This glossary will be updated from time to time.

Terminology in several other

languages will be added. Copyright © 1998-2001, POLYDYNAMICS INC.
(www.polydynamics.com). Copying for non-commercial use is permitted provided
that all copies carry the copyright.

ADAPTER: In an extruder, the portion of the die assembly that attaches the die to
the extruder and provides a flow channel for the molten plastic between the extruder
and the die.

ADDITIVE: Any substance that is added to another substance. Usually a material

added in minor amounts to alter the properties of a resin or compound.

ADIABATIC: This adjective denotes a process in which no heat is added or

removed. The term is used incorrectly to describe an extruder where the mechanical
energy from the screw is sufficient to plastify the polymer and the barrel controller
set-points are set so that little or no heating or cooling is required.

AIR GAP: In extrusion coating, the distance from the die opening to the nip formed
by the pressure roll and the chill roll.

ALLOY: Polymer blend having a modified interface and/or morphology.

AMORPHOUS POLYMER: A polymer having no crystallinity. Polystyrene is an

amorphous polymer while HDPE is semi-crystalline.

ANISOTROPY: The situation where properties vary according to the direction in

which they are measured.

APPARENT SHEAR RATE: The shear rate determined in capillary viscometers

without making a correction (Rabinowitsch) for shear thinning. It turns out that the
apparent shear rate is equal to 4Q/ R3 where Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
and R is the radius (m) of the capillary.

APPARENT VISCOSITY: The viscosity determined in capillary viscometry without

making a correction (Rabinowitsch) for shear thinning. The apparent viscosity is

equal to the shear stress divided by the apparent shear rate, which is ,
where P is the pressure drop (Pa), Q is the volumetric flow rate (m 3/s), L is the
length (m) and R is the radius (m) of the capillary die.

ASTM: Abbreviation of American Society for Testing and Materials, an association

for establishing standard testing and reporting procedures.
BACK-PRESSURE: The resistance that reduces forward flow in an extruder.

BAGLEY CORRECTION: A term used in capillary viscometry to describe the excess

pressure drop in the entrance to the capillary due to extensional (elongational)
viscosity. It might be negligible when very long capillaries are used (i.e. L/D > 35). If
shorter capillaries are used the errors in viscosity measurement might be 10-30% or
even higher.

BANBURY MIXER: A high-intensity batch mixer composed of a "figure-eight"

shaped chamber and a pair of counter-rotating rotors that masticate the materials.

BARRIER SCREWS: Screws where a second flight (barrier), with a larger radial
clearance than a normal flight, separates the solid bed from melt in the compression
section. Barrier screws have significantly higher melting capacity than conventional
screws.

BETA GAUGE: A device for measuring the thickness of plastic films, sheets or
extruded shapes. It consists of a Beta-ray emitting source and a detecting element.

BLEND: An intimate combination of two or more polymer chains having different

features, that are not bonded to each other.

BLOCK COPOLYMER: A block copolymer is made when one of the two monomers
polymerized together to form a polymer exists as a long section or block in the
polymer chain.

BLOW-UP RATIO: In blown film extrusion, the ratio of the final tube diameter to the
die diameter.

BRANCHED POLYMERS: Polymers can be classified as linear or branched. Linear

polymers have the monomeric units linked together, linearly, with little or no long
chain branching. In branched polymers, side chains are attached to the molecular
chain backbone. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is linear, while low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) contains both short and long chain branches. Linear LDPE
(LLDPE) is a copolymer with controlled short chain branches. This results in polymer
that is "stiffer" than LDPE in shear but "softer" in extension. In extension the LLDPE
chains slide by without getting entangled since the chain branches are very short.

BREAKER PLATE: A perforated plate located at the end of the extruder, which
usually supports screens for preventing contaminants from entering the die.

BULK DENSITY: Weight of a unit of a material, in powdered or granular form,

including voids (air) inherent in the material.

CAPILLARY VISCOMETER: An instrument used to measure polymer melt viscosity.

It consists of a heated reservoir used to melt the polymer, which is subsequently
pushed by a piston and flows through a 1-mm- to 2-mm-diameter round die. From
the force required to move the piston and the corresponding volumetric flow rate, the
viscosity can be determined. The Rabinowitsch correction is necessary to account
for the shear thinning effects and the Bagley correction to account for the excess
pressure drop at the die entrance (see RABINOWITSCH CORRECTION and
BAGLEY CORRECTION).

