PP Ie

Course
IE12121 – Production Process

IE 12122 – Practical
Introduction to Manufacturing
Engineering and Technology
Industrial Engineering
Tarumanagara University
Return to Overview Slide

Delvis Agusman, S.T., M.Sc. – E-mail: delvis.agusman@tarumanagara.ac.id
Lecture No 2
Overview of First Week

• Introduction
– Statement of course goals
– Overall class schedule
– Statement of assumptions and policies
• Introductory overview of the larger issues
– Definitions - "Manufacturing vs
manufacturing"
– Basic concepts
– The importance of Manufacturing
– Dimensions of Manufacturing
– Future trends in Manufacturing
• Summing up

Lecture No 3
Some guiding principles

• Important skills for engineers, in order of
importance:
– being able to communicate
– knowing how to learn
– knowing where to find information
– knowing when to ask about a problem
– knowing how to ask questions
– engineering knowledge

Lecture No 4
What is
Manufacturing?
How do we make these?

Lecture No 5
Course Goals
• To bring to the students an appreciation for
the complexity, depth and breadth of
Manufacturing
• To provide students with an understanding
of the importance of manufacturing process
to the economy and to design decisions
• To provide students with an understanding
of manufacturing processes
– Concepts
– Examples
– Application in the real world
– Significance to design

Lecture No 6
Assumptions for Course

• Prerequisites:
– Solid Mechanics
• Stress-strain relationships
• Elastic behavior
• Elastic/plastic flow
– Materials science
• Basic mechanical, chemical and physical properties of
materials
• Relationships between these macroscopic properties and
the electronic, crystalline and microscopic properties
• The student remembers something of forces,
energy, power, heat transfer and fluid flow
• Design methods and principles are covered in
other courses
Lecture No 7
Overall Approach for Course

Course will consist of a mixture of
• Lectures
• Activity
– Tours of local companies (optional)
– Discussions
– Quizzes
– Simulations
– Paper as a reporting
– Presentation
• Homework
• Major Project
• Mid Test
• Final Exam
Lecture No 8
Course Policies
• Attendance only critical for quizzes and final exam. Final
exam will be optional dependent on grade
• Material presented will not always be in the book
• Quizzes will be mostly based on problems in the book
• Late Homework will be accepted by fax or email until the
solutions are posted on the web.
• Late homework will be assessed a penalty which will
depend on how late it is.

Lecture No 9
Course Scoring
• Mid test count for 25%

• Final exam count for 35%
• Project count for 40%
– Quizzes, etc 30%
– Major Project 70%

Lecture No 10
The Book and Suggested Reading

The Book
– Manufacturing Engineering and Technology,
5th Edition by S. Kalpakjain,
published by Addison Wesley

Lecture No 11
Suggested Reading
– 21st Century Manufacturing, by Paul Wright, published
by Prentice Hall, 2001
– The New Manufacturing Engineer by M.J. Terminie,

published by The Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
1996
– Designing for Economical Production by H.E. Trucks,

published by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
1987
– "Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing," James

G. Bralla, Editor, McGraw-Hill, 1986
Lecture No 12
Type of Course
• Manufacturing is an "Integration" Course
• It integrates your knowledge of:
– Materials
– Statics/dynamics
– Phase changes/crystal growth
– Fluid flow, statistics, control, etc

Lecture No 13
Materials
• Nature of materials
• Mechanical properties
– yield strength vs ultimate strength
• Stress strain behavior
– Flow properties
• Elastic
• Inelastic
– Yield point
– Dislocation motion and material flow
• Microstructure/properties relationships

Lecture No 14
Statics/dynamics
• Forces,
• Torque's,
• Pressures,
• Vectors
• Resolution of forces/vectors
• Work, energy and power
• Vibration and resonance

Lecture No 15
Phase change/crystal growth

• Solidification
• Phase changes
• How crystals grow

Lecture No 16
Fluid flow
• Pressure/depth relationship
• Relationship between velocity, pressure and
depth
• Turbulent vs laminar flow
• Rheology
– Viscous vs viscoelastic behavior

Lecture No 17
Examples - Casting
– Fluid flow
– Heat Transfer
– Phase changes
– Crystal growth in pure metals and alloys

Lecture No 18
Examples - Rolling
– Vector forces
– Relationships among force, power and energy
– Effect of deformation on crystal structure
– Effect of temperature on microstructure (heat
treating)
– Machine dynamics

Lecture No 19
Examples - Material Removal

– Shear stress strain behavior
– Vector forces
– Relationships among force, power and energy
and shearing energy
– Machine dynamics
– Thermodynamics and material expansion

Lecture No 20
Examples - Powder Processing for

metals, ceramics and plastics
– Surface science
– Thermodynamics
– Effect of heat on microstructure
– Sintering
– Flow and rheology of powders

Lecture No 21
What is
Manufacturing?
How do we make these?

