FINAL THESIS

PROJECT

Finite element modeling of the magnetic

field of guitar pickups

Martín Martínez

July 2003
 Akustik Labor

FINAL THESIS PROJECT

Title: Finite element modeling of the

magnetic field of guitar pickups

Author: Martín Martínez Villar

Date of finish: 24. July 2.003

Corrector: Prof. Dr. Manfred Zollner (FH Regensburg)

English revisor: Prof. Dr. Manuel Villar (Universidad de Granada)

Prof. Dr. David Villar (Universidad de Granada)
Prof. Andrés Calavia (C.P. Escolapios Soria)
For my family, mainly my parents;
for this opportunity; this is yours.
THANKS FOR ALL…
Opening i

Opening:

The title of this work is “Finite element modeling of the magnetic field of guitar
pickups”, and what does it means? It means that I will try to analyze the basic pieces of a
magnetic pickup with the help of this powerful software called ANSYS, and step by step I
will increase the difficulty of the experiment.
ANSYS/Emag is an electromagnetic field simulation product designed for static and low-
frequency electromagnetics, electrostatics, current conduction, circuit simulation, and
coupled circuit-electromagnetic simulation.

A typical ANSYS analysis has three distinct steps:

• Build the model.

• Apply loads and obtain the solution.
• Review the results.

First of all, when you build the model, you model and mesh it, and this is the reason
because it’s called finite element modelling; you mesh your model in many little elements which
will be analyzed one by one in the solution process, in the next step you apply loads to the
previous created model; and next, you obtain the solution to your model. After that, there is
another step called postproccessing where you have the possibility of review the results obtained
in the solution.

It’s very important that the results obtained in this process be compared with real results,
because ANSYS is no more that a simulation program. But sometimes, this software is more
effective than some theoretical equations, which need approximations. Due to this, we have
been taking measures in each experiment for be sure that the results are correct.

However, we live in a three-dimensional world, and one of the great values of electromagnetics is
that makes one familiar with 3-D concepts. Another important concept is the maximum number of
elements supported by ANSYS license; that limits the accuracy of the measure, mainly in 3D
models, where there is an enormous number of elements.

The solution process is another concept of great moment, because it limits the time of
operation. In last examples of 3D models, we have been waiting for a nonlinear solution more or
less 3- 4 hours; and I don’t contemplate the times where the solution was not the expected.

This study consists on a Static Magnetic Scalar Analysis (not dynamic). I have to told you
that this work has not been done yet, ‘cause it’s a very big project carried out by Mr. Zollner, so it
can be considered a beginning, and perhaps some day we have a close solution, but now it is so far
away; so if we found this goal, it will be a great present to this unexpected world.

Anyway, the work has meant a new concept in my knowledge; both computer
programming, language practice & electromagnetism.
Gratefulness ii

Gratefulness:

All my Spanish, even not Spanish Erasmus friends that have been bearing me in my bad
times; specially Luis, my big friend in Regensburg. I want thanks to Prof. Dr. Manfred Zollner,
who offered me a unexpected project, which mixed two very significant aspects of my life: science
and music, and has been teaching & helping me in each moment. He is the reason for which I have
learned all this concepts of guitar pickups, although our English communication was not the
perfect one!

Thanks to all my dear people in Spain that have been worried of me in my stay in Germany, to all
my Spanish teachers and partners of the “Universidad Politécnica de Valencia”, and for you, that
spend some time reading this work. I hope you spend a nice time reading it; and I hope that you
can learn something about this…

Regensburg, July 2.003

Martín Martínez
Table of contents iii

Table of contents
Opening i

Gratefulness ii

Table of contents iii

Glossary iv

1 Prelude 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Main idea of a simple pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Magnetic flux and ferromagnetic materials …………………………….. 2
1.2.2 Varying magnetic field ………………………………………………….. 2
1.2.3 Faraday’s Law and induction of current by a magnetic field …………… 3
1.2.4 Other types of pickups …………………………………….. …………… 4
1.3 Issue representation & Prodecure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Self- inductance of a simple coil 6

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Planning of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Solution for the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Mutual inductance of two coils 14

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Planning of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Solution for the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Magnets 22
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Planning of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Solution for the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Models with magnet and string 29

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Planning of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Solution for the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6 ANSYS EXAMPLES AND COMMERCIAL PICKUPS 38

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 40
Glossary iv

Glossary:

A Ampere r radius, m

A area, m 2 S,s distance, also surface area, m 2

B, B magnetic flux density, T = Wb V voltage, V

m −2

Z impedance, Ω
d distance, m

µ permeability, H
D diameter, m m −1

E, E electric field density, C µr relative permeability

m −2

θ angle
emf electromotive force, V

ω angular frequency
H, H magnetic field, A −1
m

φ magnetic flux, Wb = 10 4 gauss

I, I current, A

µr permeability of vacuum: 4 ⋅ π ⋅ 10 −7
L inductance, H

π pi 3.141592
l, L length, m

M, M magnetization, A
m −1

N number of turns

∧
n unit vector normal to a surface
1 Prelude 1

1 Prelude
1.1 Motivation
The transducer of an electric guitar is the pickup, and this consists of a coil of wire
called bobbin and a permanent magnet placed underneath each guitar string, that has six
poles pieces sticking out above the bobbin, each corresponding to one string on a guitar.

