Assignment : 1

Explain the architecture of Internet

And
Emerging Technologies in Internet

Submitted by :

2nd SEM MBA

Roll No :
Internet Architecture

The Internet’s remarkable growth has been fueled by innovation. New

applications continually enable new ways of using the Internet, and new
physical networking technologies increase the range of networks over
which the Internet can run. In this pathbreaking book, Barbara van
Schewick argues that this explosion of innovation is not an accident, but a
consequence of the Internet’s architecture – a consequence of technical
choices regarding the Internet’s inner structure made early in its history.

Building on insights from economics, management science, engineering,

networking and law, van Schewick shows how alternative network
architectures can create very different economic environments for
innovation. The Internet’s original architecture was based on four design
principles – modularity, layering, and two versions of the celebrated but
often misunderstood end-to-end arguments. This design, van Schewick
demonstrates, fostered innovation in applications and allowed applications
like e-mail, the World Wide Web, E-Bay, Google, Skype, Flickr, Blogger
and Facebook to emerge.

Today, the Internet’s architecture is changing in ways that deviate from

the Internet’s original design principles. These changes remove the
features that fostered innovation in the past. They reduce the amount and
quality of application innovation and limit users’ ability to use the Internet
as they see fit. They threaten the Internet’s ability to spur economic
growth, to improve democratic discourse, and to provide a decentralized
environment for social and cultural interaction in which anyone can
participate. While public interests suffer, network providers – who control
the evolution of the network – benefit from the changes, making it highly
unlikely that they will change course without government intervention

Telecommunication

Telecommunication is the technique of transmitting a message, from one

point or place to another with the typical additional attribute of being bi-
directional. In practice it also recognizes that something may be lost in the
process; hence the term 'telecommunication' covers all forms of distance
communications, including radio, telegraphy, television, telephony, data
communication and computer networking.

The elements of a telecommunication system are a transmitter, a medium

(line) and possibly a channel imposed upon the medium (see baseband and
broadband as well as multiplexing), and a receiver. The transmitter is a
device that transforms or encodes the message into a physical
phenomenon; the signal. The transmission medium, by its physical nature,
is likely to modify or degrade the signal on its path from the transmitter to
the receiver. The receiver has a decoding mechanism capable of
recovering the message within certain limits of signal degradation. In
some cases, the final "receiver" is the human eye and/or ear (or in some
extreme cases other sense organs) and the recovery of the message is done
by the brain
Telecommunication can be point-to-point, point-to-multipoint or
broadcasting, which is a particular form of point-to-multipoint that goes
only from the transmitter to the receivers.

The art of the telecommunications engineer is to analyse the physical

properties of the line or transmission medium, and the statistical properties
of the message in order to design the most effective encoding and
decoding mechanisms.

Transmission Media

Transmission media is the means by which a communications signal is

carried from one system to another. Transmission media is often used in
computer communications. Transmission is sent through either an
unbounded or bounded source, and may be transmitted through different
wave forms and variations.

• BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA
• UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA

1. BOUNDED MEDIA:
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined
to narrow path. These are also called guide media. Bounded media are
made up o a external conductor (Usually Copper) bounded by jacket
material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high
speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be
used due distance communication. Three common types of bounded media
are used of the data transmission. These are

• Coaxial Cable
• Twisted Pairs Cable
• Fiber Optics Cable

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For
example TV wire is usually coaxial.
Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are
parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper.
The copper can be either a solid wire or stranded martial.
Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually
white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer
Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is
used to help shield the cable form EMI.
Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. The actual data
travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is
caught by outer copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable
vary by gauge & impedance.
Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio
grade measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner
the central conductor core, the lower the number the thicker the core.

Twisted Pair Cable

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy
to install, inexpensive and support many different types of network. It also
supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of
solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are done to
reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable
depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as
measured on the American wire gauge standard.

Fiber Optics

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In
fiber optic cable light only moves in one direction for two way
communication to take place a second connection must be made between
the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is
responsible for one direction of communication. A laser at one device
sends pulse of light through this cable to other device. These pulses
translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser
moves through this glass to the other device around the internal core is a
reflective material known as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core
because of this reflective cladding.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

2. Unbounded / Unguided Media

Those media which do not use any physical connectors between the teo
devices communicating. The three types of wireless media are:

Radio Waves

It has frequency between 10 KHz to 1GHz

Micro Waves

Microwaves travels at high frequency than radio waves and provide

through put as a wireless network media. Microwave transmission requires
the sender to be inside of the receiver
Infrared Waves

Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These frequencies allow
high speed data transmission.