Lecture No 22
Definitions
• Manufacturing
• manufacturing

Lecture No 23
Definition of "Manufacturing"
• Big "M" Manufacturing

• "Manufacturing" is a process for
converting ideas and market or customer
needs into artifacts
– Includes design, procurement, test,
finance, human resources, marketing, etc.
• The "Artisan" of history performed
"Manufacturing"

Lecture No 24
Definition of "manufacturing"
• Little m "manufacturing" (production)

– manufacturing is the conversion of raw
materials into useful products
– The "traditional" definition
– What you observe on the shop floor
– "Shop floor" is where work orders and
machine instructions are converted into
hardware
• Main Focus of This Course
– Cutting Processes (before mid test)
– Forming Processes (after mid test)

Lecture No 25
Little "m" manufacturing is all about

• Creating shapes by various means and assembling
these shapes into a useful product
• The processes used to transform raw material into
finished products
• A physical product always has a shape
– Function
– Aesthetics
• These shapes are created by a wide variety of
processes
• Students must remember that these processes exist
only in the context of the larger Manufacturing process

Lecture No 26
Manufacturing
Societal pressures, Government regulations,
company plans and policies, etc
Customer
needs
Products
manufacturing
Raw
material
People, money, machines and automation

Lecture No 27
The manufacturing Process

Materials Science, Statics, Dynamics, Thermodynamics, Fluid
dynamics
Raw Material
Material
Products
Assembly
Transformation
Processes
Machines and Automation

manufacturing Process Overview
Lecture No 28
SFF
Powders Firing/
Pressing
Sintering
Injection
Molding
Blow
molding
Raw Material
Products
Sheet metal
Assembly
Stamping
Finishing
forming
Continuous
Casting/Rolling Rolling
Forging/
Press forming
Ingot
Machining
casting
Extruding
Molten Casting
Material Shapes
Single crystal
pulling
Special
Increasing level of detail
Lecture No 29
Fundamentals of manufacturing -
Manufacturing Concepts
• The ability to create shapes, components and
assembled products relies on several physical
phenomena
– The liquid to solid phase transformation
• Create the required shape in the liquid form then
solidify
– The ability of certain materials to flow under
stresses greater than some limit
• "heat em and beat em"
– The ability of powders to flow like liquid and for
powders to "sinter" and densify under heat
and/or pressure
• Useful for brittle materials
– Additive methods (new)
Lecture No 30
Fundamentals of manufacturing -
Manufacturing Concepts
• The method chosen depends on the material
and the shape and properties required

Lecture No 31
Liquid to solid phase
transformation
• Create the shape in the form of a negative mold
• Pour in the liquid
• Solidify by
– extracting
• Heat
• Liquid (e.g. water)
– reactions
• Heat induced
• Photon induced
• Activators
• Remove solid from mold
• Casting conditions determine product properties

Lecture No 32
Material Flow
• Most metals and many plastics flow under stress
when the stress exceeds the "Yield stress"
• The stress-strain curve has three basic regions
– Elastic - Mechanical Deformation Energy
recovered
– Yield stress - transition point
– Flow regime - Mech. Energy transformed into
deformation and heat
• Non-strain hardening
• strain-hardening
• Three kinds of stresses or strains

Lecture No 33
Stress/strain conditions
• Pure Compressive
– Open die forging
• Pure Tensile
– Drawing
• Pure Shear
– Cutting, machining, turning

Lecture No 34
Combined stress states

• Rolling
– Mostly compressive with some shear
• Forging
– Extremely complex stress states
• Extrusion
– Combination of high compressive and shear
stresses
• Bending
– Mostly shear with tensile and compressive
components
• Stretching with bending
– Mostly shear with only tensile components

Lecture No 35
Combined Stress States

• Machining
– Highly complex stress combination with high
levels of shear causing fracture in a controlled
manner

Lecture No 36
Powder processing
• Takes advantage of the ability of powders to
flow like a liquid and fill complex shapes
– Can be dry powders or slurries (particles
suspended in a liquid
– The powders can be compacted by
• Pressure
• Extracting the liquid
– This forms a green body which is friable and
weak
– Heating to high temperatures causes the
powder particles to "sinter" or fuse together
and for a strong, nearly 100% dense product

Lecture No 37
Glass and Plastic Forming

• Similar to metal bulk deformation
• Silicate glasses have no yield stress but
require high temperatures for flow
• Plastics have a yield stress but require only
room or modest temperatures to allow flow
behavior

Lecture No 38
Wrap up
• Introduction
– Who am I?
– Statement of course goals
– Overall class schedule
– Statement of assumptions and policies
– Definitions - "Manufacturing vs
manufacturing"
– Basic concepts

Lecture No 2 39
Course
IE12121 – Production Process
IE 12122 – Practical
Introduction to Manufacturing
Engineering and Technology
Lecture 2 - Importance of Manufacturing

Industrial Engineering
Tarumanagara University
Lecture No 2 40
Why is Manufacturing Important?
• Historical view
• Economic impact
• Design impact
• Manufacturing Dimensions
• Manufacturing trends

Lecture No 2 41
Historical View
• In some sense manufacturing is central to
civilization
• As manufacturing technologies improved
so did civilization
– Stone age hunters made tools for hunting
and implements for cooking out of stone
– Bronze age use an alloy of copper and tin
– The iron artifacts were introduced
– And so on up to the present day
• The word “manufacturing” has Latin roots
– Manu - by hand
– Facere - to make
Lecture No 2 42
• Historical view
• Economic impact
• Design impact

Lecture No 2 43

• Impact on economy
– One of three Major wealth creation engines
– 20% of Gross Domestic Product for the last
five decades
– 17% of all jobs in the economy
– 2.5 jobs for every manufacturing job
• 0.2 jobs for every service sector
– 300,000 small manufacturers in the U.S.A.