CARREAU MODEL: A mathematical expression describing the shear thinning

behavior of polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law model because it fits the
data very well at both high and low shear rates.

where: 0,, n are curve fitting parameters and is the shear rate. Due to the
mathematical complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical solutions with this
model, but it is excellent for numerical simulations of flow processes.

CATALYST: A substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change or becoming part of the molecular composition of
the product.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: A measure of the resistance to sliding of one surface

in contact with another. Low values mean easy sliding. The coefficient of friction of a
packed bed of plastic pellets on a polished screw surface is around 0.25, and about
0.4 on the barrel (rougher) surface. Pressure, temperature and surface
characteristics affect the value of the coefficient of friction.

CO-EXTRUSION: The process used to form a multilayer structure from two or more
polymers.

COGSWELL’S METHOD: An approximate method for extensional viscosity

measurement. It uses the excess pressure drop value in the die entrance (i.e. from
the Bagley Correction). Reproducible measurements are usually possible in the
elongation (extension, or stretch) rate range of 5 s-1 to 50 s-1.

COMMODITY RESIN: High-volume, low-priced resins like polyethylene (PE),

polypropylene (PP), styrene (PS, etc), acrylic (PMMA), vinyl (PVC etc.).

COMPOUNDING: The combination of polymers with other materials either by means

of mechanical (dry) blending or melt state blending.

COMPRESSION RATIO: In single-screw extruders the channel depth in the solids-

conveying zone under the hopper is much larger than in the metering (pumping)
zone. The depth ratio, usually in the range of 2.0–4.0, is referred to as the
compression ratio. The low bulk density solid polymer bed is compressed as it is
forced to go through a gradually decreasing depth and melts as it is sheared against
the barrel wall.

COMPRESSION ZONE: The second zone in an extruder screw. It receives material

from the feed zone and delivers it to the metering zone. It is sometimes referred to
as the melting zone.
CONE AND PLATE INSTRUMENT (also called the Weissenberg
Rheogoniometer): A device to measure viscosity by determining the torque
necessary to rotate a cone over a flat plate with molten polymer in between. The
angle is very small so that the rotational flow is nearly parallel. The device can also
be used to determine the (first) normal stress difference by measuring the normal
force tending to separate the cone from the plate surface (see NORMAL
STRESSES).

CONSISTENCY INDEX: In the power-law viscosity model , which

describes the reduction of viscosity as the shear rate increases (shear thinning), m is
the consistency index (which is a function of temperature). It corresponds to the
value of the viscosity for shear rate .

COPOLYMER: Two monomers polymerized together to form a polymer.

CORONA TREATMENT: Surface treatment of plastic parts by exposing them to an

electrical corona discharge to increase their receptivity to inks, paints and adhesives.

COUETTE FLOW (also called DRAG FLOW): The flow between two surfaces
caused by the movement of one relative to the other. The fluid is literally dragged by
the moving wall. For parallel flat surfaces the resulting velocity profile is linear,
varying from zero at the stationary wall to the velocity of the moving surface.

COX-MERZ RULE: Frequently, instead of (steady) viscosity measurements by a

capillary and/or a cone-and-plate instrument, dynamic measurements are performed
(easier) by applying a sinusoidal deformation in the cone-and-plate. The COX-MERZ
rule states that the (steady) viscosity versus shear rate curve is virtually identical to
the dynamic viscosity versus frequency curve. It is valid for most common polymers.
Since it is easier to get the dynamic data over a very wide range of frequencies, it is
used extensively in industry.

CREEPING FLOW: Flow at very low Reynolds Number i.e. Re << 1, where the
dimensionless Reynolds number is defined as:

From Fluid Mechanics it is known that when Re is more than 2100 the flow is
turbulent and below 2100 the flow is laminar. Molten polymer flows through channels
and process equipment usually occur at Re = 10 -4 – 10-2, that is under creeping flow
conditions. The creeping flow assumption implies that the fluid inertia is negligible.

CROSSHEAD: A device for changing the extrudate flow direction, usually by 90°, so
that it can be blow molded or coat wire or coat shapes.

CROSS-LINKING: Formation of a 3-dimensional network of polymer chains, which

completely prevents flow (e.g. vulcanized rubber).
CROSS MODEL: A mathematical expression describing the shear thinning behavior
of polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law model because it fits the data
very well at both high and low shear rates.

where: 0, , n are curve fitting parameters and is the shear rate. Due to the
mathematical complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical solutions with this
model, but it is excellent for numerical simulations of flow processes. This model is
very popular in injection molding simulations (cavity filling) and in the
characterization of the flow behavior of polymers produced with metallocene
catalysts.

