1 Scattering theory, lecture notes 1.1.

4 Scattering amplitude and cross-section

A short exposition of basic topics in quantum scattering. The function f (r̂) in Eq. (1) is the scattering amplitude into the
See: Griffiths D.J., Introduction to quantum mechanics, chapter direction r̂.
11. A simple consideration of the incoming and outgoing particle
Messia A. Quantum mechanics, vol. 2, chapter 19. fluxes (omitted here) shows that the differential cross-section of
scattering into the infinitesimal solid angle dΩ around the direction
r̂ is
1.1 Elementary considerations dσ
= | f (r̂)|2 .
1.1.1 Scattering of plane waves dΩ

We consider the scattering of a stationary incident plane wave The total cross-section is by definition
exp (ikx) on a potential V (x) which is appreciably nonzero only Z
dσ
in a neighborhood of x = 0, more exactly at |x| < a. σtot = d2Ω .
dΩ
The incoming wave mostly goes past V (x) without change, but
a small part of the wave is scattered into the outgoing wave. The Note that the analogy with the hard-sphere scattering is incom-
outgoing wave is not a plane wave exp (iqx) but is similar to a plete: the total cross-section σtot is not equal to the cross-section
spherical wave r−1 exp (ikr) although it has different amplitudes in area that would catch all scattered particles because in general all
different directions, so it is of the form f (r̂) r−1 exp (ikr) at large particles are scattered, if only by a small angle.
r ≡ |x|. (Here r̂ is the unit vector in the direction of the vector
x.) Therefore the total (stationary) wave function has the following
asymptotic form, 1.2 Partial wave expansion
h i
ψ (x) ≈ A eikx + f (r̂) r−1 eikr , r  a. (1) The method of partial wave expansion is a special trick to sim-
plify the calculation of the scattering amplitude f (r̂), especially
This is the boundary condition which is appropriate for scattering. for spherically symmetric potentials V (x) = V (r).
Remarks:
1. The spherical part r−1 exp (ikr) has the same wave number 1.2.1 Definition
k as the incident wave. This is because (by assumption) the
scattering potential goes to zero at large r  a, so the energy Partial wave expansion is an expansion of the wave function in
of the outgoing particles is the same as that of the incoming spherical harmonics,
particles.
ulm (r)
ψ (x) = ∑ Ylm (r̂) , (4)
2. The function f (r̂) defined by Eq. (1) has the dimension of l,m r
length.
where ulm (r) are (complex) functions of the radius r. The hope
1.1.2 How to obtain the scattered wave is that the equation for ulm (r) is easier to solve than the original
Schrödinger equation.
The function ψ (x) must be a solution of the stationary Schrödinger
The spherical harmonics Ylm (r̂) are orthogonal functions on the
equation,
2 2-sphere,
h̄
− ∆ψ +V (x) ψ = Eψ.
Z
(2) Ylm (r̂)Yl 0 m0 (r̂) d 2 r̂ = δll 0 δmm0 .
2µ
(Here µ denotes the mass of the particle; later we shall have to use
the letter m as an index.) If we somehow find the solution of this 1.2.2 Application to Schrödinger equation
equation which satisfies the boundary condition (1) at large r, we
shall solve the scattering problem in principle. If the wave function is expanded as in Eq. (4), the Schrödinger
Our considerations below are devoted to different ways of solv- equation (2) is reduced to the following equation for ulm (r),
ing Eq. (2) with the boundary condition (1).
d2
 
2 2µV (r) l (l + 1)
ulm + k − − ulm = 0. (5)
1.1.3 Scattering of wave packets dr2 h̄2 r2
The consideration of plane waves is an idealization. A stationary Here k is related to the energy E by Eq. (3).
plane wave exp (ikx) represents a particle with the energy
h̄k2 1.2.3 Asymptotic solutions at large r
E= (3)
2m
We assume (only in this section; our further results do not use this
moving with a definite momentum h̄k. The position of the parti-
assumption) that at large r  a the potential V (r) falls off faster
cle is completely undefined. A more realistic consideration would
than r−2 . Then we can disregard the V (r) term and obtain the
be to use time-dependent wave packets with a finite width (much
following asymptotic form of Eq. (5) at large r:
larger than the width a of the potential). That calculation would be
more complicated and the end result is almost the same as that of l (l + 1)
the plane wave calculation. u00lm − u + k2 u ≈ 0.
r2

