Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

POWER
1. Power - as a goal (Machiavelli & Morgenthau)
It relates to realism in which classical realist thinkers said power is an inherent goal of
mankind and of states. Economic growth, cultural spread etc. can all be considered as
working towards the ultimate goal of international power.

2. Power - as a measure of influence

States in the international relations tend to influence the events, actors and issues in the
international state system.

Mechanisms of Influence
• Threat or use of force
• Economic interaction or pressure
• Diplomacy
• Cultural exchange

Spheres, blocs and Alliances

States can organize a sphere of influence or a bloc within which they can exercise
predominant influence.
E.g. The recognition of sphere during the Cold war
• The Yalta conference (4 – 11 Feb. 1945)
• NATO (4 April 1949)
• The Warsaw Pact (14 May 1945)
• Non- Aligned Movement (NAM, 1961, Belgrade)

3. Power – as security
Power is also used by the states to achieve security in the international system.
Kinds of Security
• Military Security
• Economic Security
• Human Security
• Comprehensive Security

An actor that has succeeded in protecting its security, sovereignty, or strategic interests from
repeated or significant challenge can also be described as powerful.

4. Power – as capability
Power is the capacity to direct the decisions and actions of others, Power derives from
strength and will. It involves the following two aspects
• Quantification of resources
Power is also used to describe the resources and capabilities of a state. Capabilities are
in tangible term – they are measureable, weighable and quantifiable assets.
• Transformation of resources into capabilities
Strength comes from the transformation of resources into capabilities. Until and unless
the resources are not transformed into capability, strength cannot be attained.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

Hard and Soft Power

Hard power refers to aggressive tactics such as the use of threat, use of armed forces,
economic pressures or sanctions, assassination etc. Realist and non realist are the advocates of
the use of this power.

Soft Power: (NYE proposed this concept), in geographical areas where hard power may not be
applied, soft power are used to influence the state. Means of exercising soft power are
diplomacy, spread of information, analysis, propaganda and cultural programming to achieve
political ends.
Track two diplomacy is also a mechanism that is used in soft power. For example: US cannot use
hard power to influence India and China. It has to use soft power to influence.
Track one diplomacy: The diplomacy which is done by the state and government level.
Track two diplomacy: The non government institutions tend to do diplomacy this is called track
two diplomacy.

Categories of Power

1. Super Power
In 1944, FOX define super power as ‘Great power plus great mobility of power” and identified
three states British Empire, the soviet union and the united state.

2. Great Power
It refers to any nations that have strong political, cultural and economic influence on nation
around it and across the world.

3. Regional Power
It is described as the nation that exercises influence and power with in a region. Being a
regional power is not mutually exclusive with any other categories of power.

4. Middle Power
It is a description of second tier influential state that could not be described as Great power.

ELEMENTS OF POWER

 Knowledge/ Information
 Resources
 Technology
 Military Capability
 Geostrategic Location
 Liberal democratic political system

For example, UK and USA are using liberal democratic political system.
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 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

COLD WAR
Bernard Baruch, an American financier and presidential advisor, coined the term. In South
Carolina, on April 16, 1947, he delivered a speed and said:
“Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war.”
Later, a newspaper reporter, Walter Lippmann, gave the term wide currency, with the book Cold
War (1947).
The Cold War was a twentieth century conflict between the United States of America (US), the
Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, over political, economic and military issues, often
described as a struggle between capitalism and communism.
Simple definition of Cold War is “It is political and geostrategic tension/ tussle between
USA led countries and USSR led countries.”
In more simple terms, it means “NO PEACE, NO WAR”.
Germany, Japan and Italy are called the Axis Powers and US, UK and France are called the Allied
Power in 2nd world war.
USA: Capitalism (Ideology), USSR: Communism (Ideology)
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LONG TELEGRAM
The 'Long Telegram' was sent by George Kennan from the United States Embassy in Moscow to
Washington, where it was received on February 22nd 1946.The name 'long' derives from the
telegram's 8000 word length.
The long telegram can be summarized in the following points.
• The USSR is a major threat to the US interest in Europe in particular and in the world in
general.
• The US should develop strategies to “Contain” USSR.
• To contain the USSR through political….
In September 1946, the soviet side produced the Novikov Telegram, sent by the Soviet
ambassador to the US but commissioned and “co-authored” by Molotov. It asked “to prepare the
conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war”
Components of strategy
• It specifies aims.
• It device tactics to achieve aims.
• Results.