Guitar strings

Coil

Poles of the magnet

Picture 1.1: Single-Coil Pickup – Top view

The pickup itself is placed in the body of the guitar and aligned so that each pole
piece is seated directly underneath its corresponding string. As it means, this pickup is used
to turn the oscillations of a guitar string into a changing magnetic flux. They work on the
same principal as electrical generators --Whenever there is relative motion between
magnetic flux lines and an electrical conductor (copper wire), an electrical signal will be
generated in the conductor--. The strength of the signal generated will depend on how fast
the relative motion is, on how much on the conductor “cut” the magnetic flux lines, and of
course, on how strong those flux lines are.

The magnet in the pickup creates a magnetic field, which is disturbed by the
vibration of the ferromagnetic guitar string located above it, causing the flux through the
bobbin to be altered. In the bobbin, the change in magnetic flux is opposed by the induction
of an alternating current because the bobbin itself is good conductor. The oscillatory motion
of the string is the reason that there exists an alternating current rather that a direct current
in the bobbin.

Guitar string
Pole of permanent magnet

End of winding

Bobbin
End of winding
(insulated wire coil)

Permanent magnet

Picture 1.2: Single- Coil Pickup- Side view

1 Prelude 2

1.2 Main idea

1.2.1 Magnetic Flux and Ferromagnetic Materials

The magnetic flux is defined as the amount of magnetic field that passes through a surface,
and can be changed in two ways; by changing the strength of the magnetic field, or by changing
the size of the area of the area. Since the area of the bobbin is fixed, the only way to change the
flux is to change the magnetic field.

Picture 1.3: Magnetic Flux through a surface

The movement of the guitar string that is made of steel (a ferromagnetic material),
changes the magnetic field of the pickup. Ferromagnetic materials have no inherent magnetic
field, but greatly enhance any field in which they are placed, due to the µ of this materials is

very high (from 10 2 to 106 times µ 0 ).

1.2.2 Varying magnetic field

Ferromagnetic materials can be used to enhance magnetic fields. Solenoids use this
principle to create larger magnetic fields for the same amount of energy. Since a solenoid’s
magnetic field depends only on the permeability constant, the current running through the
wire, and the number of turns per unit length, the cheapest way to increase the magnetic
field is to change the permeability constant. This is similar to the interaction between a
guitar pickup and a ferromagnetic string. Before the guitar is played, while the string is at
rest, the magnetic pickup induces a magnetic flux in the guitar string. This effectively
increases the length of the magnet, and thereby increases the magnetic flux through the
bobbin. When the string is plucked, the magnetic flux through the bobbin changes as a
1 Prelude 3

function of the distance from the head of the pickup. When the distance is smaller, the
effective magnetic field is larger, and the flux is greater, and when the distance is greater,
the flux is less than usual. The rate of change of the flux depends on the movement of the
string. When a guitar is plucked, it moves in an oscillatory manner. The rate of oscillation
depends on the material, length, and tension of the string.

1.2.3 Faraday’s Law and Induction of Current by a Magnetic Field

The next task of the guitar pickup is to convert the magnetic flux into a current
through the bobbin.
This procedure is described by Faraday’s Law; which states that a time varying
magnetic flux will procedure a voltage within a metallic ring. The simplest approach to
visualizing this is to imagine a magnetic material passing through the center of a loop of
wire. The magnet-string interaction produces a magnetic flux that is dependent upon time.
The magnetic flux varies as a sinusoid, as does the electric field produced in the bobbin.

“ Whenever a magnetic force increases or decreases, it produces electricity;

the faster it increases or decreases, the more electricity it produces.”

- Michael Faraday.

Using both Faraday’s Law and Maxwell Equations we arrive to this expression:

E = B ⋅ ω ⋅ A ⋅ N ⋅ cos(ωt + π / 2 + ϕ 0 )

This is the electric field caused by the magnetic flux occurring in the coil due to the
vibrating string. As can be seen from this equation, the magnitude of the electric field is
directly proportional to the frequency of the stimulus. Additionally, the frequency with
which the string vibrates is also the frequency of the electric field.

Picture 1.4: Single coil pickup

1 Prelude 4

1.2.4 Other types of electric guitar pickups

An inherent problem with all pickups coils is that they are susceptible to electro- magnetic
interference that can be caused by a.m. radios, lights or house wiring. In the case of electrical
guitars, having one’s guitar plugged in right to any sort of amplifier would cause the pickups to
hum and maybe even begin to feedback, a very undesirable trait especially in the middle of a song.
To fix this, Gibson invented hum- canceling pickups, called “humbuckers”; this consists of two
coils of wire, which are wired in series but out of phase with each other, and two sets of magnet
pole pieces with opposite polarities. However, the currents generated by the vibrating strings are
actually duplicated instead of cancelled.

Picture 1.5: Humbucker pickup

1 Prelude 5

1.4 Issue Representation & Procedure

Once we have made this first introduction, I want to explain you how we will
explain each example made. First of all, there is a little theoretical introduction, in which
are explained all the equations and parameters that will be necessary to be known. In a
second step, there is a explanation of the problem; in which there will be all data for the
issue, and finally, there is a third or solution step where there is shown the solution for the
problem, made with ANSYS.

If you need to know how each example is made, there is a CD where are sited all
the examples in txt files. Each one represents the commands needed by ANSYS, but you
need to have installed ANSYS in your computer to run them.

