣ A chemical equation is a shorthand description of a chemical reaction.

♣ The starting substances are called reactants.

22
 ♣ The new substances formed are called products.

♣ The reactants are written at the left-hand side of the equation.

♣ The products are written at the right-hand side of the equation.

♣ A chemical equation also shows the states of each substance.

Symbol Physical states of substances

s Solid
ℓ Liquid
g Gas
aq Aqueous solution

Example :

Reactants Products
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
Zn (s) + Cl2 (g) ZnCl2 (s)

Do It Yourself 3f

Identify the reactants, products and the state of each substance. Present your answer in the form of a table.

1. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (i)

2. CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

3. HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)

Solution :

Reactants Products
1
2 Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.11
3
Page 49

B) Writing chemical equation

A chemical equation must be balanced. There must always be the same number of atom of each element on
each side of the equation.

23
Example :

Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl to produce magnesium chloride, MgCl2 and hydrogen gas,
H2. Write an equation to represent the reaction.

Write the equation in words. The reactants are written on the left whereas the
STEP 1 products are written on the right.

STEP 2 Write the correct chemical formula for each reactants and products.

Balance the equation. You just need to adjust the coefficients in front of the chemical
STEP 3 formulae and not the subscripts in the formulae.

STEP 4 Put the state symbols in the equation.

Solution :

STEP 1 Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas

Reactants Products
STEP 2 Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2

STEP 3 Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

STEP 4 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Do It Yourself 3.f B

Write a chemical equation for each of the following reactions.

1. A solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of sodium chloride. A precipitate of silver chloride and a
solution of sodium nitrate are produced.

2. Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to produce ammonia gas.

3. When solid lead (II) carbonate is heated strongly, it decomposes into solid lead (II) Form 4 Textbook
Work This Out 3.12
oxide and carbon dioxide gas is released.
Page 50

C) Quantitative aspect of chemical equation

The coefficients in a balanced equation tell us the exact proportions of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.

24
Example :
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

The equation tell us that 2 moles of hydrogen reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.

Or

The equation tell us that 2 molecules of hydrogen reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of
water.

D) Numerical problems involving chemical equation

Stoichiometry is a study of quantitative composition of substances involved in chemical reactions.

We can always make use of the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation to solve various numerical
problems.

Generally the steps involved in stoichiometric calculations are as follows.

STEP 1 Write the balanced equation of the reaction.

STEP 2 Compare the mole ratio.

STEP 3 Identify the information given and you want to find.

STEP 4 Calculate the number of moles.

Example :

Copper (II) oxide, CuO reacts with aluminium according to the following equation.

3CuO (s) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)

Calculate the mass of aluminium required to react completely with 12 g of copper (II) oxide, CuO.
[Relative atomic mass : O, 16 ; Al, 27 ; Cu, 64]

Solution :
3CuO (s) + 2Al (s) Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
3 mole 2 mole

The number of moles of 12g of Copper (II) oxide, CuO = 12 g

(64 + 16) g mol-1
= 12 g = 0.15 mol
80 g mol-1

Based on the chemical equation, 3 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO requires 2 mole of aluminium. Therefore,
the number of aluminium required by 0.15 mole of Copper (II) oxide, CuO

= 0.15 mole x 2 mole = 2 mole

3 mole

Thus the mass of aluminium required

25
 = 0.1 mol x 29 g mol-1 = 2.7 g

Do It Yourself 3f (D)
1. 2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)

How many moles of potassium are needed to reacts with 0.5 mole of bromine gas ?

Solution :
2K (s) + Br2 (g) 2KBr (s)
2 mole 1 mole

Information : ? mole 0.5 mole

Based on the equation, 1 mole of bromine gas reacts with 2 moles of potassium.

Therefore, 0.5 mole of bromine gas will react with

2 x 0.5 = 1 mole of potassium.

2. 1.35 g of aluminium reacts with excessive copper (II) oxide powder to produce aluminium oxide powder and
copper. Find the number of copper atoms produced.
[Relative atomic mass : Al, 27 ; Avogadro constant : 6.02 x 1023 mol-1]

3.
Zn (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

What is the mass of zinc needed to produce 2.4 dm3 of hydrogen gas at room conditions ?
[Relative atomic mass : Zn, 65 ; Molar volume 24 dm3 mol-1 at room conditions]

26
 More Exercises:

1. CuCO3  CuO + CO2

In this reaction, 3.1 g of copper(II) carbonate are heated in a laboratory. Find :

(a) the mass of copper (II) oxide that being produced.

