Transformer Book

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A current transformer design
Introduction
In current transformer design, the core characteristics must be carefully selected
because excitation current I e essentially subtracts from the metered current and
affects the ratio and phase angle of the output current.
The higher the exciting current or core loss the larger the error
Measuring or protective current transformers?

Measuring current transformer
Permeability of the core material high and core loss low => exciting current small (I
fe<<) => current error small. The exciting current determines the maximum accuracy
that can be achieved with a current transformer => Study accuracy classes
Protective current transformer

Permeability of the core material is low => When remanence is reduced to a lower
level (increase the useful flux density, gapping), the voltage spikes produced by the
leakage inductance due to the transformer saturation will be eliminated. In linear
current transformers there are generally air gaps in the iron core to reduce the time
constant and remanence. Such current transformers are used only to protect objects
of major importance that require a short tripping time.
Selecting core material
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When choosing a core material a reasonable value for B m (0,2 ... 0,3 T) typically
results in L c and R fe values large enough to reduce the current flowing in these
elements so as to satisfy the ratio and phase requirements.
Window utilization factor

The window utilization factor (K u = S 1 x S 2 x S 3 x S 4 ) is the amount of copper
that appears in the window area or transformer of inductor. The window utilization
factor is influenced by four different factors: (1) wire insulation, (2) wire lay (fill
factor), (3) bobbin area and (4) insulation required for multilayer windings or
between windings. In the design of high-current of low-current transformers, the
ratio of conductor area over total wire area can vary from 0,941 to 0,673 depending
on the wire size. The wire lay or fill factor can vary from 0,7 to 0,5, depending on
the winding technique. The amount and the type of insulation are dependent on the
voltage. [McLyman.]
A transformer intended to supply measuring instruments, meters, relays and other

similar apparatus

Effect of Gapping
[McLyman.]
Air gap increases the effective length of the magnetic path
Air-gapped current transformers

These are auxiliary current transformers in which a small air gap is included in the
core to produce a secondary voltage output proportional in magnitude to current in
the primary winding. Sometimes termed ´transactors´ or ´quadrature current
transformers´, this form of current transformer has been used as an auxiliary
component of unit protection schemes in which the outputs into multiple secondary
circuits must remain linear for and proportioned to the widest practical range of
input currents.
[Protective Relays Application Guide.]
Anti-remanence current transformers

A variation in the overdimensioned class of current transformer has small gap(s) in
the core magnetic circuit, thus reducing the possible remanent flux from
approximately 90% of saturation value to some 10% only. These gap(s) are quite
small, for example 0.12mm total, and so within the core saturation limits. Errors in
current transformation are thereby significantly reduced when compared with those
with the gapless type of core.

Linear current transformers

The ´linear´ current transformer constitutes an even more radial departure from the
normal solid core CT in that it incorporates an appreciable air cap, for example
7.5-10mm. As its name implies the magnetic behaviour tends to linearization by the
inclusion of this gap in the magnetic circuit. However, the purpose of introducing
more reluctance into the magnetic circuit is to reduce the value of magnetizing
reactance, this in turn reduces the secondary time-constant of the CT thereby
reducing the overdimensioning factor necessary for faithful transformation.
The time constant of the circuit depends on the inductance of the coil and on the
resistance in the circuit in accordance to the following simple formula:
Back to previous page Back to the main page

General
Measuring current transformer = A current transformer intended to
supply indicating instruments, integrating meters and similar
apparatus.
Definitions
Composite error = Under steady-state conditions, the r.m.s value of
the difference between:
a) the instantaneous values of the primary current
b) the instantaneous values of the actual secondary current multiplied
by the rated transformation ratio.
The composite error εc is generally expressed as a percentage of the

r.m.s. values of the primary current according to the formula:
K n= rated transformation ratio

I p= r.m.s. value of the primary current
i p= instantaneous value of the primary current
i s= instantaneous value of the secondary current