Lecture No 2 44
Why is Manufacturing important?
• Pay scale
– 5% more than the average Finance Job
– 68% more than retail jobs and
– 161% more than food retail trade jobs
– While there are more service sector jobs in
Tarrant County, Manufacturing payroll is
$1 B more than the service sector payroll
• 1993 Salaries in Tarrant County

Lecture No 2 45
1993 Salaries in Tarrant County

40
35
30
25
k$
20
15
10
Services
Mining
Retail Trade
Wholesale trade
Agricultural
Construction
Manufacturing
Transportation and
Finance, Insurance
and Real estate
public utilities

Lecture No 2 46
Why is Manufacturing important?

• The Myth of the Service Sector economy
– The US no longer needs manufacturing
– The service sector will provide all the jobs
– The knowledge worker revolution
• WRONG!!

Lecture No 2 47
The Myth of the Service Economy

• 70% of the service sector is inextricably
linked to the Manufacturing sector
• What would happen if all manufacturing went
abroad?
• What links can you think of between
manufacturing and the service sector?
• Suggested reading:
– Cohen and Zysman, "Manufacturing Matters",
1988

Lecture No 2 48
• Historical view
• Economic impact
• Design impact

Lecture No 2 49
Why is Manufacturing important -
Design impact
• Most decisions made during design are
impacted by production/manufacturing
processes

Lecture No 2 50
Commitment vs expenditure
100.00 % comm
% spent
80.00
60.00
Percent
40.00

20.00
Lecture No 2 51
Big "M" - the Process

Step Cost of a change
Identify the requirements $0.1
Define one or more concepts,
test them against requirements
iterate
downselect $1.00
Flesh the chosen few out (details)
test them against requirements
iterate
down select $10.00
Final design
test against requirements iterate $100.00
Plan for production
select processes
identify process steps
define process parameters
document
Acquire material
Produce $1000.00
Support

Lecture No 2 52
Big "M" - Kalpakjian's version
• Source:
• Kalpakjian
• 3rd p 129
• 4th p10

Lecture No 2 53
Big "M" - Ullman's version
Source: D. Ullman, The Mechanical Design Process, p 61

Lecture No 2 54
Suggested reading on
manufacturing process and design
• H.E. Trucks, "Design for Economic

Production
• J.W. Priest, "Engineering Design for
Producibility and Reliability"
• D. Ullman," The Mechanical Design Process"
• G. Pahl, and W Beitz, "Engineering Design: A
Systematic Approach"

Lecture No 2 55
Impact of manufacturing on
Design Decisions
• Critical Decisions/Trade-offs
– Function vs cost vs schedule
• Choose materials
• Choose process(es)
– Cost determined by the material and the
processes used to create the shape

Lecture No 2 Some functional parameters 56
affected by manufacturing
processes
• Mechanical properties (Strength, Hardness,
Fatique, Ductility, Resistance to environment)
• Tolerances
• Surface finish
• Resistance to corrosion and abrasion
• Electrical properties
• Thermal Properties
• Appearance/surface finish

Lecture No 2 57
Materials Vs Processes
Source:
Kalpakjian
3rd: P 1225
4th: 1114

Lecture No 2 58
Examples of General
Function/Process Relationships
• Cast metals tend to be brittle
• Forging adds strength along flow lines
• Machining is cost effective for small lot sizes
• Casting, forging and extrusion have high
setup costs but low production costs
• Heat treatments affect hardness, strength,
corrosion resistance and fatigue properties
• Machining results in lots of scrap (the buy to
fly ratio)

Lecture No 2 59
Buy to Fly Ratio

The weight of the purchased raw material
divided by the weight of the final part
Process Buy to fly ratio

Machining 1.1 - 50
Hot closed die forging 1.2-1.5
Sheet metal forming 1.1-1.25
Extrusion 1.1-1.3
Permanent mold casting 1.0-1.2
Powder metallurgy 1.0-1.05

Lecture No 2 60
~Impact of Tolerances
Source: Kalpakjian p 1229

Lecture No 2 61
Critical Fact
• You cannot design any hardware without
taking into account the production process
used to make that product
• manufacturing considerations must be
included in the design as early as possible

Lecture No 2 62
Factors affecting Product Cost
Source: Kalpakjian p 1217

Lecture No 2 63
• Historical view
• Economic impact
• Design impact

Lecture No 2 64
What is Manufacturing -
Dimensions
• Product related
– Product Creative Characteristics (How new
products differ from previous ones)
– Product Size (physical dimension)
– Product Complexity/Sophistication
– Scope
• Process/organization related
– Material Flow
– Degree of Automation
– Organization

Lecture No 2 65
Product Creative Characteristics

• How new products differ from previous ones
– Selection design (Lego houses)
– Configuration design (automobiles)
– Parametric design (portable generators)
– Redesign (New VCR)
– Original design (the original VCR, the Space
Shuttle)

Lecture No 2 66
Product Size (physical dimension)

• A individual device on a computer chip
• A computer chip
• A television
• An automobile
• A Navy cruiser

Lecture No 2 67
Number of product parts/amount
of electronics/intelligence
• A nail
• A TV
• A car or truck
• A 777 aircraft
• A satellite
• A CPU chip (15 million
components)
• Mars sojourner
Lecture No 2 68
Product Scope
• Number of people and disciplines involved