1
The general solution of this equation is a combination of the Here cos θ ≡ k̂r̂ = k̂ẑ. Note that Ylm (θ, φ) ∝ exp (imφ) and there-
(1,2) fore only the harmonics Ylm with m = 0 occur,
spherical Hankel functions hl ,
r
2l + 1
ulm (r) (1) (2)
= Alm hl (kr) + Blm hl (kr) . Yl0 (r̂) = Pl (cos θ) ,
r 4π
where Pl (x) are the Legendre polynomials (see 1.2.13).
Note that there are two asymptotic regions at large r: the first
−2 The function jl (kr) at large kr contains both exp (ikr) and
region where V (r) can be disregarded but l (l + 1) r is retained,
−2 exp (−ikr),
and the second region where l (l + 1) r is disregarded and the
1 + O z−1


solution is simply the spherical wave exp (ikr).
 
lπ
−2
If the potential does not fall off faster than r , the asymptotic j l (z) ≈ sin z − , z → ∞, (8)
z 2
regime with Bessel functions never appears. Regardless of this,
at sufficiently large r such that the equation (5) becomes approxi- therefore (as expected) the plane wave exp (ikx) is neither purely
mately outgoing nor purely incoming, but a mixture of the two.
u00lm + k2 ulm = 0,
1.2.6 Partial wave expansion of the scattered wave function
the solutions are linear combinations of exp (±ikr). Ultimately we
shall only need the asymptotics of this form, so our considerations Suppose we know the wave function ψ (x) for a particular scatter-
apply also for potentials that fall off slower than r−2 . (However, ing problem with a spherically symmetric potential V (r). Then we
the partial wave technique does not apply to the Coulomb potential can derive a partial wave expansion for the wave function and for
V ∼ r−1 .) the scattering quantities.
(To describe scattering, it is enough to know ψ (x) asymptoti-
1.2.4 Spherical Bessel functions cally at large r ≡ |x|.)
Assume that the wave function is asymptotically (for r  a) of
The first few functions hl (z) are the form (1). The plane wave is expanded as in Eq. (7), where the
z axis is chosen along the vector k. The outgoing portion of the
(1) 1
h0 (z) = eiz , wave function contains only exp (ikr) and therefore it is expanded
iz (1) (2)
  in partial waves using only hl but not hl ,
(1) 1 i iz
h1 (z) = − − 2 e ,
z z exp (ikr)
= ∑ Clm hl (kr)Ylm (r̂) ,
(1)
f (r̂)
r
 
(1) i 3 3i iz lm
h2 (z) = − − e ,
z z2 z3 where Clm are some complex coefficients (the
(2)
h
(1)
i∗ partial wave amplitudes). Since the potential is spherically
while hl (z) = hl (z) . The factor at eiz is always a polynomial symmetric, the amplitude f (r̂) depends only on the angle θ but
in 1/z of degree l + 1, and the asymptotic behavior is not on the angle φ. Therefore only Ylm with m = 0 contribute to
the expansion; we denote Cl ≡ Cl0 .
(1) eiz So the partial wave expansion of ψ at large r is
−1
, z → ∞.



hl (z) ∼ l+1 1 + O z (6)
i z ∞
" r #
2l + 1
ψ (x) ≈ A ∑ i (2l + 1) jl (kr) +
(1)
(1,2)
l
Cl hl (kr) Pl (cos θ) .
The spherical Hankel functions hl belong to the family l=0 4π
of Bessel functions. One defines the real functions jl (z) and
(1,2) It follows that in the notation of 1.2.2 the function ul (r) ≡ ul0 (r)
nl (z) by hl (z) = jl (z) ± inl (z). The jl s are called the
is
spherical Bessel functions and the nl s are the spherical Neumann
functions. This relationship is quite similar to the relation between ul (r) p (1)
≈ il 4π (2l + 1) jl (kr) +Cl hl (kr) , kr  1. (9)
the functions exp (±ix) and cos x, sin x: r

e±ix = cos x ± i sin x. 1.2.7 Scattering quantities

Unlike sin z, the function nl (z) is infinite at the origin; also, none At large kr  1, the Hankel functions have the asymptotic (6).
of the spherical Bessel functions are periodic. Therefore the scattering amplitude is expanded as