T= duration of one cycle
Rated instrument limit primary current = The value of the minimum

primary current at which the composite error of the measuring
current transformer is equal to or greater than 10%, the secondary
burden being equal to the rated burden
Instrument security factor = The ratio of rated instrument limit
primary current to the rated primary current.
Accuracy requirements
For measuring current transformers the accuracy class is designated
by the highest permissible percentage current error at rated current
prescribed for the accuracy class concerned.
The standard accuracy classes for measuring current transformers
are: 0,1 - 0,2 - 0,5 - 1 - 3 - 5
Accuracy +/- Percentage +/- Phase displacement at
class current error at percentage of rated current shown
percentage of rated below
current shown below
Minutes Centiradians
5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0,1 0,4 0,2 0,1 0,1 15 8 5 5 0,45 0,24 0,15 0,15
0,2 0,75 0,35 0,2 0,2 30 15 10 10 0,9 0,45 0,3 0,3
0,5 1,5 1,5 0,5 0,5 90 45 30 30 2,7 1,35 0,9 0,9
1 3,0 3,0 1,0 1,0 180 90 60 60 5,4 2,7 1,8 1,8
+/- Percentage current error

Class at percentage of rated
current shown below
50 120
3 3 3

5 5 5
[SFS 2874:E]
Marking
The rating plate shall carry the appropriate information in accordance
general marking.
The accuracy class and instrument security factor shall be indicated
following the indication of corresponding rated output (e.g. 15 VA
Class 0,5 F s 10). F s = instrument security factor
Current transformers having an extended current rating shall have

this rating indicated immediately following the class designation (e.g.
15 VA Class 0,5 ext. 150%).
Back to previous page Next chapter


● General
● Definitions
● Accuracy requirements
● Marking
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● General
● Definitions
● Accuracy requirements
● Marking

General
Protective current transformer = A current transformer intended to
supply protective relays.
Definitions
Composite error = Under steady-state conditions, the r.m.s value of
the difference between:
a) the instantaneous values of the primary current
b) the instantaneous values of the actual secondary current multiplied
by the rated transformation ratio.
The composite error εc is generally expressed as a percentage of the

r.m.s. values of the primary current according to the formula:
K n= rated transformation ratio

I p= r.m.s. value of the primary current
i p= instantaneous value of the primary current
i s= instantaneous value of the secondary current
T= duration of one cycle

Rated accuracy limit primary current = The value of primary current

up to which the transformer will comply with the requirements for
composite error.
Accuracy limit factor = The ratio of the rated accuracy limit primary
current to the rated primary current.
Secondary limiting e.m.f = The product of the accuracy limit factor,
the rated secondary current and the vectorial sum of the rated burden
and the impedance of the secondary winding.
Accuracy requirements
For protective current transformers the accuracy class is designated
by the highest permissible percentage composite error at the rated
accuracy limit primary current prescribed for the accuracy class
concerned, followed by the letter "P" (meaning protection) at
ratecurrent prescribed for the accuracy class concerned.
The standard accuracy classes for protective current transformers are:
5 P and 10 P
Accuracy Percentage Phase Composite error at
class current error at displacement at rated accuracy limit
primary current rated primary primary current in %
in % current
Minutes Centiradians
5P +/- 1 +/- 60 +/- 1,8 6
10 P +/- 3 10
Marking
The rating plate shall carry the appropriate information in accordance
general marking.
The rated accuracy limit factor shall be indicated following the
corresponding output and accuracy class (e.g. 30 VA Class 5 P 10). 10
= Accuracy limit factor

A current transformer satisfying the requirements of several

combinations of output and accuracy class and accuracy class limit
factor may be marked according to all of them.
15 VA Class 0,5 or 15 VA Class 0,5
30 VA Class 1 15 VA Class 1 ext 150%
30 VA Class 5 P 10 15 VA Class 5 P 20

Rating and performance requirements

● Standard values of rated currents and outputs
● Short-time current ratings
● Limits of temperature rise
● Terminal markings and rating plate markings
● Graphic symbols of current transformers

Standard values of rated currents and outputs

The standard values of rated primary current are:
10 - 12,5 - 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 - 40 - 50 - 60 - 75 amperes
And their decimal multiples of fractions. The preferred values are
those underlined.
The standard values of rated secondary current are:
1,2 and 5 amperes, but the preferred value is 5A.
The standard values of rated output up to 30 VA are:
2,5 - 5,0 - 10 - 15 and 30 VA.
Value above 30 VA may be selected to suit the application.
(Recommended values: 45,60 VA)
Short-time current ratings

Current transformer supplied with a fixed primary winding of
conductor shall comply with the requirements of rating below.
Thermal rating = A rated short-time thermal current shall be assigned
to the transformer.
Dynamic rating = The values of the rated dynamic current shall
normally be 2,5 times the rated short-time thermal current and it shall
be indicated on the rating plate when it is different from this value.
Limits of temperature rise

The temperature rise of a current transformer when carrying a
primary current equal to the rated continuous thermal current, with a
unity power-factor burden corresponding to the rated output, shall not
exceed the appropriate value given in the table below.
Maximum temperature
Class of insulation (in accordance with
rise
IEC Publication 85) 0C

All classes immersed in oil 60

All classes immersed in oil and
65
hermetically sealed
All classes immersed in bituminous
50
compound
Classes not immersed in oil or bituminous
compound
Y 45
A 60
E 75
B 85
F 110
H 135
Terminal markings - general rules

The terminal markings shall identify: the primary and secondary
windings; the winding sections, if any; the relative polarities of
windings and winding sections; the intermediate tapings, if any.