(b) the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced at s.t.p

2. CaCO3  CaO + CO2

In this reaction, 300 cm3 gas carbon dioxide are produced at room temperature, when calcium carbonate
are heated. Find:
(a) the mass of calcium carbonate used.
(b) mass of calcium oxide produced.

3. 2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2

When 0.23 g of sodium is added to water, the metal will react vigorously at the surface of the water, find
(a) the mass sodium hydroxide produced.
(b) volume of hydrogen gasses being produced at temperature room.

4. 2Mg + O2  2MgO

A strip of magnesium has a weight of 1.2 g are being burn with sufficient oxygen to produced magnesium
oxide. Find:
(a) the mass magnesium oxide being produced.
(b) the mass of oxygen that needed for this reaction.

5. C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O

Propane gas was burned in oxygen follow as equation above. If 3.36 dm 3 of carbon dioxide gas are
produced in this reaction at s.t.p, find
(a) the mass of propane burned
(b) volume of oxygen gas that reacted

27
6. 2Al + 3CuO  Al2O3 + 3Cu

1.35g of aluminium powder and copper (II) oxide was heated strongly in laboratory to produced aluminium
oxide and copper. Find
(a) the mass of copper (II) oxide reacted
(b) the mass of aluminium oxide produced.
(c) the mass of copper produced.

CHAPTER 4.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

28
A. Historical Development of the Periodic Table

Scientist like to find patterns. In the 18th and 19th

centuries, scientist discovered many elements. The
elements found were classified through many stages
of hard work by scientist. This led to the development
of the Periodic Table of Elements that we use today.

Here is the history of

Periodic Table of Elements.

Antoine Lavoisier
• First chemist who classify the element into 4 group.
• The 4 group consisted of gases, metal, non-metal and metal oxide.
• Element in the group is classify into metal and non-metal.

Group I Group II Group III Group IV

Oxygen Sulphur Arsenic Potassium oxide

Nitrogen Phosporus Bismut Barium oxide
Hidrogen Carbon Cobalt Silicon(IV) oxside
Light Chlorin Lead Magnesium oxide
Heat Fluorin Zinc Aluminium oxide
Nikel
Stanum
Argentum

Johann W. Dobereiner

Classify the element with same chemical properties into a few group
• Each of group consisted from 3 element called triad.
• He found that the relative atomic mass of the element in the middle of
each triad is approximately equal to the average atomic mass of other
two elements.
• Triad law show the relationship between the relative atomic mass of
elements with it chemicals properties.
• This law cannot be use to most of the other element.

29
 Average atomic
Lithium Sodium Potassium
Element in triad mass
Li Na K
Li and K
Relative atomic 7 + 39 = 23
7 23 39 2
mass

Chlorine Bromine Iodine Average atomic

Element in triad
Cl Br I mass Li and K
Relative atomic 35 + 127 = 81
35 80 127
mass 2

Ca Sr Ba (40 + 137) ÷ 2 = 88
Li Na K Cl Br I
7 23 39 35 80 127
John Newlands
• Arranged 62 known elements in order of increasing nucleon number
(atomic weights ) in horizontal rows.
• He noted that after interval of eight elements similar physical/chemical
properties reappeared.
• He was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties of
the chemical elements.
• He proposed the Law of Octaves:

Elements exhibit similar behavior to the eighth

element following it in the table.

• He was not successful because;

i. Was only accurate for the first 16 elements (from hydrogen
to potassium)
ii. There were no gaps allocated from the elements yet to be
discovered.

Lothar Meyer

• Determine the volume of an atom of an element.

• Formula;
Volume of an atom
= mass of one mole-atom of the element
Density of the element

• He plotted a graph of volume of atoms of elements against their relative atomic

masses to produce meyer’s atomic volume curve.
• From the graph he found elements occupying the corresponding positions of
the curve exhibit similar chemical properties. example

Li, Na, K, Rb : located at the peak of

the curve

Be, Mg, Ca, Sr : located after the

maximum point
30
• Like Newlands, Meyer showed the properties of the elements recured
periodically.
 Dimitri Mendeleev
•
• Arranged the elements in order of increasing
atomic weights and properties.
• He left gaps for elements yet to be discovered.
He arranged the element that have the same properties in
group.