CRYSTALLINITY: Ordered repeated structures (crystals) encountered in polymers

below a certain temperature. Most polymers are semi-crystalline containing both
crystalline and amorphous regions (see also GLASS TRANSITION and MELTING
POINT).

DEBORAH NUMBER (De): The ratio of a characteristic material time to a

characteristic process time. As the characteristic material time we can use the
relaxation time and as a characteristic process time the inverse of the shear rate.
Under usual extrusion conditions the relaxation might be 0.1 and the shear rate 100
s-1 and thus De = 10 (0.1 divided by 1/100). When De << 1, the polymer behaves as
a purely viscous fluid while for De >> 1 as an elastic solid. The phenomena of
extrudate swell and melt flow instability are evidence of polymer elasticity.

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE): A methodology for planning experiments where

purposeful changes to the inputs (factors) to a process (or activity) are made in order
to observe corresponding changes in the outputs (responses). A means of gaining
knowledge about a process or activity with minimal effort.

DIE LIP BUILDUP (also known as DIE DROOL): The gradual formation of an
initially liquid deposit at the edge of the die exit which solidifies and may partially
obstruct the flow of the extruded product and/or cause defective extrudate surface.
Depending on the severity of the problem, continuous extrusion must be interrupted
every few hours or few days and the solid deposit must be removed from the die lips.

DIE SWELL: see EXTRUDATE SWELL

DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC): A thermal analysis technique,

which measures the difference between a reference and a sample during a
controlled temperature change. Changes in the heating rate can be converted into
heat capacity and enthalpy changes. It is used to measure the Specific Heat (Heat
Capacity Cp), Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and Melting Temperature (Tm), and
to probe the structure of polymer blends.
DISPERSIVE MIXING (also called INTENSIVE MIXING): An operation that reduces
the size of agglomerates or liquid drops of a minor component within a major fluid
matrix.

DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING (also called LAMINAR or EXTENSIVE mixing): An

operation that increases the randomness of the spatial distribution of the minor
component within the major fluid matrix.

DRAG FLOW: see COUETTE FLOW

DRAW RESONANCE: A phenomenon by which a continuous drawing process

becomes unsteady, alternating between thick and thin sections. It is often
encountered in fiber spinning and cast film production.

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS (DMA): In this technique the response of a

material to an oscillatory load is measured during a temperature cycle. It provides
information on material modulus of elasticity, which in turn can be related to impact
strength, tensile strength, toughness and creep rate.

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM): A metalworking process in which

controlled sparking is used to erode the workpiece.

ELONGATIONAL VISCOSITY (also called EXTENSIONAL VISCOSITY): The

resistance to extension (while the (common) viscosity term describes the resistance
to shearing). For Newtonian fluids the elongational viscosity is equal to 3 times the
(common) viscosity (3 is known as the Trouton Ratio). Polymer melts are non-
Newtonian and the elongational viscosity is usually between 3 and 100 times the
viscosity. Melt strength is just a rough engineering measure of the elongational
viscosity, determined from the force required to break an extruded strand of polymer
by a pair of rollers (see MELT STRENGTH).

ENGINEERING RESINS: Resins for high-performance applications. This category

includes polycarbonates (PC) and polyamides (PA) like nylon.

EXTRUDATE SWELL (also called DIE SWELL): Whenever a polymer melt

emerges from a die the diameter or thickness is always larger than the diameter (or
gap) of the die. At usual production throughputs, diameter or thickness ratios range
from 1.20-1.40 for PVC to 1.50-2.00 for commercial grade Polyethylenes and much
more for some polymers containing a high molecular weight tail. It is an indication of
the elasticity of the polymer. The more elastic polymers give larger swell. Of course,
by pulling the extrudate the swell is reduced and of course extrudates can be drawn
down to diameters (or thicknesses) much smaller than the die diameter or gap.

FEED ZONE: The first zone of an extruder screw. It receives material from the
hopper and delivers it to the compression zone.
FILMS: In the plastics and packaging industries, films are usually considered to be a
web under 10 mils (0.010 inch or 250 microns) thick. Webs greater than 10 mils are
considered sheet.

FISHEYE: Small globular mass which has not blended completely in the surrounding
material.

FLIGHT: In an extruder, it is the helical metal left after machining the screw
channels. The screw flight diameter is the barrel inside diameter minus a specified
flight clearance to allow the screw to fit into the barrel. A rule of thumb is 0.001 inch
(25 microns) of radial clearance for every inch (25 mm) of barrel diameter.