– Artisan
– Garage/machine shop
– General Motors, Arlington Plant
– Boeing Commercial Aircraft
– Shipbuilding

Lecture No 2 69
Material Flow
• How the work is organized on the shop floor
– Discrete parts (traditional job shop)
– Cellular (New machine shops)
– Semicontinuous
– Continuous flow (bottle making)
– Process (chemical industry and oil refineries)

Lecture No 2 70
Degree of Automation
• How much automation exists on the shop

floor
– Manual
– Machine assisted
– Computer controlled - islands of automation
– Computer integrated manufacturing

Lecture No 2 71
Company Organization
• How the enterprises organize to produce
– Traditional
– Lean
– Agile
– Next Generation

Lecture No 2 72
• Historical view
• Economic impact
• Design impact

Lecture No 2 73
Shop floor Trends in
Manufacturing
• New processes
– Laser Machining
– Modular, reconfigurable machines
– Solid Free Form Fabrication
• Cellular manufacturing
• Rapid setup
• More automation
• More flexible automation

Lecture No 2 74
Company Level Trends in
Manufacturing
• More kinds of products faster with higher
quality and sophistication
• Cross functional teams
• Supervisor as coach, not boss
• Integration of shop floor machines with
business systems
• mrp, MRP, ERP, ERM
• Focus on Core Competencies
• Outsourcing of non-Core Competencies

Lecture No 2 75
Company Level Trends in
Manufacturing
• Much more collaboration across the board
• Teaming for product design
– Inside the company
– with suppliers
– with customers
• Suppliers taking on design responsibility
• Integration of design with production
• Designing-in quality, reliability maintainability
• Simulation and modeling of all processes
– production, design, business

Lecture No 2 76
Specific trends - Lean
Manufacturing
• No waste of any kind
– Material waste
• No scrap - process right each time
• Work-in-Process
• Pull material flow (KANBAN system)
– Personnel waste
• Cross functional teams
• Design product so there is only one way to assemble
product (poke-a-yoke)
– Time Waste
• Concurrency in operations where possible

Lecture No 2 77
Flexible manufacturing
• The ability to manufacturing multiple products
on a single line

Lecture No 2 78
Agile Manufacturing
• The ability to thrive and prosper in an
environment of constant and unanticipated
change
• Agile Manufacturers must be able to change
their business processes in hours to weeks to
satisfy new and short lived customer
demands
• Design cycle times reduced ten fold
• Production process changes in minutes

Lecture No 2 79
Agile, lean and flexible
Manufacturing
Lean + Flexible = Agile
• Some Lean and Flexible proponents also

claim agility
• The name is not important -
• The trends identified are

Lecture No 2 80
Some Agile Manufacturing
Implications
• Flexible workforce
• Flexible business processes
• Dynamically reconfigurable production
processes
• No waste
• Just in time production
• Lust-to-dust cycle extremely short
• Virtual or Extended Enterprises

Lecture No 2 81
Next Generation Manufacturing -
The Drivers
• Results of an NSF/DARPA/NIST funded
study
• Lead by
– MIT's Leaders in Manufacturing
– Technologies Enabling Agile Manufacturing
(TEAM) from the Department of Energy
– The Agility Forum
Over 500 industry participants and 10 national
organizations involved

Lecture No 2 82
Global Drivers
• Ubiquitous availability and distribution of
information
• Accelerating pace of change of technology
• Rapidly expanding technology access
• Globalization of markets and business
competition
• Global wage and job skills shifts
• Environmental responsibility and resource
limitations
• Increasing Customer expectations
Source: Next Generation Manufacturing - A Framework for Action: Volume II, published by the Agility
Forum, Bethlehem, PA, 1997

Lecture No 2 83
Attributes
• Customer responsiveness
• Physical plant and equipment responsiveness
• Human Resource responsiveness
• Global market responsiveness
• Teaming as a core competency
• Responsive business practices and cultures
Source: Next Generation Manufacturing - A Framework for Action: Volume II, published by the Agility
Forum, Bethlehem, PA, 1997

Lecture No 2 84
The Dilemmas
• Employee security without lifetime employment
• Simultaneous satisfaction of all stakeholder needs
• Practicing collaboration within knowledge-based
competition
• Controlling core competencies without owning them
• Managing assets when the most valuable asset is
knowledge
• Keeping domestic jobs while developing global
markets
• Rewarding learning in a reward for doing
environment
Lecture No 2 85
Where is it all going?

• Anybody's guess

86
Summing up
– The importance of Manufacturing
• Historically
• Economically
• Design influence
– Dimensions of Manufacturing
– Future trends in Manufacturing

Material Removal or Machining

Overview slide for Shaping and
Forming Metals
SLS
Powders
Special
Pressing Firing/
Injection Sintering
Molding
Raw Material
Sheet metal
Stamping forming
Assembly
Continuous
Finishing
Casting/Rolling Rolling
Forging/
Press forming
Ingot
casting
Machining
Extruding
Molten Casting
Material Shapes
Single crystal
pulling
Blow
molding
Increasing level of detail
89
Outline of Lecture
• Basic information on material removal
• Factors involved in material removal Lecture 10
• Independent variables
Lecture 11
• Dependent variables
• Machining Processes Lecture 12
• Machining Economics
• Machines

90
Categories of Material
Removal/Machining Processes

91
Why is Material Removal
Important
• Significant proportion of all goods involve
machined surfaces
• $70 - 100 billion industry
• The only way to achieve high precision
• The only way to create sharp corners, flat
surfaces and internal and external profiles