[SFS 2874:E]
Graphic symbols of current transformers
current transformer:
one output at the
two coils with the same double core current
secondary
core transformer
two alternative
symbols


Types of current transformers
Types of current transformers
Pictures of current transformers:
1. Current transformers for indoor use

2. Indoor type cable current transformers
3. Indoor bushing type current transformers
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/curtrans.htm [01/03/2003 01:30:38 a.m.]

Current transformers
KOFA Current transformers for indoor use
[ABB Catalogue. KOFA Sisälle asennettavat virtamuuntajat.]
Use the back button of the browser for viewing the previous page
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/kofa.htm [01/03/2003 01:30:40 a.m.]

KOLMA and IHDA Indoor type cable current transformers
[ABB Catalogue. KOLMA and IHDA Indoor Type Cable Current Transformers.]
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/kolma.htm [01/03/2003 01:31:39 a.m.]

KOMA Indoor bushing type current transformers
[ABB Catalogue. KOMA Indoor Bushing Type Current Transformers.]
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/koma.htm [01/03/2003 01:31:41 a.m.]

Current transformer
● Definitions
● Measuring current transformer
● Protective current transformer
● Rating and performance requirements
● Types of current transformers
● A current transformer design

Definitions
Definitions (SFS 2874:E)

● Introduction
● Current error
● Phase displacement and accuracy class
● Burden
● Rated thermal and dynamic currents

Definitions
Introduction
Current transformer is an instrument transformer in which the
secondary current, in normal conditions of use, is substantially
proportional to the primary current and differs in phase from it by an
angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the
connections.
Current error
The error which a transformer introduces into the measurement of a
current arises from the fact that the actual transformation ratio is not
equal to the rated transformation ratio. The higher the exciting
current or core loss the larger the error.
The current error expressed in percent is given by the formula:

Definitions
Phase displacement and accuracy class

Phase displacement = The difference in phase between the primary
and secondary current vectors, the direction of the vectors being so
chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect transformer.
Accuracy class = A designation assigned to a current transformer the
error of which (Current error, phase displacement, composite error)
remain with specified limits under prescribed conditions of use.
Burden
Burden = The impedance of the secondary circuit in ohms and power
factor. The burden is usually expressed as the apparent power (S) in
volt-amperes absorbed at a specified power-factor at the rated
secondary current.
Secondary
winding
impedance
(internal
burden) Z s
Secondary
load
impedance
Z0

Definitions
The secondary load S = V 0 Is (cos φ = 0.8 ind for

example)
As a matter of safety, the secondary circuits of a current transformer

should never be opened under load, because these would then be no
secondary mmf to oppose the primary mmf, and all the primary
current would become exciting current and thus might induce a very
high voltage in the secondary.
Rated thermal and dynamic currents

Rated short-time thermal current = The r.m.s. value of the primary
current which a transformer will withstand for one second without
suffering harmful effects, the secondary winding being
short-circuited.
Rated continuous thermal current = The value of the current which
can be permitted to flow continuously in the primary winding, the
secondary winding being connected to the rated burden, without the
temperature rise exceeding the values specified.
Rated dynamic current = The peak value of the primary current
which a transformer will withstand without damaged electrically or
mechanically by the resulting electromagnetic forces, the secondary
winding being short-circuited.