At the end of the procedure, there is a commentary where is explained the possible
complications, a comparison between real and simulated results and possible next step if
the accuracy is not the expected.

Made this prelude, we start the work with the most simple and important thing
(both magnet) in a pickup; the coil.
2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 6

2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil

2.1 Introduction

The electromagnetic inductance is the production of electrical currents by

magnetic fields variables with time. The discovery of Faraday and Henry introduced such
symmetry inside electromagnetic’s world. Oersted discovered that a electrical current
induces (produces) a magnetic field; and this multiplied the number of experiments
searching new relations between electricity and magnetism. Faraday named induced
currents these electrical currents produced by magnetic fields. At the same time, a
magnetic field can induce a electrical current, but in this case there must be a variation of
the field.

On the other hand, the impedance (total resistance) of an inductor depends on the
inductance of the coil and on the frequency. Any coil of wire is an inductor, and its
impedance varies with the frequency; the higher the frequency, the higher the impedance.
When you add more turns of wire to a coil, you are increasing the inductance and thus
altering the frequency response.

Z = jw ⋅ L = j ⋅ 2πf ⋅ L (1.1)

If the current I that travels on a cylindrical coil of length L and section A = π ⋅ r 2 ,

being r the radium of the coil, with a number of turns N ; is created a magnetic field in the
coil. If l >> r , the field B is uniform:

N
B = µ⋅I ⋅ (1.2)
l

where µ is the permeability of the medium.

The magnetic flux through the solenoid is given by:

N2
φ = N ⋅ A⋅ B = µ ⋅ I ⋅ A⋅ (1.3)
l

When the flux depends on time, a voltage is induced between the ends of the coil:

dφ N 2 dI dI
Vind = − = −µ ⋅ I ⋅ A ⋅ ⋅ = −L ⋅ (1.4)
dt l dt dt
2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 7

where:
N2
L = µ ⋅π ⋅ r 2 ⋅ (1.5)
l

is the coefficient of autoinductance of the coil and depends only on the number of turns
and the size of the coil. It consists in a induction of the own coil on itself.

Picture 2.1: Simple coil

The aim of this chapter is the study of this parameter, and to know how it depends on the
parameters like µ and N .
2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 8

2.2 Planning of the problem

The self-inductance of a coil depends on the µ , characteristic for each material (relatively
permeability of cupper approximately 1 µ c ≅ µ0 ), its dimensions (diameter and section area) and
of course the number of loops of wire). For a first approximation we made some quadrangular
section- coils of determined characteristics, which are shown in the table below:

Coil Area Radium Number of Diameter

( mm2 ) ( mm ) turns ( mm )
1 1x1 2.3 100 0.08
2 1x1 2.3 25 0.2

Table 1: Characteristics of both coils.

The equation (1.5) permits us calculate the inductance know all the parameters of the
coil. But due to the small solenoid that we are using, we must apply a correction (end correction
for small coils) to fix the result:

Wheeler correction: l → l + 0.45 ⋅ D (1.6)

so finally, the self-inductance results:

N2
L = µ ⋅π ⋅ r 2 ⋅ (1.7)
l + 0.45 ⋅ D

Picture 2.2: Cross-section of the coil

2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 9

( )
L1 = 1.2567 ⋅ 10 − 6 ⋅ π ⋅ 4.6 ⋅ 10 − 3 ⋅
2

(1 ⋅ 10 −3
100 2
+ 0.45 ⋅ 2.6 ⋅ 10 − 3 )
= 67.35µH

( )
L2 = 1.2567 ⋅ 10 − 6 ⋅ π ⋅ 4.6 ⋅ 10 − 3 ⋅
2 252
(1 ⋅ 10 − 3 + 0.45 ⋅ 2.6 ⋅ 10 − 3 )
= 4.46µH

0.08 mm

0.2 mm

1 2

. 10 x 10 = 100 turns . 5 x 5 = 25 turns

Picture 2.3: Cross-section of both coils

To compare these results with real ones, we made two coils of similar diameter
section; a 100-turned one of 0.08mm for copper diameter (100 turns of 0.08mm copper and
covered coil approximately 1mm) and a second coil of 0.2mm diameter (25 turns of 0.2mm
approximately 1mm, too) and then, once finished the measuring, it resulted:

L1 = 77 µH

L2 = 4.6 µH

so we conclude the explanation with the next data- table:

Coil Theoretical ( µH ) Real( µH ) ε (%)

1 67.35 77 14.32
2 4.46 4.6 3.14

Table 2: Comparison between theoretical and real calculation.

2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 10

2.3 Solution for the problem

The solution for this case using ANSYS could be considered easy at a first
moment. The analysis is considered 2-D Static Magnetic, and to be easy, I chose an
axisymmetric model. So we started to make the commands program using two
element types:

PLANE 13: 2-D Coupled- Field solid.

INFIN110: 2-D Infinite solid.

Air
PLANE13

coil
Air
INFIN110

Picture 2.4: Detail of area plotting

Initially, there are defined two semi-circles, which determine the measure
field; the outer one defines far field conditions (it will be made of INFIN110
element type). In the center, is located the coil. There are defined two materials,
first for air ( µ r1 = 1 ) and second for copper ( µ r 2 = 1 ).
Once the modeling process is finished, and material proprieties are given for each
area, we start to mesh. I preferred to mesh line by line because in this example there are not
a very high number of lines, so it is easier to make it in this way.