COMPONENTS OF COLD WAR

1. George Kennan Proposed the idea of Containment.

2. The Truman Doctrine: By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman's advisers urged him to
take immediate steps to counter the Soviet Union's influence, citing Stalin's efforts (amid
post-war confusion and collapse) to undermine the US by encouraging rivalries among
capitalists that could precipitate another war. These policy measures (including the
Marshal Plan) are generally called Truman Doctrine.
(What Obama administration is doing with regard to Libya may be called Obama Doctrine
as well.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

IRON CURTAIN
The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "Iron Curtain" speech in Fulton,
Missouri. The speech called for an Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets, whom he
accused of establishing an'iron curtain' from "Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the
Adriatic".

COMINFORM
In September 1947, the Soviets created Communist Information Bureau, which is known as
Cominform.
THE MARSHALL PLAN (EUROPEAN RECOVERY PLAN-ERP)

• The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the large-
scale economic program, of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger
economic foundation for the countries of Europe.
• The initiative was named after Secretary of State George Marshall. The timeframe of this
plan is from 1947–1951.
• During that period some US $13 Billion was invested on the rehabilitation of European
Countries.
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MOLOTOV PLAN
The Molotov Plan was the system created by the Soviet Union in 1947 in order to provide aid to
rebuild the countries in Eastern Europe that were politically and economically aligned to the
Soviet Union. It can be seen to be the USSR's version of the Marshall Plan.
The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into “Bizonia”
(later “trizonia” with the addition of France’s zone). As part of the economic rebuilding of
Germany, in the early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and
the United States announced an agreement for the merger of western German areas into a
federal government system.
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NATO
Britain, France, the United States, Canada and eight other western European countries signed
the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO). In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955,
secured its full membership of NATO.
Its aim was to contain USSR led countries militarily.
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CHINESE REVOLUTION
The Chinese Civil War was a civil war fought between the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese
Nationalist Party), the governing party of the Republic of China and the Communist Party of
China (CPC), for the control of China which eventually led to China's division into two
Chinas, Republic of China. The war began in April 1927.
The war represented an ideological split between the Nationalist KMT, and the Communist CPC.
One was led by Mao and other was led by Chiang-kai-Chek.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

USSR allied with Mao because they shared the ideology of Communism and US allied with Chiang
kai Chek because he was the enemy of China and USA was enemy of USSR that had allied with
Mao.
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KOREA WAR (1950-1953)
The Korean War was a military conflict between the Republic of Korea, supported by the United
Nations, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, supported by the People's Republic of
China(PRC), with military material aid from the Soviet Union. The war was a result of the
physical division of Korea. The Korean peninsula was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the end of
World War II.
Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along
the 38th Parallel, with United States troops occupying the southern part and Soviet
troops occupying the northern part.
The situation escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces entered South Korea on 25
June 1950. It was the first significant armed conflict of the Cold War.
In 1950 war started. The leader of North Korea was Kim-iL-Sung and this area was led by the
USSR and China whereas leader of South Korea was Rhee and this area was led by USA.
The United States, came to the aid of South Korea in repelling the invasion.
War continued for 3 years. Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by the
war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted that they continue fighting, and an
Armistice was approved only in July 1953, after Stalin’s death. In late 1960s, Japan was under the
military control and it was headed by Douglas Macartna. At the end of war North and South
Korea signed an agreement called “Arm sty Agreement” and the war ended.
Role of Pakistan in Korean War
In 1951, Liaquat Ali Khan visited USA and allied with them and declines the invitation of USSR to
visit Moscow. Pakistani supported the South Korea economically in the Korean War.
Following countries tested their nuclear capability in the following years
1945 USA
1949 USSR
1952 England These countries are the member of Nuclear Club
1956 France
1962 China
1974 India De-Facto
1998 Pakistan (It is not recognized)

DE- STALINIZATION
After the death of Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became the President of USSR. On February 25,
1956, Khrushchev made a speech and criticized polices of Stalin. As a part of a campaign of de-
Stalinization, he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin’s polices would
be to acknowledge errors made in the past.
On November 18, 1956, while addressing, Khrushchev used his famous speech “Whether you like
it or not history is on our side. We will bury you “Expression, shocking everyone present. He later
claimed that he had not been talking about nuclear war, but rather about the historically
determined victory of communism over capitalism.