NETWORK
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection
of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that
facilitate communications among users and allows users to share
resources. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of
characteristics. A computer network allows sharing of resources and
information among interconnected devices

Purpose

Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:

• Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can

communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging,
chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video
conferencing.

• Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a

network may access and use hardware resources on the network,
such as printing a document on a shared network printer.

• Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment,

authorized user may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of providing access to
data and information on shared storage devices is an important
feature of many networks.
 • Sharing software. Users connected to a network may run
application programs on remote computers.

• Information preservation.

• Security.

Types of networks based on physical scope

Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and

devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer
laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each
computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are
most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards
like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing
home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for

communication among computer and different information technological
devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a
PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs,
scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and
wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters.[6] A
wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and Fire wire connections
while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication
typically form a wireless PAN.
Home area network

A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for

communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home,
usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as
printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the
sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a CATV or
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. It can also be referred to as an
office area network (OAN).

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large

geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental
distances, using a communications channel that combines many types of
media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers
of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the
network layer.

Campus network

A campus network is a computer network made up of an interconnection

of local area networks (LAN's) within a limited geographical area. The
networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media
(optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned
(by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.).

In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the network is

likely to link a variety of campus buildings including; academic
departments, the university library and student residence halls.

Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually

spans a city or a large campus.
Enterprise private network

An enterprise private network is a network build by an enterprise to

interconnect various company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices,
remote offices, shops, in order to share computer resources.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of

the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits
in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires.
The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled
through the larger network when this is the case. One common application
is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not
have explicit security features, such as authentication or content
encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of
different user communities over an underlying network with strong
security features.

VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service

level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service
provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-
point.

Internetwork

An internetwork is the connection of two or more private computer

networks via a common routing technology (OSI Layer 3) using routers.
The Internet is an aggregation of many internetworks, hence its name was
shortened to Internet.

Backbone network

A Backbone network (BBN) A backbone network or network backbone is

part of a computer network infrastructure that interconnects various pieces
of network, providing a path for the exchange of information between
different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse
networks in the same building, in different buildings in a campus
environment, or over wide areas. Normally, the backbone's capacity is
greater than the networks connected to it.
A large corporation that has many locations may have a backbone network
that ties all of the locations together, for example, if a server cluster needs
to be accessed by different departments of a company that are located at
different geographical locations. The pieces of the network connections
(for example: ethernet, wireless) that bring these departments together is
often mentioned as network backbone. Network congestion is often taken
into consideration while designing backbones.

Backbone networks should not be confused with the Internet backbone.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile
communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite
coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is
handing off the user communications from one local coverage area to the
next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless
LANs.

Protocol

In information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon, which

was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents)
is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication
connection use when they communicate. Protocols exist at several levels
in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for
the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data
interchange at the application program level. In the standard model known
as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at
each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the
exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an
industry or international standard.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a standard Internet protocol, is the simplest
way to exchange files between computers on the Internet. Like the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which transfers displayable Web
pages and related files, and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
which transfers e-mail, FTP is an application protocol that uses the
Internet's TCP/IP protocols. FTP is commonly used to transfer Web page
files from their creator to the computer that acts as their server for
everyone on the Internet. It's also commonly used to download programs
and other files to your computer from other servers.

Video confrencing

videoconference or video conference (also known as a

videoteleconference) is a set of interactive telecommunication
technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way
video and audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called
'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware

The other components required for a videoconferencing system include:

• Video input : video camera or webcam

• Video output: computer monitor , television or projector
• Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any
other source of PreAmp audio outlet.
• Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display
device or telephone
• Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet

Working of internet

Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer network with

other networks through the use of gateways that provide a common
method of routing information packets between the networks. The
resulting system of interconnected networks is called an internetwork, or
simply an internet.