Picture 2.5: Element plotting

2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 11

TYPE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS ELEMENT TYPE NUMBER

1 1975 PLANE13
2 60 INFIN110

Table 3: Number of elements used in Coil1.txt.

As the number of elements generated in the meshing process is very important

(more in 3D models than in two); I have preferred to include in each program the number of
elements obtained. As more elements we have, more time we will spend in the solution
step.

Finally, is created a component with areas of material two, named coil, and the
loads were applied. The only loads needed are the current density applied to the coil and a
infinite flag in the outer circle. Finally, we solve the model.

In General PostProcessing, we can review the results obtained. There are some
important functions called Macros, which help us to calculate important parameters. One of
them is PLD2D; it makes a plot of the flux lines of the model. As we see in the figure, the
lines do not come out to the INF110. That is very important because our model must
complete far field conditions. In this POST step there is another macro called SRCS, which
calculates terminal parameters for a stranded coil in a linear static analysis. The expression
for this macro is the following:

• SRCS, NTURN, CURR, FREQ, PSYM, CSYM

where:
NTURN: Number of turns in the coil winding.
CURR: Current per turn applied to the coil.
FREQ: Harmonic frequency of the coil current (Defaults to 1)
PSYM: Planar symmetry factor. When we use symmetry around X-Axis.
CSYM: Only for 3-D analysis.

The following terminal parameters are calculated:

Energy input to the coil, terminal inductance, terminal voltage, and flux linkages.

So the output SRCS command for the 100 turned coil is:

_______________ Calculated coil terminal parameters __________________

Planar symmetry factor = 1, Circumferential symmetry factor = 1.
Energy: Joules, Winding Inductance: Henries, VLTG: volts, Current per
turn: Amps, Flux linkage: Webers, Frequency: Hertz.

Energy input= 3.391810372E-05, Winding inductance= 6.783620744E-05.

Current per turn= 1, Flux linkages= 6.783620744E-05.
Terminal Voltage = 4.262274619E-04.

Parameters defined for the coil: WIN (energy input), INDL (Winding
inductance), IWIND (Current per turn), FLNK (Flux linkage),
VLTG (Terminal voltage)
______________________________________________________________________
2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 12

We make the same for the 25 turned-coil, obtaining:

_______________ Calculated coil terminal parameters __________________
Planar symmetry factor = 1, Circumferential symmetry factor = 1.
Energy: Joules, Winding Inductance: Henries, VLTG: volts, Current per
turn: Amps, Flux linkage: Webers, Frequency: Hertz.

Energy input= 3.391810372E-05, Winding inductance= 4.239762965E-06.

Current per turn= 4, Flux linkages= 1.695905186E-05.
Terminal Voltage = 1.065568655E-04.

Parameters defined for the coil: WIN (energy input), INDL (Winding
inductance), IWIND (Current per turn), FLNK (Flux linkage),
VLTG (Terminal voltage)
______________________________________________________________________

Picture 2.6: Magnetic Flux lines for a single coil

Coil Theoretical ( µH ) ANSYS( µH ) Real( µH )

1 67.35 67.83 77
2 4.46 4.24 4.6
Table 4: Comparison between results.

It is clear that the theoretical and ANSYS results are similar (there is a smaller error
that 5%), but real measures go away from this, perhaps due to parasite contributions of
external noises (lights, A.M. radios…), or because the dimensions of the test- coil are no
similar as theoretical one (it´s impossible to get a perfect coil when you have to make
manually one, since you have to glue them, and there are air gaps). We must know that for
these small results, we may take attention because a little error can cause a big deviation on
the result.
2 Self-Inductance of a simple coil 13

We tried to correct this error by changing the dimensions of the ANSYS coils:

1.5mm

1.7mm

Picture 2.7: New dimensions for the test- coils

Finally, for those dimensions, the final results were the next:

Coil ANSYS( µH ) Real( µH )

1 62.26 77
2 3.9 4.6

Table 5: Comparison between new results.

This time the results are worse than before, but at the end, the accuracy is not so bad.
Otherwise, for next measuring, we corrected the dimensions of Ansys coils.
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 14

3 Mutual inductance of two coils

3.1 Introduction

Up to now we have been discussing magnetic fields in free space, or in air. In air the
distances apart of the molecules are relatively large, and the influence of the air molecules on the
magnetic fields is very small. Suppose that we put a sample of material into a magnetic field.
How is the field changed and what are the new field equations? How do describe what happens to
the material? These questions are discussed in this chapter.

The figure 3.1 shows two long solenoids, one wound on top of the other. The length of
each solenoid is l , and the common radius is r . The bottom (primary) coil has N1 turns per unit
length and carries a current I1 which produces a field B1 and a total flux φ2 through the top
(secondary) coil. When I1 changes, φ 2 changes and a e.m.f. V2 is induced in the secondary given
by:

dφ 2
V2 = E ⋅ dl = − (3.1)
dt
s2

In this formula, the secondary loop s2 has to be traversed in the direction which makes
φ2 = B1 ⋅ dS positive, in a manner consistent with the discussion of Lenz´s Law (chapter 1).
s2

We then have:

dI1
V2 = − M 12 ⋅ (3.2)
dt
with:

µ 0 ⋅ N1 ⋅ N 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r 2
M 12 = (3.3)
l

where N 2 is the number of turns per unit length on the top coil. For I1 increasing so that
dI 1 / dt is positive, V2 is negative and the induced current which is trying to maintain φ 2
constant is in the direction shown on Figure 3.1:
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 15

