EXPERIMENT 2

FREE VIBRATIONS OF A CANTILEVER BEAM

(SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM)

2.1 Objective of the Experiment

To experimentally obtain the fundamental natural frequency and the damping ratio of a cantilever beam.
This virtual experiment is based on a theme that only the actual experimental measured vibration data are
used to design the virtual experiments.

2.2 Basic Definitions

Free vibration takes place when a system oscillates under the action of forces inherent in the system itself
due to initial disturbance, and when the externally applied steady-state forces are absent. The system
under free vibration will vibrate at one or more of its natural frequencies, which are properties of the
dynamical system, established by its mass and stiffness distribution.

In actual practice, there is always some damping (e.g., the internal molecular friction, viscous damping,
aerodynamical damping, etc.) present in the system which cause the gradual dissipation of vibration
energy, and it result gradual decay of amplitude of the free vibration. Damping has very little effect on
natural frequency of the system, and hence the calculations for natural frequencies are generally made on
the basis of no damping. Damping is of great importance in limiting the amplitude of oscillation at
resonance.

2.3 Theoretical Natural Frequency for A Cantilever Beam

A cantilever beam with rectangular cross-section is shown in Figure 2.1(a), the free transverse (bending)
vibration can be generated by giving an initial displacement at the free end of the beam. Figure 2.1(b)
shows a cantilever beam under the free vibration.

When a system is subjected to free vibration and the system is considered as a discrete system in which
the beam is considered as mass-less and the whole mass is concentrated at the free end of the beam. The
governing equation of motion for such single-DOF system is give as

1
 d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
m 2
+c + ky (t ) = 0 or my

(t ) + cy
(t ) + ky (t ) = 0 (2.1)
dt dt

where m is a concentrated mass at the free end of the beam, c is the damping coefficient, k is the
stiffness of the system, and y(t) is the displacement of the beam at free end where the mass of the beam
(and sensor, if any) is assumed to be concentrated. The transverse stiffness of a cantilever beam is given
as (using strength of materials deflection formula, Timoshenko and Young, 1961).

3EI
k= (2.2)
l3

where E is the Young’s modulus of the beam material (it can be obtained by the tensile test stress-strain
curve of a standard specimen).

Figure 2.1 (a) A cantilever beam

Figure 2.1 (b) The beam under free vibration

The fundamental undamped circular natural frequency (in rad/s) of the single-DOF system is given as

k
ωnf = (2.3)
m

2
where m is the equivalent mass placed at the free end of the cantilever beam (of the beam and sensor
masses).On substituting equation (2.2) into equation (2.3), we get

3EI
ωnf = (2.4)
ml 3

The undamped natural frequency is related with the circular natural frequency as

ωnf
f nf = Hz (2.5)
2π

where I the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section, and for a circular cross-section it is
given as

π
I= d4 (2.6)
64

where, d is the diameter of cross section, and for a rectangular cross-section it is given as

bd 3
I= (2.7)
12

where b and d are the breadth and width of the beam cross-section as shown in Figure (2.2). Dimensions
of the beam material are given in Table 2.2.

Fig 2.2 A rectangular cross-cross of the beam

In case of the test specimen, the beam mass is distributed over the length. By taking a approximately one-
fourth of the total mass of beam at the free end (Thompson. 2007), the system can be assumed as discrete
system. This can be obtained by approximate method such as the Rayleigh’s method or the Dunkerley’s
formula. From the Rayleigh’s method for a continuous beam, we get equivalent lumped mass at the tip of
the beam as

3
 33mb
m= (2.8)
140

where mb is the mass of beam and is given as mb = ρV = ρbdl ,where ρ is the mass density of the
beam material and V is the volume of the beam from the fixed end to the free end. Values of the mass
density for various beam materials are given in Table 2.1. If any contacting type of transducer (e.g.,
accelerometer) is used for the vibration measurement, it should be preferably placed at end of the beam
and then the mass of transducer has to be added into the equivalent mass of the beam at the free end for
the natural frequency calculation. If mt is the mass of transducer, then the total mass at the free end of the

cantilever beam is given as

33mb
m= + mt (2.9)
140

For non-contacting transducers (e.g., the laser based velocity transducer), the mass of the transducer
will not come into the above equation.