31
Henry Mosely

• He was able to derive the relationship between x-ray frequency and number of protons. and
obtained a straight line graph.
• When Moseley arranged the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses, some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table were eliminated.
• The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's Periodic Law (atomic numbers/proton number).
• He suggest proton number determine the position of elements in periodic table.
• He arranged elements in periodic table in order of increasing proton number.
• He also left gaps for the elements yet to be discovered.

Henry Mosely Periodic Table

32
 What is the basic principle applied
in arranging the elements in the
Periodic Table today?

Arrangements of elements in the

Periodic Table

• Elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in an increasing order of proton number.
• Elements with similar chemical properties are placed in the same vertical column.
• There are 18 vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table. Each column is called group. The
vertical columns are known as Group 1 to Group 18.
• There are 7 horizontal rows of elements in the Periodic Table. Each of these horizontal rows of
elements is called a period. The horizontal rows are known as Period 1 to Period 7.

33
 Do you know how the electron
arrangement of the atom of an element
related to its group and period?????

1. The number of valence electrons in an atom decides the position of the group of an element.

The number of
1 2 3+10 4+10 5+10 6+10 7+10 8+10
valence electron
Group in The
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Periodic Table

2. The number of shells occupied with electrons in its

atom decides the period number of an element.

Example 1;

40
Number of proton = 20
20
X Number of electron = 20
Number neutron = 20
Electron arrangement = 2.8.8.2
The number of valence electrons = 2
The number of shells =4

Group in the Periodic Table = 2

Period in the Periodic Table = 4

Example 2;

16 Number of proton =8
8 Y Number of electron = 8
Number neutron =8

Electron arrangement = 2.6

The number of valence electrons = 6
The number of shells =2

Group in the Periodic Table = 16

Period in the Periodic Table = 2

34
Example 3;

Number of proton = 18
40
Number of electron = 18
18
Z Number neutron = 22

Electron arrangement =
The number of valence electrons =
The number of shells =

Group in the Periodic Table =

Period in the Periodic Table =

Hw: WTO 4.3 pg. 62 no. 1,2,3

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

B. GROUP 18 ELEMENTS

GROUP 18

http://periodictable.com/
1.The elements in Group 18 are
Helium 2
Neon 2.8
Argon 2.8.8
Krypton 2.8.18.8
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8
Radon2.8.18.32.18.8

1. They are also known as noble gases, which are chemically unreactive. Noble gases are
monoatomic.

2. Helium has two valence electrons. This is called duplet electron arrangement.

3. Other noble gases have eight valence electrons. This is called octet electron
arrangement.

35
4. Duplet and octet electron arrangements are very stable because the outermost occupied
shells are full.

5. All nobles gases are inert which means chemically unreactive.

Why noble gases exist as monoatomic

gases and are chemically unreactive?

BECAUSE THE OUTERMOST OCCUPIED

SHELLS ARE FULL

Physical Properties of Group 18 Elements

1. Group 18 elements have very small atom.

2. They are colourless gases a room temperature and pressure.

3. They have low melting and boiling point.

4. They have low densities.

Elements/ Electron Atomic Melting Boiling Density
symbol arrangement radius (nm) points (°C) points (g cm-3)
(°C)
Helium 2 0.050 -270 -269 0.17
Neon 2.8 0.070 -248 -246 0.84
Radon 2.8.8 0.094 -189 -186 1.66
Krypton 2.8.18.8 0.109 -156 -152 3.45
Xenon 2.8.18.18.8 0.130 -112 -107 5.45
Radon 2.8.18.32.18.8 - -71 -62 -
Table 1: Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

4. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.
5. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease

Uses of Group 18 elements

Helium
• Used to fill airships and weather balloons, because the gas is very light.
• The diver’s oxygen tank contains a mixture of helium (80%) and oxygen (20%).

Neon
• Advertising lights.
• Television tubes.
• Airport landing bulb to help aero plane landing safely.

Argon

36
 • To fill light bulbs, it can last longer
• To provide inert atmosphere for welding at high temperature.