92
Why is Material Removal
Important
• The only way to shape hardened or brittle
material
• Economics (for small part volumes (e.g.
prototypes)
• Can achieve special surface finishes
• Indispensable for creating complex shapes
with good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish

93
Limitations of Material Removal

• Generate lots of scrap (high buy to fly ratio)
• Takes longer to remove material than to form
it
• Can mess up the properties and surface
finish if not done properly

94
Useful Web Sites on Machining

• The Machine Tool Agile Manufacturing
Research Institute
– Software tools for
• Fixture design
• Machining force analysis
• Part distortion
• Institute for Advanced Manufacturing
Sciences
– Software for
• Feed and speed selection
• Process planning
• University of Minnesota
– Active models of cutting
95
Stationary Part- Milling, Drilling,
Sawing, Etc

96
Rotating Part - Turning

97
Basic Processes
• Cutting process the same in
both
Milling, drilling, etc
Turning
Kalpakjian p Return to Overview Slide

595/535 Delvis Agusman, S.T., M.Sc. – E-mail: delvis.agusman@tarumanagara.ac.id
98
Material Removal as a System

Drawings, CAD model, Tolerances, Surface finish, Machine code
Cutting fluid
Workpiece Tool
Raw Finished
Material part
Machine Tool
Cutting tool Cutting fluid Operator

99
Factors Affecting
Machining/Cutting Processes
• Workpiece
– Material, condition, temperature,
(Machinability)
– Temperature rise

100
Factors Affecting
• Tool (The cutting edge)
– Material, condition/sharpness, coatings,
shape, surface finish
– Cutting parameters (How much material
removed)
• feed, speed, depth of cut
– Tool angles
– Type of chip created
– Tool wear

101
Factors Affecting
• Presence or absence of cutting fluid (How
process is cooled and lubricated)
• Machine tool parameters (To achieve
tolerances)
– Machine design
• Force and power availability
• Stiffness, damping, backlash)
– Fixture design (How the workpiece is held
while shaped)
• Also dependent on other variables
• Some are independent and some are
dependent variables
102
Independent variables in cutting

• Workpiece material - "machinability"
• Cutting tools
• Cutting parameters
• Presence or absence of fluid
• Characteristics of the machine tool
• Fixture design

103
Dependent Variables
• Material removal rate
• Surface finish of the workpiece
• Force and energy dissipated
• Type of chip produced
• Temperature rise in workpiece, tool and the
chip
• Wear and failure of the tool

104


105
Machinability
• Machinability depends on the strength,
toughness and hardness of the workpiece
material
– Machinability can be improved by the
addition of certain elements
– Lead and sulfur added to steels gives free
machining steels
Link is to the ASM Materials data base which includes an Machinability index

106
Machinability
• Good Machinability indicates
– Good surface finish and part integrity
• no tearing
– Long tool life
– Low power and force requirements
– Good chips
• No long thin chips

107
Machinability of Materials
Steels
Leaded Easy (lead acts as lubricant)
Sulfurized Relatively easy
Rephosphorized Relatively easy
Calcium de-oxidized Relatively easy
Stainless Steels
Austenitic General difficult:
Ferritic SS Easy
Martensic Abrasive
Aluminum Easy to machine but softer
alloys give poor surface
finish
108
Machinability of Materials
Magnesium Easy: danger from fire
Grey Cast Iron Machinable but abrasive
Wrought Copper Difficult to machine because
of ductility
Brass Easy to machine
Cobalt based Alloys Difficult and abrasive:
required low feeds and speeds
Nickel-based Alloys Difficult and abrasive
Titanium Difficult because of poor
thermal conductivity

109

• Cutting tools

110
Tool Selection and Design

• Tool selection is a very complex process
involving many parameters:
– Workpiece Machinability
– Type of cut - continuous, interrupted
– Tool material type
– Process parameters
• Feed
• Speed
• Depth of cut
– Shape
– Cost
• Tool life critical to economics (A
dependent variable, see later)

111
Tool Selection Guides
• See page 637/571 for general properties

of tool materials
• See page 644/578 of Kalpakjian for guide
to selecting Tungsten Carbide tools
• A couple of on-line catalogues
– http://www.indexable.com/product.html
– http://www.sct-usa.com/index.html

112
Tool Design Parameters

• Material Properties
– Hardness
– Toughness to resist impact forces
– Wear Resistance
– Chemical Stability
– Coating material

113
Properties of various cutting tool
materials
Kalpakjian p 660/582
114
Hardness Vs Temperature for
Cutting Tool Material

115
Impact of tool material on cutting
time
Kalpakjian Page 646/579

116

• Shape
– Edge strength
• Circles are stronger than triangles
– Edge design
• Sharp vs rounded

117

• Shape
– Influence on workpiece surface finish

118
Cutting Tool Material Costs

Material Cost ($)
• Carbon and medium alloy steels
• High-speed steels 1-7
• Cast-cobalt alloys
• Carbides 2-5
• Coated tools
• Alumina Based Ceramics 5-8
• Cubic Boron Nitride 60-80
• Silicon Nitride-base ceramics
• Diamond 75-100
• Whisker-reinforced materials
– See page 637/571 for properties
119
Tool Designs
• Solid vs inserts