2.4 Experimental Setup

The experimental setup is consists of a cantilever beam, transducers (strain gauge, accelerometer, laser
vibrometer), a data-acquisition system and a computer with signal display and processing software (Fig.
2.3). Different types of beam materials and its properties are listed in Table 2.1. Different combinations of
beam geometries for each of the beam material are summarized in Table 2.2.

Accelerometer is a sensing element (transducer) to measure the vibration response (i.e., acceleration,
velocity and displacement). Data acquisition system takes vibration signal from the accelerometer and
encode it I digital form. Computer acts as a data storage and analysis system, it takes encoded data from
data acquisition system and after processing (e.g., FFT) it display on the computer screen by using
analysis software.

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 Figure 2.3 An experimental setup for the free vibration of a cantilever beam (connect the cable to PC)

Table 2.1 Material properties of various beams

Material Density (kg/m3) Young’s modulus (N/m2)

Stainless Steel 8030 1.95×1011

Mild steel 7850 2.1×1011

Aluminum 2700 7.0×1011

Table 2.2 Geometries of various beams

Length, L, (m) Breadth, b, (m) Depth, h, (m)
0.30 m
0.35 m 0.02 m 0.001, 0.003 m

Example 2.1 Obtain the undamped natural frequency of a steel beam with l = 0.45 m, d = 0.003
m, and b = 0.02 m. The mass of transducer (i.e., the accelerometer) at the free end =18.2 gm.

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 mb (bdl ) ρ (0.02 × 0.003 × 0.45) × 7850
m= + mt = + mt = + 0.0182 = 0.08885 kg
3 3 3

3 EI 3 E ( bd 3 / 12 ) 3 Ebd 3 3 × 2.1 × 10 11 × 0.03 × 0.002 3

ω nf = = = = = 59.17 rad/sec
ml 3 ml 3
12 m l 3 12 × 0.08885 × 0.45 3

or f n = 9.417 Hz

2.5 Experimental setup

Figure 2.4 The experimental setup of a cantilever beam

Figure 2.4 shows an experimental setup of the cantilever beam. It includes a beam specimen of a
particular geometry with a fixed end and at the free end an accelerometer is mounted to measure the free
vibration response. The fixed end of beam is gripped with the help of a clamp Fig. 2.5. For getting precise
cantilever beam boundary conditions, it is very important to ensure that the clamp is tightened properly,
otherwise it may not give fixed boundary conditions in the free vibration data and that may lead to error
in the experimental natural frequency while matching with the theoretically obtained natural frequency.

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 Figure 2.5 A close view of the fixed boundary condition of the cantilever beam

Accelerometer: It is the most common contacting type sensor for the vibration (i.e., acceleration, velocity
or displacement) measurement. It is available with connecting cable as-well-as wireless type. It is pasted
onto the surface by either using magnetic base or by using adhesive glue or by threaded screw (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6 Accelerometer at the free end of a cantilever beam

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The basic principle of the measurement by the accelerometer is that it measures the force exerted by a
body as a result of a change in the velocity of the body (i.e. which leads to acceleration). A moving body
possesses an inertia which tends to resist change in velocity. The force caused by vibration or a change in
motion causes the mass to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is
proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is a
constant, hence the change is proportional to the acceleration.

A Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) is an instrument (Fig. 2.7) that is used to make non-contact
vibration measurements of a surface. The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest,
and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam
frequency due to the motion of the surface. The output of an LDV is generally a continuous analog
voltage that is directly proportional to the target velocity component along the direction of the laser beam
(give a line diagram of basic principle of the LDV).