I1

I2

Picture 3.1: A mutual inductance made by winding one long solenoid in top of another

If we reverse the roles of the top and bottom coils by letting a changing current
I 2 in the top coil induce a e.m.f. V1 on the bottom coil it can be seen that:

dI 2
V1 = − M 21 ⋅ , (3.4)
dt
where

µ 0 ⋅ N1 ⋅ N 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r 2
M 21 = (3.5)
l

The quantities M 12 and M 21 thus have the same value and can bee given by the
symbol M is called the mutual inductance of the two coils, and depends only on their
construction and geometry. M is equal to the flux through one due to unit current in the
other if the two coils are in air, where the field produced is proportional to current.
This parameter can be put in function of the self inductance of both coils:

M 21 = M 21 = M = k ⋅ (L1 ⋅ L2 ) (3.6)

where the dimensionless number k, called the coefficient of coupling, is less than or equal
to unity.

This phenomenon constitutes the principle of electrical transformer, an

instrument that permits to rise or to reduce alternate voltage. A transformer consists mainly
of two coils rounded to an iron core. The first coil, in which we apply the AC voltage is
called primary and the second coil, where appears the transformed voltage is called
secondary.

The f.e.m. in primary and secondary coils is shown below:

Λφ Λφ
ε1 = − N1 ⋅ ε2 = −N2 ⋅ (3.7)
Λt Λt
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 16

The presence of the iron core avoids the dispersion of the magnetic flux, so we can
accept that is the same for each case. Combining the previous equations it results:

ε1 ε2
= , (3.9)
N1 N2

that is the equation for an ideal transformer.

3.2 Planning of the problem

In the same way as a transformer, a pickup can include more than one coil (humbuckers),
and its interesting to know the mutual inductance between them.

Now, it is considered a system with two simple coils, with the first
dimensions that we supposed ( 1mm × 1mm ) and separated 14mm each other.

d d
Coil 1:
r
N = 100
a1 a1
I = 1mA / turn
l = 14mm
a1 = 1mm = a2
d = 4.6mm

Magnet:
l s l µ
r = 4.2mm
s = 15mm

a2 a2

Picture 3.2: Model of the two coils of the problem with and without magnet
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 17

Then, it will be defined a path in the inactive coil to calculate the magnetic flux that
crosses the second coil; originated by the first coil. As can be seen, the relative
permeability of the medium is 1, due to we are not using a ferromagnetic material. But,
what is the matter when we collocate a magnetic material inside?

As it is logical, the magnetic flux through the path will increase depending on the
value of the permeability of the material.

It is important to know the dependence of magnetic flux and distance from the
excited coil.

Taking advantage of the results obtained in last chapter, now we will calculate the mutual
inductance between two coils sited in the same measure field.

The results obtained will depend on the ferromagnetic material and size, so it is
important to understand how it depends. For this reason there will be included some graphs
that can help us understanding it.
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 18

3.3 Solution for the problem

The mutual inductance of the two coils, according to the equation 3.5 results:

M 21 = M 12 =
µ 0 ⋅ N1 ⋅ N 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r 2
=
(
4 ⋅ π 2 ⋅ 10 − 7 ⋅ 100 ⋅ 25 ⋅ 2.3 ⋅ 10 − 3 )
2
= 17.4µH
l 3 ⋅ 10 − 3

Now, we will see how the flux density varies depending on the distance and the proprieties
of the material between them. First, the medium is the air, so µ = µ 0

In the modeling process we create the two coils as we told in the previous chapter.
After meshing, and loading the model, we solve it. Picture 3.3 shows the flux lines created
by the upper coil.

Picture 3.3: Plot of flux lines

The magnetic flux that crosses the downer coil is:

φ c 2 = 1.5464 ⋅10 −12 Wb

Now, in twice of measure the flux crossing the coil, we will define a path with the
aim of compare results depending on distance and permeability of the medium.
3 Mutual inductance of two coils 19

Picture 3.4: Path defined

In the next graph is shown the flux density variation along the defined path when the
medium is the air µ = µ 0 , which can be seen below the graph.

( x1 , y1 ) ( x2 , y 2 ) Flux (nWb)

Table 3.1: Flux values for the defined path Picture 3.5: Flux variation
 3 Mutual inductance of two coils 20

If we put a magnetic material inside, as it is normal, the flux increases due to the
bigger µ of the material. We have tried for µ =5.

µ =1
µ =2
µ =5
Flux in nWb vs. Distance in mm.

1000

900

800

700

600
Flux (nWb)

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Distance (mm)

Picture 3.6: Comparison for µ =1, µ =2 and µ =5

3 Mutual inductance of two coils 21

Here are shown both flux lines plots for µ =1, µ =2 and µ =5

Picture 3.7: Flux lines for µ =1, µ =2 and µ =5

µ =1 µ =2 µ =5
449,9647 559,6930 706,8504
530,7358 690,6601 919,6008
316,0158 468,1927 717,5316
166,9999 278,3069 490,1813
95,3650 175,5187 350,0643
57,8657 115,9750 258,5388
37,0524 79,6877 195,8641
24,7861 56,4536 151,1502
17,2320 41,0408 118,3066
12,4148 30,5367 93,6736
9,2252 23,1442 74,7216
7,0692 17,8128 59,8305
5,6190 13,8798 47,8536
4,7010 10,8760 37,8469
4,3072 8,4730 29,0204
4,3210 6,3415 20,2009
3,8216 5,2389 15,1911