Krypton
• Used in lasers to repair the retina of the eye.
• To fill photographic flash lamps.

Radon
• Used in treatment of cancer.

Xenon
• Used in bubble chambers in atomic energy reactors.

Hw: QR B pg. 65 no. 1,2

C. GROUP 1 ELEMENTS
GROUP 1

http://periodictable.com/

6. The elements in Group 1 are

Lithium 2.1
Sodium 2.8.1
Potassium 2.8.8.1
Rubidium 2.8.18.8.1
Caesium 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium 2.8.18.32.18.8.1

7. They are also known as alkali metals which react with water to form alkaline
solutions.

8. All Group 1 elements have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.

Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

1. Group 1 elements are soft metals with low densities and
low melting points as compared to other metals such as iron
and copper.

37
2. They have silvery and shiny surfaces.

3. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.

Elements/ Electron Atomic Melting Boiling Density

symbol arrangement radius points (°C) points (g cm-3)
(nm) (°C)
Lithium, Li 2.1 0.15 180 1336 0.57
Sodium, Na 2.8.1 0.19 98 883 0.97
Potassium, K 2.8.8.1 0.23 64 756 0.86
Rubidium, Rb 2.8.18.8.1 0.25 39 701 1.53

Table 1: Physical Properties of Group 1 Elements

6. From Table 1, when going down the group, atomic size and density increase.

7. When going down the group, melting points and boiling points decrease

Chemical Properties of Group 1 Elements

Lithium, sodium and potassium have similar chemical properties

but differ in reactivity.

Let us carry out this Experiment!

Practical Book Experiment 4.1, page 35
Activity 4.3, page 38

1. Alkali metals react vigorously with water to produce alkaline

metal hydroxide solutions and hydrogen gas.

[Video]

38
Chemical equation;

2Li + 2H2O → 2LiOH + H2

Lithium Water Lithium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

Sodium Water Sodium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Potassium Water Potassium Hydrogen
hydroxide gas

2. Alkali metals react rapidly with oxygen gas, to produce white solid metal oxides.
Chemical equations;

4Li + O2 → 2Li2O
Lithium Oxygen Lithium
gas oxide
4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
Sodium Oxygen Sodium
gas oxide

4K + O2 → 2K2O
Potassium Oxygen Potassium
gas oxide

3. Alkali metals burn in chlorine gas to form white solid metal

chlorides.

39
 Chemical reaction;

2Li + Cl2 → 2LiCl

Lithium Chlorine Lithium
gas chloride

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Sodium Chlorine Sodium
gas chloride

2K + Cl2 → 2KCl
Potassium Chlorine Lithium
gas chloride

4. Alkali metals burn in bromine gas to form metal bromides.

For example,

2Li + Br2 → 2LiBr

Lithium Bromine Lithium
gas bromide

2Na + Br2 → 2NaBr

Sodium Bromine Sodium
gas bromide

2K + Br2 → 2LiBr
Potassium Bromine Potassium
gas bromide

5. Therefore, alkali metals have similar chemical properties.

Why alkali metals have similar

chemical properties?

Alkali metals have one valence electron in their outermost occupied shells.

Each of them reacts by donating one electron from its outermost occupied shell to form
an ion with a charge of +1, thus achieving the stable electron arrangement of the atom of
noble gas.

Li  Li+ + 1e-
2.1 2

40
 Na  Na+ + 1e-
2.8.1 2.8

K  K+ + 1e-
2.8.8.1 2.8.8

6. The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases down the group.

Why The reactivity of Group 1

elements increases down the group?

Going down Group 1, the atomic size (atomic radius) increases.

The single valence electron in the outermost occupied shell

becomes further away from the nucleus

Hence, the attraction between the nucleus and the valence

electron becomes weaker

Therefore, it is easier for the atom to donate the single valence

electron to achieve the stable electron arrangement.

Safety precautions in handling Group 1 elements

Alkali metals are very reactive. Safety precautions must be taken when handling alkali
metals.

The elements must be stored in paraffin oil in bottles

Do not hold alkali metals with your bare hands
Use forceps to handle them
Wear safety goggles
Wear safety gloves
Use a small piece of alkali metal when conducting experiments

Hw: QR C pg. 69 no. 1,2,3

41