120

• Cutting tools

121
Cutting Process Parameters

• Depend on the process (turning, milling,
drilling, etc.)
• Determines tool life for a specific tool material
and design
• Will discuss later when discussing individual
processes

122
Summary
• Machining is
– a cost effective way of making low volume
parts
– The only way of making certain shapes
– Involves shear fracture
– uses the same basic cutting process for all
processes
• The independent variables include
– material machinability, cutting tools, cutting parameters,
presence or absence of fluid, the machine tool, fixture design
• The dependent variables include
– Material removal rate, surface finish of the workpiece, cutting
force, energy dissipated, type of chip produced, temperature
rise in workpiece, tool and the chip, wear and failure of the tool

123
Fundamentals of Metal removal

processes

124

• Cutting tools

125
Functions of Cutting Fluids
• Reduce friction and wear

• Reduce forces and energy consumption
– 30% of total energy can go into friction
and heat generated
• Cooling the cutting zone
• Wash away chips
• Protect new surfaces from corrosion

126
Cutting fluids
• Basically four types

– Oils
– Emulsions
– Semisynthetic
– Synthetics

127
Dry Machining Scenario

• Turn off fluid
– Friction increases
– Shear angle decreases
– Shear strain increases
– Chip is thicker
– Can form built up edge
• Friction increases further
– Total energy increases
• Temperature increases
– Dimensions change
» machining inaccurate
– Surface finish likely to deteriorate
– Tool wear increases

128
Dry Machining Scenario

• HOWEVER
– Recent studies are taking a hard look at dry
machining to minimize environmental impact
of waste fluids

129
Good cooling practice

130

• Cutting tools

131
Characteristics of the Machine

• The machine provides the power and
ensures that the tool is maintained in the
chosen location relative to the workpiece
– Stiffness
• Deflection under load - inaccurate cuts
– Dynamic response
• Vibrations - chatter - rough surfaces
– Horse power available
• Determines the maximum material removal rate
– Gearing
• Determines the speeds and feeds available

132

• Cutting tools
• Fixture design

Fixture Design
• Fixtures hold the workpiece fixed while the
cutting tool acts on it
– Movement under the cutting force not
desirable
– Deflection of the workpiece under cutting force
not desirable
• Not truly independent
– Vibration of the workpiece undesirable

Summary of Independent Variables in
Metal Removal
• Cutting tools

Dependent Variables
• Forces and energy dissipated

• Temperature rise
• Tolerances of workpiece after machining
• Surface finish of workpiece after
machining
• Wear and failure of tool

Relationships among the variables
Workpiece Tool Cutting Process Fixture Machine Tool
properties Choice fluid Variables design Characteristics
Tolerances
Forces
Surface
Temp Finish
Rise
Chip
Power
Type
Tool
Degradation

Force and Energy Consumption
• Important to know force to
– Avoid excessive distortion in workpiece,
tools
• Distortion gives rise to inaccuracies - tolerances
– Allow adequate fixturing to be designed
– Determine the work done by force which
ends up as heat
• Important to know Power to
– Choose a machine with adequate power
capabilities
– Estimate how long it will take to machine a
part
– Estimate the rate at which heat is
generated
The Common Cutting Diagram
Friction Zone
Chip
V
Shear Zone
Tool
Fn
R
Workpiece
Kalpakjian p
595/546 Return to Overview Slide
Forces
Kalpakjian
p 608/546
F = R sin N= R cos
is rake angle:
Fs = F cos Ft cos
is shear angle:
Fs = F sin Ft sin
is friction angle
F/N = (Ft + Fc tan )/(Ft - Fc tan

Forces
R is the resultant force
consisting of
– thrust force, Ft and
– cutting force, Fc
– OR
– F, Frictional force,
– N normal force
perpendicular to
– friction force
Ft can be + or - depending on rake angle and
friction
R is balanced by an equal and opposite force
which resolves into Kalpakjian p 608
– Shear force, Fs and
– Shear normal force Fn
141
Force Diagram
chip R
Friction Zone F
Ft V
Fs Fc
R N tool
Fn
Shear Zone
Workpiece
But, forces usually computed from measured machine

power or measured with sensors

142
Power
Power = FcV
where Fc is the cutting force and V is the tool
velocity
Specific Energy = power/volume
= shearing energy + friction energy
= FsV/wt0V + F/wto (Vc/V)
where t0 is the depth of cut, w is the width of cut
Example on page 611 illustrates that 30% of the
energy can go into friction
Energy can also go into rubbing friction if tool is
dull
143
Specific Energy
Kalpakjian
p 611/548 Return to Overview Slide
144
Where the Energy Goes

• Overcoming Temperature rise in the
Workpiece
friction Tool
• Shearing the Chip
metal Creating chips
Higher temperatures
• Cause dimensional changes in the workpiece
• Induce thermal damage in the machine surface
• Affect strength, hardness and wear resistance of the
cutting tool
• Eventually distort the machine tool itself
Shearing normally gives good surfaces
Poor tool/feed/speed selection can produce poor
surfaces
Dull tools also generate heat through rubbing of the
workpiece surface
145
Dependent Variables


146
Temperature Distribution
147
Temperature Distribution
148
Dependent Variables


149
Tolerances
• Tolerances on a machine part depend on

– Forces generated
• Distort the part and its fixturing
– Software Tools
• Distort the tool and its holder
– Depends on machine and tool design
• Distort the machine itself
– Depends on the machine design
– Temperature generated
• Thermal induced expansion of all components
in the system results in machining errors