FLOW LINES OR STREAKS: Flow lines or streaks in the machine direction are
visual defects in the form of continuous lines or streaks, which occur in the same
axial location. They may appear and be very persistent after a change in material,
screw or die.

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FTIR): In this technique

infrared radiation is passed through a sample and the amount absorbed is measured
as a function of wavelength. FTIR allows a wide range of wavelengths to be scanned
quickly. By comparison to known spectra the polymer can be identified and its
structure can be deduced. This technique is used extensively for polymer
identification purposes.

FRACTIONAL MELT INDEX: A melt flow index of less than 1.0.

FRICTION COEFFICIENT: See COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.

FRICTIONAL HEATING: Whenever a highly viscous polymer melt is forced to flow

through a channel, considerable heat is generated by internal friction. The rotating
screw supplies actually more than 70% of the heat required to melt a polymer in an
extruder through this frictional heating mechanism. During flow through dies, the
frictional heating can cause a significant local temperature increase (hot spots) and
thermal degradation, with an eventual discoloration of the product, black specks,
pinking, etc.

G' and G" : See STORAGE MODULUS and LOSS MODULUS

GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY (GPC): In this measurement technique

separation of polymer fractions is effected by flowing a pulse of a polymer solution
through a packed bed of porous particles. By measuring the polymer concentration
in the effluent stream, and comparing to calibration standards, the molecular weight
distribution can be determined.

GELS: In polymer science, a gel is defined as a 3-dimensional network of sufficient

cross-link density that prevents flow. However, in extrusion practice the term "GEL"
encompasses various visual defects in the final product, which sometimes appear as
elongated ellipses and even includes various contaminants that are called "fisheyes"
(see FISHEYE).
GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (Tg): The lowest temperature at which a
polymer can be considered softened and possibly flowable. For HDPE and LDPE, it
is –100C and for PS +100C.

GROOVED (BARREL) EXTRUDERS: The forward conveying action of a single-

screw extruder can be increased by intentionally roughening the barrel surface
(grooves) in the solids-conveying zone. Grooved extruders can produce rapid
pressure rise, which can sometimes be high enough to damage the screw or barrel.
Grooved extruders produce higher throughputs, but they might be susceptible to
output instabilities and surging problems.

HEAT OF FUSION: The heat required to mobilize the molecules of a solid polymer
to produce a fluid melt i.e. the heat required to destroy the solid crystal structure
without increasing the temperature. For amorphous polymers like polystyrene (PS)
the heat of fusion is zero. For LDPE it is about 130,000 J/kg, which is roughly
equivalent to the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of LDPE by about
50C.

HIGH LOAD MELT FLOW INDEX (HLMFI): This is a melt flow index test that uses a
higher than the usual (2.16 kg) weight. For PE, the HLMFI weight is usually 10 kg,
but sometimes 21.6 kg.

HOPPER: The container that holds the resin before it enters the extruder feed zone.

IMMISCIBLE: Incapable of mixing.

INTERFACIAL INSTABILITY IN COEXTRUSION: Highly irregular or sometimes

regular waviness, which appears in coextruded structures at the polymer/polymer
interface. Two types of interfacial instability are common: zigzag and wave.

INTRINSIC VISCOSITY (IV): The limiting value of viscosity (at infinite dilution) of a
polymer in a solution, which is used in the determination of an average molecular
weight. The viscosity average molecular weight lies between the weight average and
number average molecular weight (see also MOLECULAR WEIGHT).

ISO: The International Organization for Standardization, a worldwide federation of

national standards bodies from some 140 countries. Equivalent to ASTM.

ISO 9000: Family of standards concerned with "quality management". This means
what the organization does to enhance customer satisfaction by meeting customer
and applicable regulatory requirements.

ISOTROPY: The situation where properties are independent of the direction in which
they are measured.
K-VALUE OF PVC: A measure of the molecular weight of PVC based on
measurements of viscosity of a PVC solution. It ranges usually between 35 and 80.
Low K-values imply low molecular weight (which is easy to process but has inferior
properties) and high K-values imply high molecular weight, (which is difficult to
process, but has outstanding properties).

L/D RATIO: The ratio of the screw length to the screw diameter.

LEAKAGE FLOW: The flow through the clearance between the flight lands and the
barrel wall.