1 ∞ Cl
r
2l + 1
1.2.5 Partial wave expansion of plane waves f (r̂) = f (θ) = ∑ l+1 Pl (cos θ) .
k l=0 i 4π
Since a plane wave exp (ikx) is a solution of the Schrödinger equa- The differential cross-section is
tion with V = 0, we should also be able to expand it into partial
dσ
waves. To simplify the expansion, we choose the z axis along k, so = | f (θ)|2 ,
that the plane wave is independent of the asimuthal angle φ. The dΩ
resulting formula (the Rayleigh expansion) is and the total cross-section is found from the simple formula
∞ 1 ∞
exp (ikx) = ∑ i (2l + 1) jl (kr) Pl (cos θ) .
l
(7) σtot = ∑ |Cl |2 .
k2 l=0
l=0

2
1.2.8 How to determine the partial wave amplitudes Cl large-r asymptotic of ul as
In 1.2.6 we have assumed that the wave function ψ is known and il 4π (2l + 1) exp −ikr + i lπ
p

ul (r) 2
we expanded it in partial waves. The various scattering quantities ≈−
r" 2i kr
are easy to find if we know the coefficients Cl . However, the usual #
− i lπ
p

il 4π (2l + 1) Cl exp ikr
problem is the inverse: the function ψ and the partial wave coeffi- + + l+1 2
.
cients are unknown. 2i i kr
To obtain these coefficients, one must solve Eq. (5) without dis-
On the other hand, the same asymptotic must be reproduced by the
regarding the V (r) term. The boundary conditions for this second-
ansatz (10),
order equation are the following: ul (r) /r remains finite at r → 0,
and the r → ∞ behavior is given by Eq. (9). These two boundary ul (r) Al exp ikr − i lπ lπ



2 + iδl − exp −ikr + i 2 − iδl
conditions are sufficient to fix the solution ul (r) uniquely and to ≈ .
r r 2i
determine the coefficient Cl .
The coefficients at exp (±ikr) must be equal in these expressions.
Therefore the phase shifts δl are related to the partial wave ampli-
1.2.9 Which partial waves contribute tudes Cl by the formula
Usually, the coefficients Cl are of the order (ka)l and decay quickly
C e2iδl − 1
with l when ka  1 (the long-wave, or low-energy, limit). In the p l = eiδl sin δl = , (11)
latter case, only a few partial waves, or even just the first one (the il+1 4π (2l + 1) 2i
l = 0 or the s-wave), gives a good approximation to the scattering and the amplitude A must be
l
cross-section.
In the high-energy limit, the partial wave expansion is less ef- eiδl l p
Al = i 4π (2l + 1). (12)
fective since we have to add many terms Cl , l = 0, 1, 2, ... to obtain k
a good approximation to σtot .
1.2.12 Physical interpretation of phase shifts
1.2.10 The method of phase shifts Suppose that there is no scattering (set V = 0). Then f (r̂) ≡ 0,
Above we have described the scattering process using the the par- all Cl = 0, and the solutions of the radial equation (5) are the pure
tial wave amplitudes Cl . The coefficients Cl are complex numbers spherical Bessel functions jl . The functions jl have the asymp-
which we must obtain by solving the radial equation (5) with the totic (8). Therefore the asymptotic form of the radial solution at
boundary conditions (9). A procedure that does not require the large r would be
spherical Bessel functions is the method of phase shifts. 
lπ