Definitions


● Introduction
● Measuring or protective current transformers?
● Selecting core material
● Window utilization factor

conductor area = copper area

wire area = copper area + insulation area
S 1 is dependent upon wire size.
Back

wound area = number of turns x wire area of one turn

usable window area = available window area minus residual area
which results from the particular winding technique used
S 2 is the fill factor for usable window area. It can be shown that for
circular cross-section wire wound on a flat form the ratio of wire area
to the area required for the turns can never be greater than 0,91. In
Practise, the actual maximum value is dependent upon the tightness
of winding, variations in insulation thickness, and wire lay.
Consequently, the fill factor is always less than the theoretical
maximum. A typical working value for copper wire is 0,6.
Back


window area = available window area
S 3 defines how much of the available window space may actually be
used for the winding. The winding area available to the designer
depends on the bobbin configuration. A single bobbin design offers
an effective area Wa between 0,835 to 0,929 while a two bobbin
configuration offers an effective area Wa between 0,687 to 0,872. A
good value to use for both configurations is 0,75.
Back


insulation area = area usable for winding insulation
S 4 defines how much of the usable window space is actually being
used for insulation. If the transformer has multiple secondary having
significant amont of S 4 should be reduced by 10% for each
additional secondary winding because of the added space occupied
by insulation and partly due to poorer space factor.
Back

TRANSFORMER BOOK
MAIN PAGE
The Transformer Book has

been made with the support
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Working group
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Configuration of a distribution transformer
Kinds of core alloys

There are five main groups of magnetically soft alloys classified primarily by
the chief constituents of the metal.
low-carbon steel
silicon steel
nickel-iron
cobalt-nickel-iron
cobalt-iron
Also look at:
Hysteresis curve of a hard and soft alloy
Look at trade names
Core types
The configuration of a three-phase transformer depends on the core
type of the transformer. There are three choices:
The "shell" type
The "core" type
3x single-phase
Core configuration

Core type shape is mostly used in three-phase distribution

transformers. The window height H a depends on a coil height and
the core area A r depends on the rated power S n.
The cross section of the core
The bulk factor

of the leg can
be defined
when the cross
sectional area
of the leg is
known:

k=a
coefficient that
depends on the
number of steps
Core sheet

Coil material
The coil material can be copper or aluminum. The term copper loss is
still used to indicate resistance losses of winding materials whether
copper or aluminum is used.
Copper ρ k = 8.93 kg/dm3
Aluminum ρ k = 2.69 kg/dm3
ρ k = The weight by volume
Coil configuration
Foil coil
Show the primary!!

Tank
The tank and the cover are manufactured of hot-rolled, unalloyed
steel sheet and profile balks. Fine granular steel is used in
transformers for low ambient temperatures.
Areas where strong eddy currents can be generated due to high
currents, and where ordinary hot-rolled steel can become too warm,
are made of non-magnetic (austenite) steel. Such areas are for
example the surroundings if high current bushings and bushbars. The
tanks are welded and manufactured in accordance with modern
welding methods.

The tank has lifting lugs for lifting the transformer (fully-equipped
transformer including oil) and at least four jacking points an the
lower part if the tank for lifting by hydraulic jacks. For transport
wheels there are fixing points at the bottom of the tank. The tank is
provided with at least two earthing lugs made of stainless steel.
The connecting flanges of the coolers and the flanges for filling,
draining, filtering and sampling valves are welded to the tank. Also
the fixing brackets of cooler fans are welded to the tank. Usually the
support of the oil conservator is fastened to the tank too. The
transformer cover is fixed to the tank usually by means of a bolt joint
using oil resistant rubber cork as the gasket. A gasket made of special
rubber can also be used. The cover can also be fixed to the tank by
welding. The welded seams are tighter and more reliable than bolted
ones. They can be quite easily opened and rewelded.
The transformer cover is constructed so that no water pockets or
other water collector points are formed. An air pipe is connected to
the gas relay from all the turrets, flanges etc. where it is possible for
gas pockets to develop.
[ABB Catalogue. Power Transformers Construction.]
Coolers
Transformers are usually provided with radiators for cooling (cooling
method ONAN or ONAN/ONAF). The radiators are manufactured of
welded elements and they are vacuum-proof.
The radiators are connected to the transformer tank by means of
shut-valves. This method allows individual radiators to be removed
without draining oil from the transformer. The shut-off valve is
provided with a position indicating handle and with a locking spring.
The lower part of the radiators has a plug for oil outlet and the upper
part a plug for air release.
In the transformers which have ONAN/ONAF cooling, the fans
forcing the air circulation are under or at a low noise level and they
are equipped with steel sheet guard and the necessary protective
mesh. The fan motors can normally be connected to the 380/220 V
supply, but if required, motors with other voltage ratings can also be

used.
The transformer can also be provided with water cooling, cooling
method OFWF or oil-air cooler, cooling method OFAF. In each case,
the oil circulation through coolers is handled by means of an oil
pump. The coolers can be installed so as to rest upon the transformer
tank or on a frame separated from the transformer. The pipe work is
provided with the necessary valves for removing the cooler and the
pump for inspection and maintenance.
Heating of the windings