COMPONENTS OF DE- STALINIZATION

• Adoption of political, economic and diplomatic means.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

• Reversal of practical engagement in the Third world.

st
1 World: (USA & USSR) because of industrialization, established political system & organization
and effective bureaucracies.
2nd World: (East Europe & East Germany) because in comparison with 1st world these have less
degree of effective development, political system and more corruption.
3rd World: (Much of Africa, Large part of Asia & Lesser part of Latin America)
Following two indicator or variables are of Third World

DEMOCRATIZATION:
It involves following indicators
• Holding of elections
• Political parties are functioning
• Citizen may or can contest in election
• Right to get elected
• Right to form a government
• Right of opposition

DE-DEMOCRATIZATION: It involves following indicators

• Un holding of elections
• Political parties are nonfunctional.
• Political participation is banned.
• No right to get elected
• Denial of right to form a government
• Opposition politics is banned

DE-INDUSTRIALIZATION
Industrialization is a process through which government establishes industries and companies to
provide economic support to the country. In de-industrialization government does not establishes
industries.
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WARSAW PACT (1955)
The Warsaw Treaty (1955–91) is the informal name for the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and
Mutual Assistance, commonly known as the Warsaw Pact, creating the Warsaw Treaty
Organization. The treaty was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in
Eastern Europe. It was established at the USSR’s initiative and realized on 14 May 1955, in
Warsaw, Poland.
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HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the government
of the People's Republic of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies.
Hungary is located in east Europe and Budapest is its capital. In 1956, Eisenhower was the US
president and Khrushchev was the president of USSR.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

Khrushchev replaced Rakosi (the communist), the general secretary of people’s worker party
with Mr. Negy (reformist). 20,000 students took to streets in favor of Rakosi. USA also favored
Rakosi. There was crisis between USA and USSR and as a result USSR took military action. By
mid 1958, USSR invaded Budapest as a result of which 7700 students and 700 soviet soldiers
were killed. UNO came for rescue. They tried to negotiate with USSR and other party which
results USSR agreed for putting end to the use of weapons in HUNGRY.
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BERLIN ULTIMATUM (1958)
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an
independent, demilitarized “free city” giving the United States, Great Britain, and the France a
six month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin,
or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans.
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POLITICS OF THE SPACE
By late 1956, the governments of USA and USSR started allocating much of the money in the
natural sciences instead of social sciences in order to invent things which will help them to
develop device structures to explore the space like moon, mars etc.
The USSR was the one which took lead and was the first to enter the space. This was to show
their power that they have reached the space.
In August 1957, USSR successfully launched the world first intercontinental ballistic missile
(ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik.
From USA, Apollo was launched and first man landed on moon was Neil Armstrong and said,
“A small step from mankind, a giant leap forward”
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BERLIN CRISIS
By June 1961, the crisis started, 20% of the population migrated from East German to West
Germany due to economic opportunities and political stability.
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CUBAN CRISIS
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation among the Soviet Union, Cuba and the United
States in October 1962, during the Cold War. In September 1962, after some unsuccessful
operations by the U.S. to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), the
Cuban and Soviet governments began to build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and
intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles with the ability to strike most of the continental
United States.
On April 17, 1961 Kennedy (President of USA) ordered the previously planned invasion of Cuba to
proceed which is known as “Bay of Pigs” invasion. 1500 US trained Cubans called “brigade 2506”
return to the island in the hope of deposing Castro (Cuban political leader).
However no US air support was provided. By April 19, 1961 the Cuban Government had captured
or killed the invading exiles and the Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1189
survivors. After 20 months Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $ 53 million worth
of food and medicine.