150
Tolerances

151
Dependent Variables

machining

152
Surface Finish and Integrity
• Surface finish describes the geometry

• Surface Integrity pertains to the
mechanical properties
– Fatigue life, corrosion resistance

153
Surface Finish and Integrity

• Factors affecting surface integrity include
– Workpiece temperature during processing
– Residual stresses induced by the shearing
– Metallurgical effects (phase transformations)
– Plastic deformation
– Tearing
– Built up edge on chip
• Table on Page 685/616 provides surface
roughness for various processes

154
Machining Processes and
Surface Finish

155
Dependent Variables

machining

156
Tool Life
• Very important economic factor
– Cost of tools
– Cost of damaged workpiece
– Cost of rework due to inaccurate
machining
• Machinability of part has direct influence

157
Tool Life
• Abrasion and high temperature cause wear
on
– The face
• mostly craters
– The flank
• High forces and shocks (interrupted
cutting)cause chipping
– Fracture of the tool
– Produces holes and gouges in part
• Poorly machinable materials can give a built
up edge
– Material adheres to edge of tool and causes
inaccuracies and extra friction

158
Tool Life
• Formula for tool life due to wear and

abrasion
– VTn = C
• C, n are constants
• V is cutting speed, T is time in minutes
– VTn dx fy = C
• d is depth of cut, f is feed rate, x and y are
constants
– Tool life, T given by
• T = C1/nV-1/nd-x/nf-y/n
– For n=0.15, x= 0.15, y=.06
• T=C7V-7d-1f-4

159
Tool Life for Different Materials
Kalpakjian
P 617/553
160
Dependent Variables

machining

161
Type of Chip Produced

• Discontinous chips, continuous strands,
continuous serrated strands, built up
edge (on tool)

162
Type of Chip Produced

• Depends on the:
– machinability of the
workpiece
– the design of the
cutting tool
– the design of the
tool holder

163
Summary
• The results of choosing a specific set of the
independent variables influences:
– Forces and energy dissipated
– Tolerances of workpiece after machining
– Surface finish of workpiece after machining
– Wear and failure of tool
– Type of chip produced
• Forces and power are important for choice of
machine for a job
• Next week we discuss some of the individual
processes
164
Metal Removal Processes

Basic Cutting Processes
• Rotating part - turning

– Creates round shapes
• Stationary part - milling, drilling, sawing,
etc

Basic Turning
• Part of cylindrical cross section clamped in a
"chuck" so that it can rotate about its axis
• Part is rotated at fixed speed
• A cutting tool is brought to bear on the moving
surface of the part cutting of material
• The "chuck" is a kind of vice which has rotational
symmetry

Turning Process Parameters
f

Turning Parameters
•Tool Geometry
– Rake angles
– Side rake angle - more important than
– Back rake angle
– Cutting edge angles

Turning Parameters
• Tool Geometry
• Tool Materials
• Feeds and speeds, N,d,f
– (see table 22.4 for recommendations)
• Cutting fluids
• Material Removal rates
–= Davg d f N
• Where Davg is the average diameter, d is the depth of
cut, f is the feed rate and N the rotational speed
• Forces and power used
• Surface finish (scallops)

Power used
• Power used is the material removal rate,
MRR, times the specific energy

Feed Marks in Turning
• Scallops created
• The depth depends on the feed rate, surface
velocity and tool shape
Scallops

Machining Processes for Round
Shapes
• Turning
• Facing
• Boring
– Produces circular internal profiles in hollow
workpieces
• Drilling
– Produces round holes
• Reaming
– Produces more accurate holes than drilling
• Parting
• Threading
• Knurling
Machining Processes for Round
Shapes
Kalpakjian p 663
Turning Guidelines
• Avoid long skinny parts
• Request wide accuracy and surface finish
parameters
• Avoid sharp corners and tapers
• Avoid major dimensional changes
• Design blanks to be as close to final
dimensions as possible

Turning Guidelines
• Allow for travel of tools across surfaces of
workpiece
• Design features so that standard tools can be
used
• Choose machinable materials
• Minimize overhang of tool

• Support workpiece
• Use machines with high rigidity

Non Round Machining Processes
• The operation
– Clamp the workpiece onto a stationary bed
or one that can move in multiple directions
slowly
– Bring a rotating tool to bear on the surface
to be shaped
– Move the rotating tool over the part or
move the part past the rotating tool to
shape it

Non Round Machining - Slab
Milling
• Milling
– Slab/Peripheral
– Cutter rotation axis parallel to
workpiece surface
• Conventional/up
– Maximum chip thickness
at end of cut
– Low impact of tool with workpiece
• Climb/down
– Maximum chip thickness at beginning
of cut
– High low impact of tool with workpiece

Non Round Machining - Face
milling
– Axis of rotation
perpendicular to
workpiece surface
– Large multi-insert cutter

Non Round Machining - Face
Milling
• Difference between climb and
conventional face milling
Action of an insert in face milling

Climb Milling Conventional millin
Parameters in face milling

Non Round Machining

Generic Milling formula
• Cutting (peripheral) speed,
– V = DN
– where D is the cutter diameter and N its
rotational speed
• Feed per tooth,
– f = v/Nn
– where v is the linear speed or feed rate of
the workpiece, and n is the number of teeth
• Undeformed chip thickness, (chip depth of
cut),
– tc = 2 f (d / D)
– Where f is the feed per tooth, d is the depth
of cut