When we solve Eq.(5) with the boundary conditions, the solu- ul (r) ≈ Al sin kr − .
2
tion will presumably be found as an explicit function of r. At r → ∞
(at r sufficiently large that the l (l + 1) r−2 term can be disregarded)
Comparing this to the asymptotic formula (10), we find that the
phase shifts δl are all zero when there is no scattering. Also, it
the equation becomes u00 + k2 u ≈ 0 and therefore the solution can
be written in the form follows the only effect of scattering is to introduce phase shifts
  into the partial waves, while the intensities |Al | of the partial waves
lπ
ul (r) ≈ Al sin kr − + δl , r → ∞, remain unchanged, according to Eq. (12).
(10)
2 Note that the phase shifts δl are defined only up to a multiple of
with some (complex) normalization constant Al and a (real) π. This is because Al sin (... + δl ) merely changes sign if we add π
phase shift δl . We chose sin and not cos for convenience: the to the phase shift δl , while the constant Al is still undetermined and
phases δl = 0 when there is no scattering, i.e. when V (r) = 0 can absorb this sign. Compare with Eq. (11) which contains only
(see 1.2.12 below). exp (2iδl ). Therefore we may always assume that 0 ≤ δl < π.
The crucial point is that the phase shift δl is uniquely determined
by the radial equation without using the boundary condition at large 1.2.13 Some properties of Legendre polynomials
r. It is enough to use the regularity condition at r = 0. The Legendre polynomials Pl (x) can be derived from the generat-
On the other hand, the normalization constant Al can be deter- ing function,
mined only if we use the boundary condition (9). But it turns out ∞
1
(see below) that only the phase shifts δl are needed to describe the √ = ∑ Pl (x) zl .
1 − 2xz + z2 l=0
scattering.
To obtain just one real number δl from a complicated equa- This relation can be used as a convenient definition of the polyno-
tion (5) by matching the solution to a simple sine curve is an easier mials Pl (x).
task than that of matching to a combination (9) of spherical Bessel It follows immediately that
functions and obtaining a complex number Cl . This is the advan- ∞
1
tage of the method of phase shifts. = ∑ Pl (1) zl ⇒ Pl (1) = 1 for all l.
1 − z l=0
1.2.11 Relation of phase shifts to partial wave amplitudes The Legendre polynomials are orthogonal on the [−1, 1] range:
Assume that in Eq. (10) the phase shift δl is known but the ampli- Z 1
2
tude Al is not yet known. From Eqs. (6), (8), and (9), we find the Pl (x) Pm (x) dx = δlm .
−1 2l + 1

3
This relation can be derived directly from the generating function: 1.2.16 Finding the phase shifts δl by WKB approximation
since
The phase shifts δl must be obtained by solving the radial equa-
√
Z 1
dx 1 1 + ab tion (5). This equation has the form of a Schrödinger equation of
p = √ ln √ ≡ g (ab) a particle with mass µ moving at the energy level E = 0 between
−1 (1 − 2ax + a2 ) (1 − 2bx + b2 ) ab 1 − ab
r = 0 and r = ∞ in the potential
is a function only of ab (this is an elementary but cumbersome
h̄2
 
calculation), it follows that l (l + 1) 2
U (r) ≡ V (r) + −k .
2µ r2
Z 1
Pl (x) Pm (x) dx = 0 if l 6= m. Typically there will be a turning point at small r where U (r) =
−1
0. We assume that the potential V (r) does not go to the negative
The normalization factor 2l + 1 appears in the Taylor expansion of infinity faster than r−2 , more precisely, that U (r) > 0 as r → 0, and
g (ab) because that there is only one turning point at r = r0 where U (r0 ) = 0.
From the standard formula of the WKB approximation near a
d  2

 2 2 4

√ turning point we find the approximate wave function for r  r0 as
sg s = = 2 1 + s + s + ... , s ≡ ab,
ds 1 − s2  
s
π
Z r
and so l (l + 1) 2µV (r)
∞
ul (r) ≈ A sin  + k2 − − dr .
s2l+1 4 r2 h̄2
sg s = 2 ∑
2