Fig 2.7 A laser vibrometer system

8
Fig 2.8 A laser projector of a laser vibrometer fitted on a stand.

Fig 2.9 The controller for the laser vibrometer

9
 Fig 2.10 The laser generator of a laser vibrometer

Figure (2.7) is a rotational laser vibrometer. The complete setup contains the projector (Fig. 2.8), the
controller (Fig 2.9), and laser generator (Fig 2.10). All the settings related to the measurement are done in
the controller then the laser beam is generated by the laser generator. The laser goes to the reflector by an
optical fiber cable. The beam is projected to the measurement surface and measurement signal is taken
into the computer through a data-acquisition system.

Rotational Laser Vibrometer (RLV): The optical measurement principle for the rotational vibrometer is
based on laser interferometry. Use of the RLV is not limited to cylindrical parts. By using a special
differential measurement process with two laser beams, independently of the shape of the object under
investigation, only the rotational movement component is acquired and translational vibrations are
predominantly suppressed. A schematic layout of the signal paths is shown in Fig. 2.11.

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 n, ω (t )

∆ω , ∆ϕ
∆f

∆f
∆ω (t )

∫ ∆ϕ (t )

Fig 2.11 Principle of measurement of rotational laser vibrometer

Dynamic acquisition of rotational vibrations is possible in a frequency range from 0 Hz to 10 kHz. It also
cover challenging measurement tasks e.g. in the order analysis in rotors. The interferometric process
works continuously, i.e. in principle there is no limit to the angular resolution as for example, this
limitation exist when using optical encoders with a finite number of divisions.

Data acquisition system: Data acquisition typically involves the conversion of analog signals and
waveforms into digital values, and processing the values to obtain desired information. Data acquisition
systems, as the name implies, are products and/or processes used to collect information to document or
analyze some phenomenon. The components of measurement and data acquisition systems include (see
Fig. 2.12) (i) Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals, (ii) Signal conditioning
circuitry to coerce sensor signals into a form that can be converted to digital values, and (iii) Analog-to-
digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.

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 Fig 2.12 (a) An overall measurement system

Figure 2.12(b) A typical data acquisition hardware

Data acquisition system receives voltage signal from sensors (e.g., accelerometer) and calibrate the data
into equivalent physical quantity (e.g., acceleration) and send it to computer where by using a vibration
measurement software these data can be analyzed as time history (e.g., acceleration-time, velocity-time or
displacement-time) and in frequency domain (i.e., using FFT) Fig. 2.13.

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 Figure 2.13 A typical response with time and the corresponding FFT plot

When the voltage signal from the accelerometer (or laser vibrometer) is sent to the data-acquisition
system, it converts the signal to a mechanical vibration data acceleration (or velocity) and stores it to the
computer. A typical screen-shot of a captured vibration signal from a cantilever beam test setup by using
accelerometer and data-acquisition system is plotted from the vibration measurement software as shown
in Figure 2.13 and it can be used for the further analysis for finding the natural frequency and the
damping ratio of the system.

2.6 Calculation of Experimental Natural Frequency

To calculate the natural frequency of the cantilever beam experimentally, one has to conduct the
experiment with the specified cantilever beam specimen. Record the data of time history (time versus
displacement), and plot the graph as shown in fig (2.14). Obtain the free vibration response peak values
(X1, X2, … Xn) and corresponding time instants (t1, t2, …, tn).

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 Figure 2.14 Variation of an under-damped free response with time

Let X n is the peak value of nth peak and X n +1 is the peak value of the consecutive peak and Tn
and Tn+1 are the corresponding time instances, respectively. The experimental damped natural
frequency is given as

1
f nfd = (2.10)
(Tn +1 − Tn )

and the undamped natural frequency is given as

f nfd
f nf = (2.11)
1− ζ 2

where ζ is the damping ratio, which can be obtained from the logarithmic decrement described in the
subsequent section.

Example 2.3 Obtain the damped natural frequency from time instances of two consecutive peaks of a
freely decaying signal as given in table below.