Table 3.2: Magnetic flux for µ =1, µ =2, and µ =5

At this point, we tried to find the maximum magnetic flux originated by a

determined permeability, and we gave a value of 10.000, getting the next maximum flux
value. We will discuss this parameter in the next chapter.
Flux in the center

1600

1400

1200

1000

Flux in nWb 800

600

400

200

0
1
Reihe1 530,7358
Reihe2 690,6601
Reihe3 919,6008
Reihe4 1427,7498

Picture 3.8: Comparison for the different µ values Picture 3.9 : Flux lines for µ =10.000
4 Magnets 22

4 Magnets

4.1 Introduction

What we have learned in Chap. 1 and 2 about loops and solenoids we can now be applied
to magnetic materials. We learnt that the magnetic effects of these materials originate in
atomically smart current loops and that when great numbers of these in an iron bar have their
magnetic moments aligned in a uniform manner, the bar is magnetically equivalent (externally) to
an air-filled solenoid of equal sheet current density. The magnetic vectors B, H, and M are
explained in this chapter. After a discussion of the boundary relations for magnetic fields, the rest
of the chapter deals with the behavior of ferromagnetic materials, such as alnico, iron, and
calculations of their parameters for different applications.

If a horizontal bar magnet is freely suspended, as in a compass, it turns into the earth´s
magnetic field, so that one end points north. This end is called north pole of the magnet. The
other end is its south pole (equal strength but opposite polarity).

All magnetized bodies have both a north and a south pole, and they cannot be isolated.

If a bar magnet is placed on a wooden table and covered with a sheet of paper, iron
fillings sprinkled on the sheet align themselves along the magnetic lines of the magnet.

Picture 4.1: Magnetic field lines around a magnetized iron rod.

4 Magnets 23

All materials show some magnetic effects. In many substances the effects are so weak
that the materials are often considered non ferromagnetic.

In general materials can be classified according to their magnetic behavior into

diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and
superparamagnetic. In diamagnetic materials, magnetic effects are weak.
In a few materials, such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, a special phenomenon occurs which
greatly facilitates the alignment process. In these substances, called ferromagnetic, there is a
quantum effect known as “exchange coupling” between adjacent atoms in the crystal lattice of
the material which locks their magnetic moments into a rigid parallel configuration over regions,
called domains, which contain many atoms. However, at temperatures above a critical value,
known as the Curie temperature, the exchange coupling disappears and the material reverts to an
ordinary paramagnetic type.

The relative permeability of ferromagnetic materials varies over a wide range for
different applied fields. It also depends on the previous history of the specimen. However, the
maximum relative permeability is a relatively definite quantity for a particular ferromagnetic
material although in different materials the maximum may occur at different values of the applied
field.

Substance Group type Relative permeability, µr

Silver Diamagnetic 0.99998
Copper Diamagnetic 0.999991
Cobalt Ferromagnetic 250
Nickel Ferromagnetic 600
Iron (0.2 impurity) Ferromagnetic 5000
Superalloy (5 Mo, 79 Ni) Ferromagnetic 1.000.000

Table 4.1: Relative permeability for a number of substances.

4 Magnets 24

4.2 Planning of the problem

The aim of this chapter is to find out the permeability of the magnet that we are using.
We have chosen in previous chapters values for this permeability, but we did not know with
accuracy the value for it. After that, we will try to calculate in the same way the permeability of
the string that we will use in the next chapter.

Picture 4.2: Air-core solenoid with B and H fields, also B, M and H along the solenoid axis.

Picture 4.3: Flux lines of the test magnet

4 Magnets 25

4.3 Solution for the problem

At this moment, we have supposed a determined value for the permeability of the
magnet, so in the looking for the way to find the permeability of the test magnets, we made more
measures with the different test magnets and coils, and trying with ANSYS, we finally found this
value. Now we will explain how.

In this first example, we put the coil on the centre of the magnet:

. We stat with µ r = 2 , because the permeability of the test magnet is more than air´s one.

CASE 1:

- Diameter of the coil: 0.2 mm

- N= 25 turns
- L MEASURED= 8.2 µH
- Diameter of the magnet: 5 mm

Here I expose the values obtained for the supposed permeability for the magnet:

µr = 2 L = 6.67µH
µr = 3 L = 7,99 µH

7.99
= 1.166 16.6% difference between both values.
6.67

CASE 2:

- Diameter of the coil: 0.08 mm

- N= 100 turns
- L MEASURED= 116 µH
- Diameter of the magnet: 4.25 mm

Here I expose the values obtained for the supposed permeability for the magnet:

µr = 2 L = 97.24µH
µr = 3 L = 111.97 µH

111.97
= 1.154 15.4% difference between both values.
97.24
same difference between permeability values for each case.
4 Magnets 26

The value for the real measurements is a bit greater than the results obtained for µ r = 3 ,
so let´s try with µ r = 3.5 .

No, we assign this permeability to the magnet in each case:

CASE 1:
µ r = 3. 5 L = 118.40 µH

CASE 2:
µ r = 3. 5 L = 127.269 µH

Those results are valid for us, due to the difference with obtained can be attributed to possible
interferences in the measure of parasites contributions.

. Now, we take the two coils and we collocate them as the next figure.