Generic Milling formula
• Cutting time, t = (l + 2lc)/ v
– where v is the feed rate of the workpiece, l is the length
of the workpiece and lc is the extent of the cutter’s first
contact with the workpiece
• Material removal rate, MRR
– MRR = lwd/t = wdv
– assuming the lc<<l and where w is the width of the cut
– Power is equal to the MRR times the specific energy

Feed Marks from Milling

Design Guidelines for Milling
• Design for standard cutters
• Use chamfers instead of radii
• Avoid internal cavities and pockets with sharp
corners
• Design workpieces with sufficient rigidity

Other Non Round Machining
Processes
• Drilling
• Straddle milling
• Planing
• Broaching
• Sawing
– Generally used for cutting off pieces to be
worked on by other processes
• Filing and finishing
• Gear machining

Drilling Practices
• Type of drill bit, drill point geometry
• Type of machine
– Drill, press, radial drills, gang drills, NC
controlled
– Capabilities of drilling and boring operations
(p 633)
– HP used = Spec. Energy times MRR ( D2fN/4)

Drilling Operations and Drill bits

Drilling Guidelines
• Design holes perpendicular to the surface
• Do not design interrupted/overlapping
holes
• Design bottoms to match standard drill-
point angles
• Through holes are preferred over blind
holes
• If need large diameter holes design in
smaller hole for casting
• Design to minimize fixturing
• Avoid reaming blind or intersecting holes
Machining Economics
• Cost per piece decreases with cutting

speed
• Tool cost increases with cutting speed
• Tool change time increases with cutting
speed
• Total cost goes through a minimum
• Time spent removing material usually
small fraction (<5%) of total time on
machine

Machining Economics

Metal Removal Machines

Basic Lathe

Turning Machine Components
• Bed
– Supports all other major components
– Top part has two ways
• Carriage
– Slides along the ways
– Consists of the cross-slide, tool post and
apron

Turning Machine Components
• Headstock
– Fixed
– Contains the motors, pulley and belts to drive
the spindle
– Spindle has fixtures for attaching the
workpiece
• Tailstock
– Can slide along the ways
– Supports the other end of the workpiece
• Feed rod and lead screw
– Provides motion to the carriage and cross
slide

A Manual Lathe

Turning Machines
• Lathes
– Tracer
– Automatic
– Automatic bar machines
– Turret
– Vertical
• For very large diameters
– Boring
• Vertical
• Horizontal (like a milling machine)
– Computer controlled

Turret Lathe

MORI SEIKI SL-3 SLANT BED CNC
LATHE

Vertical Boring Mill

Milling Machines
• Column and Knee type
– Horizontal spindle
– Vertical spindle
• Bed type
– Skin mills
• Other types
– Planer type
– Rotary tables
– Duplicating machines
– Profiling milling
– More than three axes

#4 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
W/SLIDING HEAD

202
Machining and Turning Centers

• Combines turning with milling
• Computer control essential
• Multiaxis capabilities
• Replacing simple lathes or milling machines

NC Turning Center

204
Giddings & Lewis dv15-l smart turn twin-

spindle vertical production center

205
Drilling Machines
• Drill presses
• Radial machines
• CNC Three axis drilling machine

206
Trends
• High speed machining
• Dry machining
• Combining milling, drilling and turning
operations
• New, stiffer and highly damped machine tools
– Graphite epoxy, ceramics (high modulus)
• Modular machines
• Multiple loading stations
• More sensors
• More and more automation
– Automated program generation
207
Summary
• There are many different types of
machining operations
• That is what makes it so versatile and
attractive to industry
• The basic cutting process is the same in
all
• Must consider the cutting operation as a
system
• Actual cutting time is a small fraction of
the total time to create a part by
machining


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Course

IE12121 – Production Process

Return to Overview Slide

Overview of First Week

Return to Overview Slide

Some guiding principles

Return to Overview Slide

How do we make these?

Return to Overview Slide

Assumptions for Course

Overall Approach for Course

Return to Overview Slide

• Mid test count for 25%

Return to Overview Slide

The Book and Suggested Reading

Return to Overview Slide

– The New Manufacturing Engineer by M.J. Terminie,

– Designing for Economical Production by H.E. Trucks,

– "Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing," James

Return to Overview Slide

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Phase change/crystal growth

Return to Overview Slide

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Examples - Material Removal

Return to Overview Slide

Examples - Powder Processing for

Return to Overview Slide

How do we make these?

Return to Overview Slide

• Big "M" Manufacturing

Return to Overview Slide

• Little m "manufacturing" (production)

Return to Overview Slide

Little "m" manufacturing is all about

Return to Overview Slide

People, money, machines and automation

Return to Overview Slide

The manufacturing Process

Machines and Automation

Return to Overview Slide

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Return to Overview Slide

Return to Overview Slide

Combined stress states

Return to Overview Slide

Combined Stress States

Return to Overview Slide

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Glass and Plastic Forming

Return to Overview Slide

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Lecture 2 - Importance of Manufacturing

Why is Manufacturing Important?

Return to Overview Slide

Why is Manufacturing Important?

Return to Overview Slide

Why is Manufacturing Important?