The first peak amplitude at time (t1) The second peak amplitude at time (t2)
302 ms 208 ms

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Solution: The damped natural frequency is given as

1
f nfd = = 10.638 Hz
(0.302 − 0.208)

2.7 Calculation of Damping Ratio

The logarithmic decrement is defined as

 Xn 
δ = ln   = ζωnf Td (2.12)
 X n +1 

with

2π 2π
Td = d
= (2.13)
ω nf ωnf (1 − ζ 2 )

d
where Td is the damped time period, ωnf is the damped natural frequency, and ωnf is the undamped

natural frequency. So that

 X  2πζ
ln  n  = (2.14)
 X n +1  (1 − ζ 2 )

or

2
(1 − ζ 2 )   X  
= 2π / ln  n   (2.15)
ζ2   X n +1  

Hence, finally we get

1
ζ = (2.16)
   X n   
2

  2π / ln   
   X n +1   

Example 2.2 Obtain the damping ratio from the two consecutive peaks of a freely decaying vibration
signal as given in table below.

15
 Displacement ( X n ) Displacement ( X n +1 )
23.8 unit 21.4 unit

We have,

1 1
ζ = = = 0.012
   X n       23.8   
2 2

  2π / ln     2π / ln   
   X n +1       21.4   

and hence, the undamped natural frequency of the previous example is given as

10.638
f nf = = 10.6388 Hz
1 − 0.0122

2.8 Discussions

Comparison the theoretically calculated natural frequency with the experimental one is presented. The
deviations or errors could be due to variety of reasons. The present theoretical calculation is based on the
cantilever beam end conditions (i.e., one end is rigidly fixed), in actual practice it may not be always the
case because of flexibility of the support that may affect the natural frequency. The digitization of the
signal may also give error especially it will be large if the sampling rate of the captured signal is not high.
Errors may come due to noise in the signal that may lead to erroneous peak detection.

2.9 Experimental Procedure

1. Choose a beam of a particular material (stainless steel, mild steel or aluminum), dimensions (L,
w, d) and transducer (i.e., measuring device, e.g. accelerometer or laser vibrometer).

2. Clamp one end of the beam as the cantilever beam fixed support.

3. Place an accelerometer (with magnetic base or with glue) at the free end of the cantilever beam,
to measure the free vibration response (acceleration).

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 4. Give an initial small deflection at the free end of cantilever beam and allow it to oscillate its own.

5. This could be done by bending the beam from its static equilibrium position by applying a small
static force at the free end of the beam and suddenly releasing it, so that the beam oscillates its
own without any external force during the oscillation.

6. The free oscillation could also be started by giving a small tap at the free end of the beam.

7. Record the data obtained from the chosen transducer in the form of graph (variation of the
vibration response with time).

8. Repeat the procedure for 5 to 10 times to check the repeatability of the experimentation.

9. Repeat the whole experiment for different material, dimensions, and measuring devices.

10. Record the whole set of data in a data base and further analysis.

2.7 Virtual Experimentation

Virtual experimentation provides an interface which provides facility to perform experiments virtually
through internet. It provides different options to select for material selection, instruments, and specimen
dimensions. After making desired selection and initiating the program for measurement, it gives the result
from a stored measurement database for a particular configuration selected by the user. For a particular
configuration, a number of data have been stored so that different time the same configuration would give
entirely new set of randomly chosen measured data. Fig. 2.15 shows an overall flowchart for a virtual
laboratory in which several experiments, remote users can perform through the internet with the help of
already stored measured data bank.

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 Figure 2.15 Overview of measurement based virtual experiments

2.8 Steps in Virtual Experimentation and its Computer Programming

The computer program of virtual experimentation of the free vibration of cantilever beam is divided in
many sections. The step-by-step description of the computer program is given as follows

1. TITLE PAGE- This is the first page (or title page) of the virtual experiment of the free vibration of
a cantilever beam. It includes the title of experiment, and a photograph of the experimental setup
(see Fig. 2.4).

2. INTRODUCTION- This section contains aim of experiment, some important basic definitions
related to free vibration, e.g., the natural frequency, the damping ratio, etc.