3.35 mm

2 mm

PATH DEFINED

Picture 4.3: Upside is sited the 25 turned coil, and downside, the 100 turned one.

The excited coil is the upper one. After that we defined a path to calculate the flux in the
second coil resulting:

! "#
4 Magnets 27

We choose a frequency of 1000 hz; the voltage in the path defined can be calculated:

~ ~
u = ω ⋅ N ⋅ φ → u = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ 1000 ⋅ 100 ⋅ 3.61633 ⋅10 −11 = 23µV

Now, we insert the magnet with the last value of permeability; as it is logical, the flux
will increase; and this increment will help us finding the inductance.

$ $ ! "#

~ ~
u = ω ⋅ N ⋅ φ → u = 2 ⋅ π ⋅1000 ⋅100 ⋅ 8.92913 ⋅10−11 = 56 µV

With these two results, and another more on the center of the magnet, a comparison is
presented between measured values and Ansys ones where the results obtained for different
positions of the coils in the magnet length are compared :

On The top On the center % difference

ANSYS VALUES 56 66 18%
MEASURE 1 42 55 31%
MEASURE 2 48 61 27%
MEASURE 3 51 64 25%

Table 4.2: Comparison between Ansys and measured voltages

The error was reduced when we improved the accuracy of the real measurement.

Picture 4.4: Magnetic Flux Density distribution on the magnet for µ r = 3.5
4 Magnets 28

In the end, we arrived at the conclusion that the relative permeability of the test magnet´s
material is approximately 3.5, and for this value, and a coercive force, the maximum flux density
is 0.18 T on the centre of the magnet.
In the same way, we also wanted to know an approximate value for the permeability of
a guitar string, and I wrote a program to calculate it. Below is shown the model used to make it:

0.33mm

0.1mm

φcu =1.8mm
N=233 turns
70mm 14mm

COIL

GUITAR
STRING

Picture 4.4: Model for measuring the µ r for the guitar string.

The calculated values for the inductance of the coil were:

Lwithout _ string = 9 µH
Lwith _ string = 90 µH

The piece used as the magnet, is made of little pieces of guitar string of 70mm each one.
Now, as before, we suppose a value for the µ r of the string, and start calculate inductance values:

1. µ r _ coil = 1, µ r _ air = 1, µ r _ string = 1 → (no _ string ) → Ls = 5.312 µH

2. µ r _ coil = 1, µ r _ air = 1, µ r _ string = 50 → Ls = 55.561µH
3. µ r _ coil = 1, µ r _ air = 1, µ r _ string = 100 → Ls = 77.65µH
4. µ r _ coil = 1, µ r _ air = 1, µ r _ string = 150 → Ls = 90.34 µH
5. µ r _ coil = 1, µ r _ air = 1, µ r _ string = 200 → Ls = 98.58µH

The value for the measure obtained in case 4 is very similar to the real one, so we can
finally say that the relative permeability of the string is approximately 150.
5 Models with magnet and string 29

5 Models with magnet and string

5.1 Introduction
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit strong magnetic effects and are the most important
magnetic substances. The permeability of these materials is not a constant but is a function both
of the applied field and of the previous magnetic history of the specimen. In those substances, as
already explained, the atomic dipoles tend to align in the same direction over regions, or
domains, containing many atoms. Thus, a domain acts like a small, but not atomically small, bar
magnet.
With further increase of the field more domains change over, each as an individual unit,
until when all the domains are in the same direction, magnetic saturation is reached. If the
majority of the domains retain their directions after the applied field is removed, the specimen is
said to be permanently magnetized. Heat and mechanical shock tend to return the crystal to the
original unmagnetized state, and if the temperature is raised sufficiently high, the domains
themselves are demagnetized and the substance changes from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic.
From iron this transition temperature, or Curie point is 770ºC. The residual magnetism is so weak
compared to the ferromagnetic case that the material is usually considered to be unmagnetized.
Magnetization, which appears only in the presence of an applied field may be spoken of
as induced magnetization, as distinguished from permanent magnetization, which is present in the
absence of an applied field.

The permeability µ of a substance is given by:

B
µ= = µ0 ⋅ µ r (5.1)
H

To illustrate the relation of B to H, a graph showing B as a function of H is used. The line

or curve showing B as a function of H on such a BH chart is called magnetization curve.

Picture 5.1: Hysteresis loop showing path of B as H is changed.

5 Models with magnet and string 30

Starting with an unmagnetized iron specimen, let us trace what happens to the flux
density B as we change the applied field H. Starting at the origin (at 1), B follows the initial
magnetization curve as H is increased to a value H m where the curve flattens off and saturation
is reached (at 2). Now on reducing H to zero, B does not go to zero but has a residual flux density
or remanence Br (at 3). If now we reverse H, by reversing the battery polarity, and increase H
negatively, B comes to zero at a negative field − H c called the coercive force (at 4). As H is
increased still more in the negative direction, the specimen becomes magnetized further with
negative polarity, the magnetization at first being easy and then hard as saturation is reached
when the field equals − H m (at 5). Bringing the applied field H to zero again leaves a residual
magnetization with flux density − Br (at 6). Reversing H and increasing it in the positive
direction, B comes to zero at a positive field (or coervice force) H c (at 7). With further increase
in H the specimen reaches saturation with the original polarity. When the field equals + H m it
completes (back at 2) out “tour” of what is called a hysteresis loop.