LINEAR POLYMERS: Polymers can be classified as linear or branched. In linear

polymers the monomeric units are linked together, linearly, with little or no long chain
branching. In branched polymers, side chains are attached to the backbone of the
molecular chain. High density polyethylene (HDPE) is linear while low density
polyethylene (LDPE) is branched. Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is "stiffer" than LDPE in
shear but "softer" in extension. In extension the LLDPE chains slide by without
getting entangled (since the chain branches are very short).

LOSS MODULUS (denoted as G"): An indirect measure of polymer viscosity using

a cone-and-plate instrument subjected to dynamic (sinusoidal) deformation (see also
STORAGE MODULUS).

MASTERBATCH: A concentrated blend of pigments, additives, fillers, etc. in a base

polymer. Masterbatch is added in small amounts to large volume material (the same
as or compatible with the base polymer) to achieve desired properties.

MELT BLOCKAGE: The sudden drop of output rate of an extruder due to insufficient
forward transport of the solid packed bed in the feeding zone of the machine.

MELT FLOW INDEX (also called MELT INDEX or MELT FLOW RATE): The
number of grams of polymer that can be pushed out of a capillary die of standard
dimensions (Diameter: 2.095 mm, Length: 8.0 mm) under the action of standard
weight (2.16 kg for PE, at 190°C). in 10 minutes (ASTM Standard 1238). The usual
melt index range is from less than 1.0 (called fractional) to more than 25 (up to 100
for injection molding). For PP it is usually called MELT FLOW RATE and the
standard temperature is 230°C.

MELT FRACTURE: At higher throughput rates, extrudates usually become highly

distorted and the head pressure shows significant fluctuations. This phenomenon is
known as gross MELT FRACTURE. It is possible with some polymers to obtain
grossly melt fractured extrudates without sharkskin, i.e. the surface remains smooth
and glossy but overall the extrudate is distorted (see also SHARKSKIN).

MELT STRENGTH: A measure of the extensional viscosity of polymer melts. It

represents the maximum tension that can be applied to the melt without rupture or
tearing. Usually a capillary viscometer is used to extrude a polymer strand and the
strand is pulled till rupture by a pair of rollers.
MELTING POINT: The temperature at which the structure of a crystalline polymer is
destroyed to yield a liquid. For HDPE it is about 135C, for LDPE it is about 110C. It
is not scientifically correct to talk about the melting point of an amorphous polymer
like PS, because it has no crystalline structure. However, in extrusion practice it is
often practical to use the glass transition temperature plus 50C to define an
equivalent melting point of such amorphous polymers. For PS this would be 100C +
50C = 150C (see GLASS TRANSITION).

METALLOCENE CATALYZED POLYMERS: Commonly and erroneously called

metallocene polymers. Most polyolefins are produced nowadays with the help of so-
called Ziegler-Natta catalysts. Recent developments in metallocene catalysts give
the possibility to tailor the structure in such a way as to produce polymers having
significantly improved mechanical and physical properties. The better properties of
blown film are apparently accompanied by the trade off of poorer processability than
conventional materials.

METERING ZONE: The single screw extrusion process consists of three functional
zones: the SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE where the polymer pellets or powder are
compacted and transported forward, the MELTING ZONE where the polymer melts
mainly under the action of shear on the barrel wall, and the METERING ZONE
(PUMPING ZONE) where the polymer is transported forward by DRAG FLOW
caused by the rotating action of the screw.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: Polymers are composed of long chain molecules. The

monomer unit is repeated many times to give average molecular weights ranging
from 50,000 to 500,000 for most common polymers. Of course, not all polymer
chains are of the same length, so we have a MOLECULAR WEIGHT
DISTRIBUTION (MWD). Different molecular weight averages are defined to express
the breadth of the distribution. The number average molecular weight , M n, is the
sum of the individual molecular weights divided by their number. The weight average
molecular weight, Mw, is the sum of the squares of the weights divided by the sum of
the molecular weights. The POLYDISPERSITY INDEX (PDI) Mw/Mn (weight average
/ number average) would be 1.0 if all chains had exactly the same length (only
theoretically possible). Usual grades of polymers have PI values from 1.5 to 30.
Broad distribution polymers usually have lower viscosity, but higher elasticity.

NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: Fluids which exhibit constant viscosities independent of the

shear rate. Water, glycerin, oil and other small molecule fluids are Newtonian.

NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: Fluids having viscosities that depend on the shear

rate. Polymer solutions and melts are non-Newtonian fluids. They also exhibit other
non-Newtonian properties such as stress relaxation and normal stresses.