3. INPUT SECTION- This section contains various input options about the experiment configuration,
the user can choose, i.e. the beam material, beam dimensions, the transducer for the vibration
measurement etc. User has to select input of his/her choice to proceed for performing the virtual
experiment.

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 (a) Front panel

(b) Block diagram

Fig. 2.16 a view of virtual program for free vibration of cantilever beam

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 When user enters the input configuration, each parameter generates a specific number and form a
set of numbers. Based on the input configuration chosen by the user the virtual program takes the
particular sets stored measured vibration data, which are related to that particular configuration
from the database. For each experiment the database contains 10 set of files, which are chosen by
the computer program by randomly so give feel of getting different data for the same
configuration as in the case of actual experimentation.

(all front panels on virtual experiments should be provided and referred at relevant places)

4. DISPLAY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA- The data from the files are read and then plotted in a
particular sequence. First the response-time graph is plotted then its FFT is plotted. The data from
the file is taken as an array and it is plotted in the loop one-by–one by using a script (computer
code) inside the loop.

5. THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS- Theoretical calculations are done based on the input

configuration chosen by the user to compare theoretical results with experiments results.
Computer program decodes the input and extracts the related parameter like the Young’s
modulus, the density and dimensions of the beam from the already stored data base. By using
these values the theoretical calculation are done with the help of theoretical formulas provided in
this report. Refer Section 2.3 for theoretical formulations and calculation procedures.

6. EXPERIMENTAL CALCULATIONS- The experimental calculations are done by using the data
taken from already stored measurement data files. A waveform peak detector is used to get peak
values and its time locations from the freely decaying response. By using these peak locations,
the damped natural frequency is calculated, and by using the sets of peak values the damping
ratio is obtained by using the logarithmic decrement. The natural frequency and the damping ratio
are calculated at different peaks and then we take the average damped natural frequency. The
natural frequency can also be obtained by using the FFT plot. Again a waveform peak detector is
used to get the peak location of FFT plot. The peak location is itself the damped natural frequency
of the system. The user can use various options in time and frequency domain plots to manipulate
the data (e.g., change the colour of curves, change the scale of the axis to zoom at a particular
location, add cursor to locate the amplitude and time or amplitude and frequency information, to
store the plots in user’s desktop/laptop for analysis, etc.)

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 The undamped natural frequency can be calculated by using a formula given in equation (2.13).
Refer Sections 2.6 for formulae and the procedure for experimental calculation of the undamped
natural frequency and the damping ratio.

7. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS– The summary of the theoretical and experimental results are
presented for comparisons and the results are discussed with possible sources of inevitable errors.

8. TESTS OF USERS FOR ASSESSMENT OF THEIR LEARNING- After the successful completion of
the experiment, the computer program offers a test. User has to go through it and it is basically a
student performance evaluation technique about his/her learning and understanding of the subject.

9. EXERCISES- An exercise page with sets of further questions are given, which are based on the
basic theoretical concepts of the experiment for further evaluation of the user.

10. F EEDBACK- At the end of the program, there is a feedback section which asks for the quick
feedback about the performance and usefulness of the overall experiments, learning, navigational
aspect, feel of performing aspect, testing, etc. The over procedure is described as a flow chart in
Fig 2.17

21
 Fig. 2.17 A flow chart for virtual the vibration lab and its program execution

Fig. 2.17 describes virtual vibration laboratory and the flow of execution of the program. Virtual vibration
lab has number of experiment and user has to select one of them at a time. Once a particular experiment is
selected, first of all he/she will go through the lab manual and then only starts the virtual program for

22
performing the virtual experiment. At the beginning of the experiment, after the brief introduction, the
virtual program offers a simple pre-experiment test to the user. If user qualifies the test he can precede
further otherwise program will be terminated and user needs to go through manual again. After qualifying
the pre-experiment test, program gives input options related to the experiment, the user selects a
combination of input configuration and proceed to the experiment for that configuration of the
experiment. The virtual experiment leads the display of experimental results and its analysis. The
experimental results are then compared with the theoretical analysis results. The user can repeat the
experiment with different set of input configuration. It leads to the comparison with respect to different
configurations chosen by the user so as to analyze effects of chosen parameters on the results. At the end
the virtual program, it offers the student an evaluation test. Finally, it takes the feedback regarding the
program execution, control, navigation, ease of use, learning, feel of performing experiment, and all other
related components. This user feedback is very important for the further improvement of the existing
virtual experiments and overall laboratory.