r0
.
l=0 2l + 1
It is clear that at very large r this function is of the form (10) where
the phase δl is defined by
1.2.14 Scattering quantities in terms of phase shifts
 s 
It follows from Eq. (11) that the scattering amplitude f (r̂) is π
Z r
l (l + 1) 2µV (r) lπ
δWl
KB
= lim  + k2 − − dr − − kr .
∞ r→∞ 4 r0 r2 h̄2 2
1
f (r̂) = f (θ) = ∑ (2l + 1) e sin δl Pl (cos θ) .
h i
iδl
k l=0 (15)
This is the approximate formula expressing the phase shifts δl
Using the orthogonality of Pl (x), we find that the total scattering through the potential V (r). The actual phase shifts δl are not pre-
cross-section is expressed as cisely equal to δW KB but we can expect that δ ≈ δW KB if the po-
l l l
tential V (r) changes sufficiently slowly with r.
4π ∞
Z π
σtot = 2π dθ sin θ | f (θ)|2 = 2 ∑ (2l + 1) sin2 δl . (13)
0 k l=0 1.2.17 Applicability of the phase shift method

This is interpreted as the sum of contributions The limit in Eq. (16) exists if the potential V (r) falls off rapidly
enough. This can be seen by rewriting
4π
σl ≡ (2l + 1) sin2 δl s 
k2 Z r
 k2 − l (l + 1) − 2µV (r) − k dr
of each partial wave with index l. r0 r2 h̄2
l(l+1)
Z r
r2
+ h̄2µ2 V (r)
1.2.15 Optical theorem derived from phase shifts =− q dr.
(r)
r0 k2 − l(l+1)
r2
− 2µV
h̄2
+k
The optical theorem connects the total scattering cross-section
σtot
and the imaginary part of the scattering amplitude Im f k̂ evalu- The latter integral converges at r → ∞ if and only if the integral of
ated at r̂ = k̂, i.e. for particles scattered in the forward direction. V (r) converges,
Since r̂ = k̂ corresponds to cos θ = 1 and θ = 0, we find
Z ∞
V (r) dr < ∞.
∞ r0
1
Im f (θ)θ=0 = ∑ (2l + 1) Im eiδl sin δl
h i
k l=0 Therefore a sufficient condition for the convergence is a fast decay
V (r) ∼ r−n , with n > 1.
1 ∞
= ∑ (2l + 1) 2 sin δl .2 The Coulomb potential V (r) ∼ r−1 does not satisfy the conver-
k l=0 gence condition and the method of phase shifts does not work in
its present form.
Comparing this with Eq. (13), we find the relation

2
2π 1.2.18 Langer’s trick: replacing l (l + 1) by l + 12
σtot = Im f (θ)θ=0 . (14)
k
The formula (16) is applicable when the limit exists and when
This is the optical theorem derived for spherically symmetric po- WKB approximation for the potential U (r) is valid, i.e. when the
tentials. (Of course, this theorem holds for arbitrary potentials.) potential V (r) changes slowly with r. However, there is always

4
a certain error in this approximation. This can be seen by setting The Green’s function (19) is chosen so that for any F (x), the
V = 0 in Eq. (16) and computing the integral exactly: wave function ψ (x) given by Eq. (18) satisfies the boundary con-
dition (1) and solves Eq. (17) with F (x) at the RHS.
Z rr
l (l + 1) In our case the function F (x) is unknown and we cannot
q
k2 − dr = k2 r2 − l (l + 1)
r0 r2 compute ψ (x) directly from Eq. (18). Instead, we obtain the
" # integral equation
l (l + 1) π
p
p
+ l (l + 1) arcsin − . Z
k2 r 2 2 ψ (x) = eikx − G x − x0 V x0 ψ x0 dx0 ,




(20)

Here we have set p from which we need to find ψ (x).

l (l + 1)
r0 = .
k
1.3.2 On derivation of the Green’s function
We obtain
π p The above Green’s function G (x − x0 ) is the solution of the equa-
 
1
δW
l
KB
=− l (l + 1) − l − .
2 2 tion
h̄2
∆ + k2 G x − x0 = δ x − x0




However, the exact result should be δl = 0 since there is no scat- −
2µ (x)
(21)
tering. The discrepancy is small when l is large.