NORMAL STRESSES: Polymer melts when sheared (i.e. when subjected to

tangential forces) give rise to perpendicular (NORMAL) STRESSES. This means
that when a fluid is flowing in a tube it is less compressed in the axial direction than
in the radial direction. These NORMAL STRESSES are responsible for the
phenomenon of EXTRUDATE SWELL at the exit of the die. Polymers containing a
high molecular weight tail tend to give larger NORMAL STRESSES (i.e. they are
more elastic).

PLATE-OUT: The undesirable deposition of additives or pigments on machinery

parts during processing of plastics.

POISEUILLE FLOW (also called PRESSURE FLOW): The flow of a fluid caused by
a pressure difference. The resulting velocity profile in a tube is parabolic for
Newtonian fluids and somewhat "flatter" for polymer melts. The pressure drop is
linear in the direction of flow for tubes or channels with parallel walls.

POLYDISPERSITY INDEX (PDI): The ratio of weight average to number average

molecular weight (Mw/Mn) (see also MOLECULAR WEIGHT).

POWER-LAW MODEL: A simple mathematical expression describing the shear

thinning behavior of polymers:

Where m is the consistency index, n is the power-law index, and the shear rate (for
polymer melts 0.2 < n < 0.8). The power-law model does a good job in fitting high
shear rate viscosity data but a poor job for fitting low shear rate viscosity data. In fact
for the power-law model gives which is, of course, unrealistic. The
usefulness of the power-law model is derived from the fact that several analytical
solutions are possible and many practical flow problems occur at high shear rates
where the power-law model gives a reasonable fit of viscosity data.

PRESSURE FLOW (also called POISEUILLE FLOW): The flow of a fluid caused by
a pressure difference. The resulting velocity profile in a tube is parabolic for
Newtonian fluids and somewhat "flatter" for polymer melts. The pressure drop is
linear in the direction of flow for tubes or channels with parallel walls. In the metering
section of an extruder screw, pressure flow is the relatively backward flow of material
down the screw channel caused by pressure in the head.

PSEUDOPLASTIC FLOW: This term is synonymous to shear thinning flow, i.e.

viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases.

PURGING: Cleaning of one type of material or color from an extruder by forcing it

out with the new material or color or by using special purging substances. Purging is
more efficient when the purging material is more viscous than the material being
replaced.

PYROMETER: A device for measuring high temperatures, usually by radiation.

Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being
measured.
RABINOWITSCH CORRECTION: When viscosity data are obtained from a capillary
viscometer, they require a correction to account for the fact that the viscosity
decreases as the shear rate increases. Without this (RABINOWITSCH) correction
the viscosity is referred to as APPARENT VISCOSITY. Errors up to 10-20% in
viscosity are common when this correction has not been made. For the power-law
viscosity model the Rabinowitsch correction gives

(i.e. for n=0.45 m(true) = 0.89 m(apparent)).

RANDOM COPOLYMER: A random copolymer occurs when one of the two

monomers polymerized together to form a polymer is in a random or statistical
distribution in the polymer chain.

REGRIND: Waste material that has been reclaimed by shredding or granulating.

RELAXATION: Whenever polymer melts are subjected to mechanical work they

develop stresses which do not become immediately zero when the mechanical
influence is removed. The time required for the stresses to relax is referred to as
RELAXATION TIME. There is no universally accepted definition of the most
characteristic relaxation time for a polymer melt. Some authors use the  of the
Carreau or Cross viscosity models, but this is considered a poor choice by
theoreticians. The best choice is perhaps the "longest relaxation time" determined in

dynamic measurements as where G' is the storage modulus, ' is the

dynamic viscosity and  is the frequency. Polymers with higher molecular weights
have long relaxation times. When the polymer solidifies without the stresses having
been relaxed, the product includes FROZEN-IN STRESSES which will be released
when the plastic part is reheated. The accompanying changes in dimensions,
shrinkage or warpage may be significant.

REYNOLDS NUMBER: A dimensionless quantity defined as:

which is equivalent to the ratio of INERTIA forces to VISCOUS forces. The flow is
turbulent when the Reynolds number is more than 2100 for tubes. Below 2100 the
flow is laminar (i.e. streamlines without disturbances). For molten polymer flow, the
Reynolds Number is usually in the range 10-4 to 10-2 (see also CREEPING FLOW).

RHEOLOGY: The science of deformation and flow of materials including polymers.