POST BAY OF PIGS

 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

Kennedy and his administration experimented many ways for the devastation of the Cuban
government. Significant hopes were pinned on a secret program named the Cuban project,
devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961.
In February 1962, Khrushchev learned of the American plans regarding Cuba: a “Cuban Project” –
approved by the CIA and stipulating the overthrow of the Castro government in October, possibly
involving the American military --- and yet one more Kennedy ordered operation to assassinate
Castro. Preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.
Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions and ultimately responded to the installation of
nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade and presented an ultimatum to the soviets.
Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in
return for an America pledged not to invade Cuba again.

MAD (MUTUALLY ASSURED DESTRUCTION)

1st strike: if USSR makes first strike then US will make the 2nd strike then as a result, the
population will be devastated so in the end it will be a zero sum game.
They believe in the concept of deterrence which is based on
1) Asymmetric information
2) On rationality of irrationality.
(Rationality means cost benefit analysis)

UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF CUBAN CRISIS

1. Fall of Khrushchev
• In 1964, Khrushchev was dismissed by its own colleagues. It was a forced
retirement then Betz become the president of USSR.
• Due to him there was destruction of soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the
edge of nuclear war.
• Also was globally discredited for the construction of the Berlin wall.

2. Killing of JF Kennedy
In 1963 John F Kennedy was assassinated on 22nd November. Lyndon B john established a
commission to investigate the assassinated commission name was Warren commission. As
a result of interrogation, the prime suspect was Oswald who died during investigation so
it’s not clear till today that who killed john f Kennedy.
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VIETNAM WAR
Time frame: started on November 1st 1955 to April 30th 1975.
Parties:
1. North Vietnam and china provided military and logistic support.
2. South Vietnam Army “VIET CONG” was communist but belongs to South Vietnam. It is
paramilitary force.
By 1959 USA participated in this war by providing intelligence and by 1961, they started military
operations. War went on and by 1968 it reached its peak in terms of loses. “Tet offensive”
marked the victory of North Vietnam over South Vietnam.
 Muhammad Hasnain - IR (2nd Sessional)

As USA was also defeated, its people protested and as a result “De Vietnamization” (US ground
forces are withdrawn under this policy) occurred. So Johnson and Nixon started the policy of De
Vietnamization and its indicators are.
Withdrawal of US troops from war zone.
Keeping their military bases in South Korea intact.
USA made peace with China.
Paris Peace Accords:
All war parties that were fighting negotiated and signed accord in 1973 to put war to an end. In
1975, 30th April the war came to an end. As a result North Vietnam retakes the Saigon (city).
War losses:
1. Vietnamese killed (soldiers and civilians): between 1 to 4 million.
2. Cambodians killed: some 200,000-300,000.
3. Laotians killed: 20,000-200,000
4. US service members: 58,220.
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DÉTENTE
It is a French word that means relaxation. In politics science or IR it means relaxation of hot
ties between two states. 2nd name of détente is rapprochement; it means relaxation of
conflicted ties between two countries.
Indicators of Détente
1. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) was signed in 1963 between USA and USSR. The
purpose was to reduce the nuclear race, assets and capabilities.
2. In 1969 talks resumed with USSR. Purpose of this was to reduce the nuclear threats and
was about denuclearization.
3. SALT-I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) commenced in 1969. Resultantly, Anti- Ballistic
Missile Treaty was signed in 1972 in Helsinki.
4. USA—Sino Rapprochement (Sino means China in political science)
In July 1971, President Nixon’s National Security Advisor “Henry Kissinger” secretly visited
Beijing (via Pakistan). The purpose of the visit was to get help from South Asia to bring
peace b/w China and USA. China headed by Mao in 1972 who was the Chairman of
communist party and Nixon who headed USA in 1969, they signed Shanghai Communiqué
in 1972 and the major points of this agreement were as follows.
• One China
• Peaceful settlement of Taiwan issue
• US would withdraw troops from the Taiwanese Strait
• Opening of trade
5. Salt-II
In 1979, USA and USSR continued with their talks on denuclearization and the result of
Salt II was “agreed to re agree on SALT 1”. In 1986, SALT-I and Salt II came to a logical
end.
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