2 with the outgoing-wave boundary condition,
Langer’s trick is to replace l (l + 1) by l (l + 1) + 14 = l + 12 in
the WKB formula (16). This replacement compensates for some of
exp (ik |x − x0 |)
the error that inevitably occurs when applying the WKB approxi- G x − x0
∝ , |x| → ∞.
|x − x0 |
mation to the equation (5). In particular, the no-scattering result
δl = 0 is reproduced. This follows from the formula
The improved WKB formula for the phase shift δl is
eikr
∆ + k2 = −4πδ (r) .
 s  r
Z ∞ 2
π l + 12
 

1 2µV (r) 
δl ≈ l+ − kr0 − k − k2 − − dr. We omit the derivation of this mathematical statement which can
2 2 r0 r2 h̄2 be found in many textbooks, e.g. in Griffiths.
(16) Note that Eq. (21) does not determine G (x − x0 ) uniquely but
allows to add an arbitrary solution of the homogeneous equation.
For example, a function G (x − x0 ) + g (x0 ) exp (iqx) is also a solu-
1.3 Integral representation of the scattering ampli- tion of Eq. (21) for any q and g (x0 ). It is only with the help of the
tude boundary condition (1) that one can fix G (x − x0 ) uniquely.
A method that works well at high energies is based on the integral
representation of the scattering amplitude. The integral representa- 1.3.3 Iterative solution of the integral equation for ψ (x)
tion gives rise to an expansion in powers of V (the Born expansion).
The equation (20) can be solved approximately if we assume that
The Born approximation is the simplest application of this expan- the second term at the RHS (the term containing V ) is a small cor-
sion. rection to the first one.
Below we do not assume that the potential V (x) is spherically We expect that this assumption is justified for high energies,
symmetric. i.e. h̄2 k2  2µV , when the kinetic energy of the particle is much
larger than the potential V and scattering cross-section is small.
1.3.1 Integral equation for the wave function In this case we form successive approximations by starting with
the unperturbed plane wave exp (ikx) and substituting the previous
The wave function ψ (x) in a scattering situation is the solution
approximation into Eq. (20):
of the Schrödinger equation (2) which is asymptotically of the
form (1) at large r. Rewrite the Schrödinger equation so that the ψ(0) (x) = eikx ,
potential is at the right-hand side, Z
ψ(1) (x) = eikx − G x − x0 V x0 ψ(0) x0 d 3 x0 ,

h̄2
∆ + k2 ψ = −V ψ.

Z
− (17) ψ(2) (x) = eikx − G x − x0 V x0 ψ(1) x0 d 3 x0 ,




2µ

If V ψ were a known function, F (x) ≡ −V (x) ψ (x), the solution of ......

Eq. (17) with the boundary condition (1) would be found using the This is the iterative solution of the integral equation (20).
outgoing-wave Green’s function G (x − x0 ) of the Helmholtz oper- Symbolically, we can denote the integration with the Green’s
ator ∆ + k2 , namely function by the operator Ĝ, i.e.
Z Z
ψ (x) = eikx + G x − x0 F x0 d 3 x0 ,



(18) Ĝ f (x) ≡ G x − x0 f x0 d 3 x0 ,

where and write the integral equation as

µ exp (ik |x − x0 |)
0


G x−x = . (19) ψ = ψ(0) − ĜV ψ.
2πh̄2 |x − x0 |

5
Then the iterations are 1.3.6 The Born approximation
The formula (23) is exact, but we cannot use it to obtain f (r̂) un-
ψ(1) (x) = ψ(0) − ĜV ψ(0) ,
less we know ψ (x). One way is to use the above iterative solu-
ψ(2) (x) = ψ(0) − ĜV ψ(0) + ĜV ĜV ψ(0) , tion for ψ (x). The Born approximation is the result of using the
...... lowest-order approximation ψ(0) (x0 ) = exp (ikx0 ) instead of ψ (x0 )

n in Eq. (23):
ψ (x) = ψ(0) − ĜV ψ(0) + ... + −ĜV ψ(0) .
(n)
µ
Z
0 0
V x0 ei(k−k )x d 3 x0 .


f (r̂) ≈ − (24)
This symbolic expression helps to visualize the structure of the n-th 2πh̄2
approximation to the wave function. In other words: the scattering amplitude f (r̂) is determined by the
This form of the wave function is called the Born expansion. Fourier component of the potential in the direction k − k0 .
The assumption underlying the Born approximation is that the
further terms of the Born expansion are negligible.
1.3.4 Asymptotic form of the Green’s function