Viscosity, elongational viscosity, normal stresses, relaxation time, G', G", etc. are
rheological properties.

SHARKSKIN (also known as SURFACE MATTNESS): The failure of an extrudate

to exhibit smooth and glossy appearance. The surface usually exhibits a repetitious
wavy or ridged surface pattern perpendicular to the flow direction.
SHEAR FLOW: The sliding of imaginary fluid slices parallel to each other, like a
deck of cards. Shearing occurs whenever fluids flow through tubes and channels.
The velocity is zero right at the wall surface and maximum at the center. So the fluid
is being sheared as it flows through a tube or channel.

SHEAR RATE: The velocity gradient, i.e., velocity divided by the gap measured in
reciprocal seconds, s-1. In screw extruder channels, the shear rate can usually reach
100 s-1 or more. In flow through extrusion dies, it might reach 500 s -1 or more, and in
injection molding more than 5000 s-1.

SHEAR STRESS: A tangential force divided by the area (FORCE/AREA) on which it

is applied. The shear stress is equal to the viscosity multiplied by the shear rate
(measured in units of pressure, i.e., MPa or psi). At the die lips under usual
production conditions, the shear stress may reach values of 0.2 MPa (29.0 psi) or
more. The usually accepted value for the onset of sharkskin in capillaries is 0.14
MPa (20.3 psi), although higher values are reported in industrial production. With
additives the critical shear stress value might be pushed up to 0.5 MPa (72.5 psi).

SHEAR THINNING: The reduction of the viscosity as the shear rate increases,
which is exhibited by polymeric liquids. Shear thinning is due to molecular chain
alignments in the direction of flow and disentanglements.

SHEAR VISCOSITY: The ordinary viscosity that is the ratio of shear stress to the
shear rate (see also VISCOSITY).

SHEET: In the plastics and packaging industries, sheets are usually considered to
be a web greater than 10 mils (0.010 inch or 250 microns) thick. Webs smaller than
10 mils are considered films.

SI UNITS: "Systeme International" units, established in 1960, based partly on the

metric system, which was used in Europe for a long time. In SI the six base units are:
metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current), degree
Kelvin (temperature) and candela (luminous intensity).

SLIP, SLIPPAGE: When fluids flow it is assumed that the velocity at a surface is
zero (or equal to the surface velocity if the surface moves). Virtually all polymer melts
exhibit some slippage on the surface, especially when the shear stress levels are
high, e.g., over 0.1 MPa (14.5 psi). Stick-slip phenomena are responsible for the
onset of sharkskin whenever polymers are extruded at shear stresses higher than
0.14 MPa (20.3 psi). Some additives and processing aids promote slippage.
Slippage is beneficial for delaying the appearance of sharkskin at higher throughput
rates.

SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE: The single screw extrusion process consists of three
functional zones: the SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE where the polymer pellets or
powder are compacted and transported forward, the MELTING ZONE, where the
polymer melts mainly under the action of shear on the barrel wall and the
METERING ZONE (PUMPING ZONE) where the polymer is transported forward by
DRAG FLOW caused by the rotating action of the screw.
SPE: Abbreviation for Society of Plastics Engineers.

SPI: Abbreviation for Society of Plastics Industry.

STARVE FEEDING: Feeding of an extruder at a rate below the full capacity of the
machine. This results in output determined by the feeder and not by the extruder or
the process parameters.

STORAGE MODULUS (denoted as G' ): The ratio of shear stress to strain

(deformation) when dynamic (sinusoidal) deformation is applied in a cone-and-plate
rheometer. It relates to the elasticity of the polymer melt. G", the loss modulus, also
determined in dynamic (sinusoidal) measurements relates to the viscous behaviour.
So, G' and G" together give an idea of the dual nature of the polymer melt (partly
elastic solid and partly viscous fluid). Measurements of G' and G" provide information
on polymer structure and might be related to molecular weight distribution, cross-
linking, etc.. Computer software like RHEOMWD can infer the breadth of the
molecular weight distribution from G' and G" data.

STRAIN: A technical term synonymous with deformation.

SURGING: An instability of melt pressure and flow rate in an extruder, which can be
detected by a pressure gage at the tip of the screw (or at the die adapter), or by
dimensional product variations.

THERMAL MECHANICAL ANALYSIS (TMA): In this technique, a sample is

deformed under a static load as its temperature is being changed. Glass transition
and softening points can be measured. The amount of orientation can also be
measured by TMA.

THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (TGA): This technique is used to measure a

variety of polymeric phenomena involving weight changes, such as sorption of
gases, desorption of contaminants (monomers, solvents, and additives) and
degradation. In TGA, a sample is placed on a balance beam in an oven. From the
weight versus temperature curves, kinetic and other studies are carried out.

THERMOPLASTICS: Polymers that can be melted by heating and solidified by

cooling and may be remelted repeatedly. PE, PP, PVC and all extrudable polymers
are thermoplastics.

THERMOSETS: Materials that undergo chemical reaction and can be hardened by

application of heat and pressure. They cannot be softened again to make them
flowable. Typical plastics in this family are melamine, urea, epoxies and phenolics.

TROUTON RATIO: The ratio of elongational (extensional) viscosity to (shear)

viscosity for Newtonian fluids is 3. Polymers do not obey this relation. Ratios can
range up to 100 for melts and up to perhaps 10,000 for solutions.

VISCOELASTICITY: The dual nature of polymers, partly viscous fluid and partly
elastic solid, is referred to as viscoelasticity. In flowing polymers viscoelasticity is
responsible for time-dependent properties, such as stress relaxation, normal
stresses, very large elongational viscosities, and numerous unusual phenomena
such as extrudate swell, entry flow vortices and some flow instabilities.

VISCOSITY: The resistance to flow of a fluid (strictly speaking the resistance to

shearing). It is defined as the ratio of shear stress (Tangential Force/Area) to shear
rate (velocity/gap). The viscosity of a polymer decreases as the shear rate increases.
This property is referred to as pseudoplastic behavior or shear thinning. The
viscosity of a polymer at (near) zero shear for a polymer like PE might be 5,000 to
10,000 Pa.s while during flow in an extrusion channel it could be much lower (i.e.
500 Pa.s or less). Melt flow index corresponds to just one point on a viscosity curve
(actually inverse). High viscosity implies low melt index and high molecular weight.
Viscosity is measured in units of Pa.s or poise. 1 Pa.s = 10 poise. The viscosity of
water is 10-3 Pa.s (1 centipoise) and for a typical polymer melt at least one million
times larger (i.e. over 1000 Pa.s or 10,000 poise)

VISCOUS DISSIPATION (or VISCOUS HEATING): see FRICTIONAL HEATING

WEISSENBERG NUMBER: The product of a characteristic material time and shear

rate. It has the same meaning as the Deborah Number under certain conditions (see
DEBORAH NUMBER).

WEISSENBERG RHEOGONIOMETER: see CONE AND PLATE INSTRUMENT

WELDLINES (also known as PARTING LINES): Weldlines are formed because of

flow interruptions by obstructions in a melt flow field. Because of the high viscosity,
the diffusion of polymer molecules, after they have been separated, is very slow and
the weldline remains a line of mechanical weakness and may be visible to the naked
eye. Such defects are common in injection molded products and are often
encountered in extruded pipes, bottles, and film.

ZERO SHEAR VISCOSITY: The asymptotic viscosity value at zero shear rate (i.e.,
the maximum value). As the shear rate increases, the viscosity decreases due to
alignments of molecular chains in the direction of flow and molecular chain
disentanglements. The zero shear viscosity is proportional to the 3.4 power of the
weight average molecular weight (i.e. 0 = constant * Mw3.4 for most common
polymers). This means that if we increase the molecular weight of a polymer from
100,000 to 200,000 the viscosity will increase by 2 3.4 = 10.55 times. Obviously it is
extremely difficult to extrude polymers having very high molecular weight.
Warpage
Warpage is a distortion where the surfaces of the molded part do not follow the intended
shape of the design. Part warpage results from molded-in residual stresses, which, in turn, is
caused by differential shrinkage of material in the molded part. If the shrinkage throughout
the part is uniform, the molding will not deform or warp, it simply becomes smaller.
However, achieving low and uniform shrinkage is a complicated task due to the presence and
interaction of many factors such as molecular and fiber orientations, mold cooling, part and
mold designs, and process conditions.

Warpage due to differential shrinkage

Warpage in molded parts results from differential shrinkage. Variation in shrinkage can be
caused by molecular and fiber orientation, temperature variations within the molded part, and
by variable packing, such as over-packing at gates and under-packing at remote locations, or
different pressure levels as material solidifies across the part thickness. These causes are
described more fully below.

 Differences in filled and unfilled materials

 Non-uniform mold cooling across the part thickness or over the part
 Cooling rates that differ because of Part thickness variation
 Part geometry asymmetry or curvature