The heating of the windings depend on the current density and
dimensions of coil wires. The smaller the selected current density is
the more copper or aluminum is needed for the coil. As the heating is
smaller, the load losses become lower. The heating is squarely
proportional to the current density. Standards set some restrictions to
the heating of the windings. Therefore, the designer should always
calculate the heating when designing the coils. An average heating of
the windings compared to the outer air according to the IEC 76
standards can be:
V < 65 0 C

The hysteresis curve
The hysteresis curve of soft alloys
The hysteresis curve of soft alloys is thin and therefore the coercive force is
small. These alloys are mostly used in electromechanical machines and
transformers.
The hysteresis curve of hard alloys
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The hysteresis curve
The hysteresis curve of hard alloys is wide and therefore the coercive force is
high. These alloys are mostly used in permanent magnets.
Back
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Magnetic core material characteristics
Trade Composition Saturated CD coercive Squareness Material Loss

names flux force, ratio density, factor
density, a amp-turn/cm3 g/cm3 at 3
(tesla) kHz
and 0.5
T,
W/kg
Magnesil 3% Si 1.5-1.8 0.5-0.75 0.85-1.00 7.63 33.1
Silectron 97% Fe
Microsil
Supersil
Deltamax 50% Ni 1.4-1.6 0.125-025 0.94-1.00 8.24 17.66
Orthonol 50% Fe
49 Sq. Mu
Allegheny 48%
1.15-1.4 0.062-0.187 0.80-0.92 8.19 11.03
4750 Ni
58%
48 Alloy
Fe
Carpenter 49
4-79 Permalloy 79% Ni 0.66-0.82 0.025-0.05 0.80-1.0 8.73 5.51
Sq. Permalloy 17% Fe
80 Sq. Mu 79 4% Mo
78%
Supermalloy 0.65-0.82 0.0037-0.01 0.40-0.70 8.76 3.75
Ni
17%
Fe
5%
Mo
1 1 T = 10 4
Gause
2 1 g / cm 3 =
0.036 1b / in 3
[McLyman.]

Magnetic core material characteristics
Back

Coil configuration
Coil configuration
Foil coil configuration is

nowadays widely used in the
secondary winding. Folio sheet
is wound around the iron core.
The sheet is covered with
insulation layer.
Cylinder coil
Show the primary!
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/foil.htm [01/03/2003 01:32:22 a.m.]

Coil configuration
Coil configuration
The conduct wire has a round shape at the primary winding.
Layer coil
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/primary.htm (1 de 2) [01/03/2003 01:32:29 a.m.]

Coil configuration
Collar coil
Show the secondary!
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/primary.htm (2 de 2) [01/03/2003 01:32:29 a.m.]


● kinds of core alloys
● core types
● core configuration
● core sheet
● coil material
● coil configuration
● Tank
● Coolers
● Heating of the windings

Losses
Losses of a transformer
Load loss No-load loss

No-load loss
No-load loss
No-load losses are mainly iron losses. The iron loss become important in
cases where a lighting load is being supplied and in which the
transformer itself remains excited, even though not actually supplying
any load. It is also important in cases where a transformer is working on
a low load factor.
Apparent loss
The loss that is due to the magnetizing current in the primary winding is
called the apparent loss.
The flow of the magnetizing current through the resistance of the
winding does create a real I 2 R loss and voltage drop, although both are
generally quite small.

No-load loss
Core loss (iron loss)

Time-varying fluxes produce losses in ferromagnetic materials, known
as core losses. These iron losses are divided into hysteresis losses and
eddy-current losses.
Hysteresis losses are proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop,
volume of the iron core and the frequency of the flux in hertz.
Hysteresis losses
The hysteresis loss per cycle in a core of volume V that has a uniform
flux density B throughout its volume is
where the line integral represents the area of the loop.

A cyclic variation of the flux at f hertz results in f hysteresis loops per
second and the power is
The hysteresis loss is expressed empirically using a relationship from

Charles P. Steinmetz that
[Matsch L. W. , Morgan J. D.]
Eddy-current losses

No-load loss
The AC flux induces emfs in the core that produce eddy currents that
circulate in the iron. Eddy-current losses are proportional to the
frequency, the maximum flux density, the thickness of the core sheet and
the resistivity of the iron (inversely).