We need the asymptotic expression of the Green’s function at large 1.3.7 The Born approximation for spherically symmetric po-
r to derive the integral representation for the scattering amplitude tentials
(1.3.5). The formula (24) is simpler for spherically symmetric potentials
At large r  r0 , the above Green’s function G (x − x0 ) has the V (x) ≡ V (r). The Fourier transform of the potential is
asymptotic form
4π
Z Z
−iqx 3
Ṽ (q) ≡ e V (x) d x = rV (r) sin (qr) dr.
µ exp (ikr − ik0 x0 )
  0 
r q
G x − x0 ≈


1 + O , (22)
2πh̄2 r r Therefore Eq. (24) gives (with q ≡ k − k0 )
where we denoted 2µ
Z
rV (r) sin k − k0  r dr.
 

f (r̂) ≈ − (25)
|k − k0 |h̄2
r0 ≡ x0  , k0 ≡ kr̂ = kr/r.
 
r ≡ |x| ,
1.3.8 Applicability of the Born approximation
The formula (22) follows from the Taylor series expansion in
r0 /r, e.g. The scattering amplitude (25) is real which contradicts the optical
theorem (14). But this does not mean that the Born approximation
r cannot be used.
xx0
 02 
xx0 r02

x − x0  = r
  r In fact, the Born approximation can be used only if the scatter-
1−2 2 + 2 = r 1− 2 +O 2 .
r r r r ing amplitude f is small because we neglect the terms ĜV ĜV ψ(0)
which are of order f 2 . The optical theorem says that the imaginary
Note that under the exponential we may only neglect terms that part of f is of order kσ ∼ k | f |2 and this quantity is much smaller
are small by their absolute value but not terms that are small in than | f |. The Born approximation already neglects the quadratic
comparison with other terms. terms and so the imaginary part of f cannot be retained within that
approximation.
This consideration gives a method to verify the applicability of
1.3.5 Integral representation of the scattering amplitude
the Born approximation. First we find the scattering amplitude f
The integral representation of the wave function gives us the scat- from Eq. (24), then the total cross-section σtot , and then we check
tering amplitude directly. using the optical theorem that the imaginary part of the forward
scattering amplitude is negligible.
The term ĜV ψ corresponds to the outgoing spherical wave in
the asymptotic formula (1),
1.3.9 High-energy behavior of the scattering cross-section
eikr
Z
f (r̂) ≈− G x − x0 V x0 ψ x0 d 3 x0 ,



The Born approximation is valid for high energies, so we can use it
r → ∞.
r to study the high-energy asymptotic of the scattering cross-section.
If the function V (r) is significantly nonzero for r < a, then Ṽ (q)
Therefore we shall find f (r̂) if we use the asymptotic form (22) of is significantly nonzero for q < a−1 . Since q ≡ k − k0 , we get for
the Green’s function: the scattering angle θ the equation
µ θ
Z
0 0
V x0 e−ik x ψ x0 d 3 x0 .



f (r̂) = − 2
(23) q = 2k sin , cos θ ≡ k̂k̂0 = k̂r̂.
2πh̄ 2

Here k0 ≡ kr̂. It follows that the high-energy scattering occurs predominantly

within the narrow forward cone θ < θmax ∼ (ka)−1 .
This is the integral representation of the scattering amplitude
The total cross-section is (after some algebra)
f (r̂). It contains the exact wave function ψ (x) and therefore is
not an integral equation for f (r̂), unlike Eq. (20) which is a closed µ2
Z 2k
integral equation for ψ (x) that contains no other functions. σtot = Ṽ 2 (q) q dq.
2πh̄4 k2 0

6
It follows that σtot ∼ k−2 ∼ E −1 at high energies E.
A necessary condition for the applicability of the Born approx-
imation is σtot  4πa2 , and ka  1 (see Messia, vol. 2, chapter
19, section 8). Here a is the typical size of the domain where V (x)
significantly differs from 0 , so 4πa2 is the surface area of a sphere
with radius a.