Computer software

Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs

and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do
and how to do it. We can also say software refers to one or more computer
programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes.
Program software performs the function of the program it implements,
either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by
serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to
contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast
to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".[1]
Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning
application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not
traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and
records.[2]

Examples of computer software include:

• Application software includes end-user applications of computers

such as word processors or video games, and ERP software for
groups of users.
• Middleware controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.
• Programming languages define the syntax and semantics of
computer programs. For example, many mature banking
applications were written in the COBOL language, originally
invented in 1959. Newer applications are often written in more
modern programming languages.
• System software includes operating systems, which govern
computing resources. Today large applications running on remote
machines such as Websites are considered to be system software,
because the end-user interface is generally through a graphical user
interface, such as a web browser.
• Testware is software for testing hardware or a software package.
• Firmware is low-level software often stored on electrically
programmable memory devices. Firmware is given its name
because it is treated like hardware and run ("executed") by other
software programs.
 • Shrinkware is the older name given to consumer-purchased
software, because it was often sold in retail stores in a shrink-
wrapped box.
• Device drivers control parts of computers such as disk drives,
printers, CD drives, or computer monitors.

Programming tools help conduct computing tasks in any category listed

above. For programmers, these could be tools for debugging or reverse
engineering older legacy systems in order to check source code
compatibility.

Shopping on the web

The act of purchasing products or services over the Internet. shopping on

the web has grown in popularity over the years, mainly because people
find it convenient and easy to bargain shop from the comfort of their home
or office. One of the most enticing factor about online shopping,
particularly during a holiday season, is it alleviates the need to wait in long
lines or search from store to store for a particular item

Web Auctions

A web auction is when a consumer or business lists an item or service on

the Internet for sale to the public. The auction includes a starting price and
allows bidding by consumers who are interested in purchasing the
merchandise. The web auction can take place using a service provided by
another company or on a private website.

Telnet
Telnet is a protocol that allows you to connect to remote computers (called
hosts) over a TCP/IP network (such as the Internet). You use software
called a telnet client on your computer to make a connection to a telnet
server (i.e., the remote host). Once your telnet client establishes a
connection to the remote host, your client becomes a virtual terminal,
allowing you to communicate with the remote host from your computer. In
most cases, you'll need to log into the remote host, which requires that you
have an account on that system. Occasionally, you can log in as guest or
public without having an account

Distance learning via the Internet

Education has a great role on lives of people. A proper education method

is as important as giving education on a subject. Usually people have
education in schools. From past to now, schools have been very important
in the area of education. By improvement of information technologies,
computers and internet became crucial elements of education. As a result,
internet organizations built virtual schools in order to give courses on the
internet. Getting education at virtual schools is called “distance learning”.
Shen (2003, p. 1) claims that distance learning is a kind of learning
method, that is performed by teacher and student, who are separated by
means of time and location. Many people refuse to get education via the
internet. They think that unlike schools, distance learning does not provide
social activities to students. A better alternative, for everyone, is distance
learning for three reasons.

Firstly, distance learning via the internet is more economical than schools
education. In school education, buildings, desks, blackboards and other
needs of classrooms are necessary. Unlike school education, distance
learning provides same education without these necessities. As a result,
distance learning organizations do not pay for these necessities. As
preparing a virtual school is economical, distance learning organizations
provide courses with lower tuition fees. On the other hand, distance
learning is also economical from the view of necessities of people who get
distance learning courses. For example, they don’t need to buy books,
school uniform and pay money for transformation, food and
accommodation.

Secondly, distance learning satisfies us flexibility in setting our timetable

and doing our job, other tasks and so on. As courses are performed by
special software in distance learning, we can attend to courses whenever
we want. Moreover, distance learning via the internet enables us doing our
job and other tasks parallel to our education. For example, a doctor can
attend to courses via the internet without hindering his/her job. And also a
mother can go on her education with caring her children and doing
housework.

Finally, distance learning is accessible from any where by connecting to

the internet. According to McGuire, “The course is available at virtually
any time or location and thus is accessible to a far broader range of
students”(online, 1996). Accessibility of distance learning enable us
attending to courses from home by connecting to the internet. For
example, disabled people can easily get education from their home. In
addition, people who perform their job in their offices, can attend to
virtual courses from their office.

People who oppose to distance learning say that students became asocial
by not having classmates. This idea can be seen reasonable at first glance
but people who get education by internet, react with his/her virtual
classmates by internet as sending e-mail, chatting, writing on forums and
also do social activities with them in spare times as in schools. As distance
learners save their times by not going to school, they prepare social
activities with their friends in their leisure times.

In conclusion, there are many advantages of distance learning via the

internet. Researches on distance learning show that it is more efficient
than school education. Because of these advantages, distance learning via
the internet will take place of school education in a few years