Selitykset
Excited = ?
= running idle
= running without load
Back

Load factor
k = the load factor
The load factor is the ratio

of a load and the rated load.
Back
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/loadf.htm [01/03/2003 01:32:46 a.m.]

Load loss
Load loss
The sum of copper losses and the stray losses is called the load
losses, being I 2 R eg , as determined from the short-circuit test. While
the equivalent circuits, including the approximate equivalent circuit,
may be used to calculate the losses for a given output, it is usually
more convenient to use data of the short-circuit test directly.
● The term copper loss is still used to indicate resistance losses of
winding materials whether copper of aluminum is used.
● The term copper losses is still sometimes used instead of load
losses and when so used is meant to include the stray losses.
Copper loss
The load currents through the resistance's of the primary and
secondary windings create I 2 R losses that heat up the copper wires
and cause voltage drops. There load losses are called copper losses
(winding material can be copper or aluminum).
Stray loss
Two factors that contribute to losses (and other undesirable
phenomena) are stray capacitance and leakage inductance. Stray
capacitance inevitably exists between turns, between one winding
and another, and between windings and the core.

Load loss
[Lowdon E.]
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Basics of a transformer
What is a transformer?
A transformer is a device that transfers energy from one AC system to another.
A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another
voltage. This permits electrical energy to be generated at relatively low
voltages and transmitted at high voltages and low currents, thus reducing line
losses, and to be used at safe voltages.
[McPherson G. , Laramore R. D.]
Transformer in electric network
Three-phase transformer
Three-phase power may be transformed by using either two or three
single-phase transformers, or by a single three-phase transformer. When a set
of single-phase transformers is employed to transform three phases, it is called
a three-phase bank of transformers.
Symmetrical three-phase transformer

[Sähkötekniikan käsikirja]
Figure below presents a three-phase core transformer and a three-phase

shell transformer. Every phase of the core transformer has its own bar with
two windings belonging to phase. In the shell transformer the one-phase
magnetic flux has a return path, independent from the other phases.
Types of distribution transformers
A two-winding transformer
The transformer may be defined as a device in which two or more stationary
electric circuits are coupled magnetically, the windings linked by a common
timevarying magnetic flux. One of these windings, known as the primary,
receives power at a given voltage and frequency from the source; and the other

winding known as the secondary, delivers power, usually at a different voltage

but at the same frequency, to the load.
Figure below presents a one-phase core transformer and a one-phase shell

transformer. To the iron core in a one-phase core transformer belong two bars
with cylindrical windings around them. Bars are connected to each others with
yokes. Bars and yokes build together a closed magnetic circuit. There are two
windings. They are called high-voltage- and low-voltage windings or,
according to the power direction, primary or secondary windings. As material
are used copper or aluminum. A one-phase shell transformer´s iron core is
constructed of three bars and two yokes. The windings are placed on the
middle bar.
Three-phase transformer connections

Yy0, Dy11, Yd11 and Yz11 connections are used in Finland.

In the case of one three-phase transformer or of three single-phase
transformers, several three-phase arrangements can be used. The following are
quite common: the delta-delta, the wye-wye, wye-zigzag and the wye-delta or
delta-wye connections.
Exciting current
The exciting current I e, is considered as having two components, the core-loss
current I fe and the magnetizing current I m. The core-loss current is a
real-power component and is due to the core losses. The magnetizing current
is, in effect, the component of current that furnishes the mmf to overcome the
magnetic reluctance of the core.

The waveform of the exciting current is not sinusoidal. However, it is

symmetrical, the exciting current can therefore be represented by a series of
odd harmonics.
Current inrush of a transformer

Frequently upon energizing a power transformer, there is an inrush of exciting
current which may initially be as high as eight times the rated current of the
excited winding even with all other windings open. The inrush is most severe
when the transformer is energized at the instant the voltage goes through zero
immediately following which the polarity of the voltage is such that the flux
increases in the direction of the residual flux.
Figure. Inrush current for a transformer energized at zero instantaneous voltage
Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation is an important measure of transformer performance
and is expressed by the formula:

The percent regulation is of 100 times the per-unit regulation. In the above
expression, V 2 Io is the secondary voltage under load, and V 2 nI is the
secondary no-load voltage (I 2 = 0), with primary voltage held constant at the
value it had under load. The quantities used in the formula are magnitudes, not
phasors.
Losses and efficiency