Fig. 2.18 A flow chart for the virtual experiment and its virtualization

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Figure 2.18 explains the actual experiment, its virtualization and application by using the internet. The
experiment is performed with the help of input configuration and sensing instruments. For this actual
experiments need to be performed with all possible input configuration and all data are stored in the
database by using the measurement technique and measurement software. A virtual programming is done
in a sequence which follows the same sequence as in case of actual experiment. This developed graphical
computer program is published into the internet by using the internet publishing tools of the virtualization
software. This allows the virtual experiments to be accessible by the remote users through internet.

2.11 Precautions during Experimentations and Analyses

1. Fixed end condition of the cantilever beam could be ensured by properly gripping one end of the
beam in a heavy block or cutting the beam from a bigger piece of the block as a single piece.
2. The beam should be given initial disturbance such that the first mode (Fig. 1(b)) is excited, i.e. a
small deflection of the free end of the beam.
3. Care should be taken that the cables of accelerometer should not affect the beam motion.
4. Initial displacement of the beam should be small so that linearity assumption holds true.
5. By considering proper coordination with the subsystem, measuring instruments, data acquisition
system and vibration measuring software, the errors can be minimized.
6. User is suggested to use sensors and other measuring instruments with high sensitivity and
minimize the noise in measuring data, by ensuring these it minimizes the error and improve the
result.
7. It is also suggested to user to repeat the experiment several times to confirm the consistency of
results.

2.12 Questions

1. The theoretical natural frequency obtained is damped or undamped natural frequency?

2. The experimental natural frequency obtained is damped or undamped natural frequency?
3. What would be the effect on the natural frequency when a notch is cut on the cantilever beam?
4. Where the location of the notch would have effect on the natural frequency of the cantilever
beam?

24
5. Do you think the sensor weight would affect the natural frequency of the beam?
6. What is the affect of damping on the natural frequency? Could you tell whether the obtained
experimental natural frequency is damped natural frequency or undamped one?
7. What is the relationship between the damped and undamped natural frequencies?
8. Do you think the natural frequency and the damping ratio would change if we consider
subsequent consecutive free vibration amplitudes instead of first two amplitudes?
9. Do you think the beam tightening at the support (i.e., the flexibility of support) would affect the
natural frequency of the system?
10. What type of free vibration signal you would expect if the beam is given initial disturbance other
than the free end (i.e., is the initial disturbance excites higher modes of vibration also)?
11. How many distinct natural frequencies can exist for an ‘N’ degree of freedom vibratory
system?
12. Is the frequency of a damped free vibration smaller or greater than the natural frequency of a
system? Why?
13. What is the basic difference between the free responses exhibited by an under-damped
system and an over-damped system?
14. Damped free oscillation amplitude is observed to be reduced to 20% of its initial amplitude in
100 complete cycles. Estimate the damping ratioζ.
15. Do you think other boundary conditions (e.g., the simply supported beam, fixed-fxed, or free-
free beam) have same natural frequency as fixed-free case (i.e. cantilever case)? Obtain the
theoretical natural frequencies for such case of the present beam and compare with the
present one.

2.14 References

1. Meirovitch, L., 1967, Analytical Methods in Vibration, Collier-MacMillan Ltd., London.

2. Thomson, W.T., 2007, Theory of Vibration with Application, Kindersley Publishing, Inc.,
London.
3. Rao, J. S, and Gupta, K., Introductory Course on Theory and Practice of Mechanical Vibrations,
New Age International, New Delhi.
4. Timoshenko, S., and Young, D.H., 1961, Strength of Material, Stanford university , California.

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