The losses in a transformer are the core losses, which for a given voltage and
frequency are practically independent of the load; the copper losses due to the
resistance of the windings; and the stray losses, largely due to eddy currents
induced by the leakage fluxes in the tank and other parts of the structure. The
sum of copper losses and the stray losses is called the load losses. The
efficiency of a transformer at rated load is quite high. A value of 90 percent is
not uncommon for transformers as small as 1 kVA, with greater values of
efficiency as the rating increase. The efficiency is expressed by

Transformer in electric network

Clickable imagemap

Power transformer
Power transformer
[ABB Catalogue. Kotimaan vakiomuuntajesarja.]
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/pwrtrans.htm [01/03/2003 01:34:13 a.m.]

Power transformer
Power transformer
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/powtrans.htm [01/03/2003 01:34:45 a.m.]

Distribution transformer
Distribution transformer (3-phase distribution line)
[ABB Catalogue. Jakelumuuntajat.]
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/pylvas.htm [01/03/2003 01:35:13 a.m.]

Types of Distribution Transformers
Types of Distribution Transformers
Dry type Distribution Transformer Oil insulated Distribution Transformer

[ABB Catalogue. RESIBLOC-hartsimuuntajat] , [ABB Catalogue. Jakelumuuntajat]
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/distyp.htm [01/03/2003 01:35:15 a.m.]

● What is a transformer?
● Three-phase transformer
● A two-winding transformer
● Connections
● Exciting current
● Current inrush
● Voltage Regulation
● Losses and efficiency

Electromagnetism
Magnetic materials
Each magnetic material belongs to one of the three groups.
1. Diamagnetic materials have a very low value of relative
permeability µ. These materials can even decrease the magnetic
field.
2. Magnetic materials include certain forms of iron and its alloys in

combination with cobalt, nickel, aluminum and tungsten. These
are known ferromagnetic materials and are easy to magnetize
since they have a high value of relative permeability µ.

Electromagnetism
3. The permeability µ of paramagnetic materials is very close to

that permeability what is in the vacuum. Their magnetic
properties are almost neutral.
Permeability
Permeability is the ability to conduct flux. Mathematically, it is the
ratio of the flux density (B) to the magnetizing force (H) that causes
B. In Symbols
When B is plotted against H, a curve is obtained variously called the

magnetization curve. [Lowdon E.]

Electromagnetism
Magnetic permeance and reluctance

Generally the steady or slowly varying flux φ in magnetic circuits of
homogeneous material with a uniform cross-sectional area can be
approximately expressed by
F m = The magnetomotoric force

ρ = The permeance of the circuit
R m = The reluctance of the circuit
Saturation

Electromagnetism
The B-H curve shows the meaning of saturation. It can be seen that
beyond a certain value of H (point C). There is a little increase in B;
the iron is approaching the saturation.
Different materials saturate at different values of flux density. At the
saturation point the permeability is very small or zero. These means
that the inductance is very small.
Inductance can be described as the property of coil that causes it to

oppose a change in the current through it. A coil is said to have an
inductance of 1,0 henry if it induces an opposing or "back" emf of 1.0
V when the current through it changes at the rate of 1.0 ampere per
second
L = The inductance
R m = The reluctance of circuit
A = The core area
I = The length of the magnetic circuit

Electromagnetism
µ = The permeability of the core
Hysteresis
The nonlinear properties of magnetic materials are characterized by
the hysteresis loop.
[Matsch L. W., Morgan J. D.]
In increasing current through a range of values such that the magnetic

field intensity or magnetizing force reaches a value of +Hmax as
shown in figure, the flux density in the core reaches a maximum value
along the curve 0ab. If the current is decreased to zero, the flux
density will have the value of. The application of a current in the
reverse direction so as to produce the magnetizing force -Hmax
reverses the direction of the flux density, as indicated by e´b´ in
figure. Now if the current is again reversed and adjusted to produce
the initial value +Hmax for the magnetizing force, the flux density will
be ec, which is lower than the initial value eb. Cycling the material a
number of times produces equal values of +Bmax and -Bmax and
results in a symmetrical hysteresis loop. [Matsch L. W., Morgan J. D.]

Electromagnetism
Magnetic Leakage and Fringing

Leakage
The portion of flux that does not link the two magnetic circuits being
coupled is called leakage flux or simply leakage.
Fringing
The phenomenon of flux spreading to a larger cross section when it
leaves a high-permeability material entering a relatively
low-permeability material such as air in an air gap.

Electromagnetism
Faraday's induction law

If the magnetic flux alternates inside the coil. This induces an
electromagnetic force in the winding. The magnitude of this force is
proportional to the number of turns and the speed of the alternating
flux. The mathematical model of faraday's induction law is

Electromagnetism
Kirchhoff's laws for magnetic circuits

Electromagnetism

Electromagnetics
Electromagnetics
● Magnetic materials
● Permeability
● Magnetic permeance and reluctance
● Saturation
● Hysteresis
● Magnetic Leakage and Fringing
● Faraday's induction law
● Kirchoff´s laws

Distribution transformer
Distribution transformers
● Basics of a transformer
● Configuration of a distribution transformer
● Losses of a transformer

Directory
DIRECTORY
in alphabetic order
Air-gapped current transformers Hysteresis curve of a soft and hard alloy
Anti-remanence current transformers Inductance
Burden Kirchhoff´s laws
coil configuration Linear current transformers
coil material Losses and efficiency
Configuration of a distribution transformer Losses of a transformer
connections Three-phase transformer Magnetic Leakage and Fringing
Coolers Magnetic materials
core alloys Kinds of core alloys Magnetic permeance and reluctance
core configuration Measuring current transformer
core sheet Permeability
core types Protective current transformer
Current error Saturation
Current inrush Tank
Current transformer Three-phase transformer
Exciting current Transformer in electric network
Faraday´s induction law Types of current transformers
Graphic symbols of current transformers Types of distribution transformers

Heating of the windings A two-winding transformer
Hysteresis Voltage Regulation
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/direct.htm [01/03/2003 01:35:51 a.m.]

References
REFERENCES
ABB Catalogue. Jakelumuuntajat.

ABB Catalogue. KOFA Sisälle asennettavat virtamuuntajat.
ABB Catalogue. KOLMA and IHDA Indoor Type Cable Current Transformers.
ABB Catalogue. KOMA Indoor Bushing Type Current Transformers.
ABB Catalogue. Kotimaan vakiomuuntajasarja.
ABB Catalogue. Power Transformers Construction.
ABB Catalogue. RESIBLOC - hartsimuuntajat.
Lowdon E. Practical Transformer Design Handbook - 2nd ed., 1989.
Matsch L. W., Morgan J. D. Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Machines, 1987.
McLyman. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, 1978.
McPherson G., Laramore R. D. An introduction to Electrical Machines and Transformers, 1990.
Protective Relays Application Guide. GEC Alsthom T&D Protection & Control Limited, 1987 .
Standard SFS 2874:E, 1983.
Sähkötekniikan käsikirja osa 1, Tammi 1975.
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Main page
MAIN PAGE
Working group
http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/oikea.htm [01/03/2003 01:35:54 a.m.]

Working group
Ilpo Havunen
Leena Korpinen
Kimmo Kähärä
Erja Toivonen
Thomas Hager
Feedback: leena@cc.tut.fi
Back to previous page First chapter
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Transformer Book

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Measuring or protective current transformers?

Protective current transformer

Selecting core material

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Window utilization factor

A transformer intended to supply measuring instruments, meters, relays and other

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Air gap increases the effective length of the magnetic path

Air-gapped current transformers

Anti-remanence current transformers

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Linear current transformers

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The composite error εc is generally expressed as a percentage of the

K n= rated transformation ratio

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T= duration of one cycle

Rated instrument limit primary current = The value of the minimum

+/- Percentage current error

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Current transformers having an extended current rating shall have

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Measuring current transformer

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Protective current transformer

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The composite error εc is generally expressed as a percentage of the

K n= rated transformation ratio

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Rated accuracy limit primary current = The value of primary current

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A current transformer satisfying the requirements of several

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Rating and performance requirements

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Standard values of rated currents and outputs

Short-time current ratings

Limits of temperature rise

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All classes immersed in oil 60

Terminal markings - general rules

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Graphic symbols of current transformers

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Types of current transformers

Pictures of current transformers:

1. Current transformers for indoor use

Back to previous page Next chapter

http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/curtrans.htm [01/03/2003 01:30:38 a.m.]

KOFA Current transformers for indoor use

[ABB Catalogue. KOFA Sisälle asennettavat virtamuuntajat.]

http://leeh.ee.tut.fi/transformer/kofa.htm [01/03/2003 01:30:40 a.m.]

KOLMA and IHDA Indoor type cable current transformers