“For a given specimen, no points can be reached on the BH diagram outside the
saturation hysteresis loop, but any point inside can”.

In many applications permanent magnets play an important part. In dealing with

permanent magnets, the section of the hysteresis loop in the second quadrant of the BH diagram is
of particular interest. If the loop is a saturation or major hysteresis loop, the section in the second
quadrant is called the demagnetization curve. This curve is characteristic for a given magnetic
material. The intercept of the curve with the B axis is the maximum possible residual flux density
Br , or the retentivity, for a material, and the intercept with the H axis is the maximum coercive
force, or the coercivity. It is usually desirable that the permanent magnet materials have a high
retentivity, but it is also important that the coercivity be large so that the magnet will not be easily
demagnetized.

Picture 5.2: Demagnetization and BH product curve for Alnico V.

5 Models with magnet and string 31

5.2 Planning of the problem

The last stage of my work was to find out the skill of the real magnet and the string
used by us.

Picture 5.3: Alnico V test magnet.

As we anticipated in Chapter 4, ferromagnetic materials are better for us, due to their
proprieties. Until this point, we have not applied the “real” proprieties to this magnet. Now, we
can assign the proprieties to our Alnico 5 magnet:

Coercive force: H c = 49.352 A / m

H [A/m] 0 1592 7164 9552 17512 25472 33432 41392 49352 62884
B[T] 0 0.34 0.93 0.99 1.07 1.117 1.156 1.19 1.22 1.25

Table 5.1: Alnico 5 B-H table

Picture 5.2: BH- graph of Alnico 2, 3 and 5.

5 Models with magnet and string 32

… on the other way, the proprieties to the used string are presented:

H [A/m] 0 400 1400 2400 3400 4400 5400 6400 7400 7900
B[T] 0 0.52 0.8 0.88 0.94 0.98 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.06

Table 5.1: String B-H table

Picture 5.3: BH and NB graphs of string and its table in ANSYS.

Picture 5.4: BH- graph of guitar string

So in the solution we will analyse the results obtained for ANSYS programs, the
distribution of magnetic flux density depending on the distance and vector plots which will help
us understanding the skill of the pickup.
5 Models with magnet and string 33

5.3 Solution for the problem

He will show both 2-D and 3-D ANSYS solutions for magnet and string of the pickup,
and we will try to explain the differences between them.

- The first difference is the number of elements in both models. In our 2-D example we
used 26.714 elements of 32.000 available, and for 3-D we used 30.000 approximately.

- The second difference is the accuracy; as logical, for the same number of elements, is
better the result of the 2-D model, but there are more options to appreciate in the 3-D model.

- The third, and a very important difference is the time of the solution process. In a non-
linear analysis of the 3-D model, you can spend 4 hours in solution process time, because
ANSYS has to find a convergence solution for all the elements of the model. You can select one
of a lot of ANSYS solvers if you want to decrease the solution time, but the solution could be not
the expected.

Characteristics of the models:

2D MODEL 3D MODEL
MAXIMUM FLUX DENSITY 0.8 T 1T
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS 26.614 23000
SOLUTION TIME 5 min 3-4 hours

Table 5.2: Main differences between models

5 Models with magnet and string 34

2D MODEL SOLUTION:

Picture 5.5: Magnetic flux density

Picture 5.6: Magnetic flux lines

5 Models with magnet and string 35

Picture 5.7: Detail of magnetic flux vector plot

Looking at the obtained results, we can say that our model has a good accuracy:

The most relevant results:

- The maximum of the flux density on the string is not just above the magnet, but it is
situated 0.4 mm from the centre, and this value is a bit more than the middle of the maximum
flux density on the magnet.

- The flux lines do not cross the string, but rather they enter and travel through the string.
5 Models with magnet and string 36

3D MODEL SOLUTION:

In the 3D model, the steps in an analysis are the same as 2D model, but we must be care
because we work with volumes, so one coordinate more increases the difficulty of the program.

Element types used:

- SOLID98: Tetrahedral Coupled- Field Solid

- INFIN111: 3-D Infinite Solid

Picture 5.8: Magnetic flux density

The most relevant results:

- Due to the low accuracy of this model, we can not distinguish the transitions on the flux
density, but the maximum flux density is more or less the same as 2D model.

If we want to improve the model, we could give more elements to the magnet, due to
there is a bad meshing on it. However, if we need to work in 3D model, we need more available
elements; and also the solution time will be bigger. It is a difficult compromise.
5 Models with magnet and string 37

. PATH DEFINITIONS:

2mm

Path 1
Path 2
Path 3

Picture 5.8: Paths defined to measure the magnetic flux density

Picture 5.9: Total Flux density for each defined path

1. Bmax = 0.78022T
2. Bmax = 0.4155T → maximum flux density on string
3. Bmax = 0.7922T → maximum flux density on magnet
6 ANSYS EXAMPLES 38

6 ANSYS EXAMPLES
With this example of the model with magnet and string in 2 Dimensional Static Analisys,
we finish the work. You can find more of these examples in the assistant CD, where the programs
with ANSYS commands made by me are located and orderly by chapter

!****************************************************************************************
! Description: Magnet and string in a 2D model
! Models: PLANE13 INF110
! Ansys: 7.0
! Date: 15.07.03
! Author: Martin Martinez
!****************************************************************************************
! Input data
*****************************************************************************************
r1=5e-2 !m ! Radium of outter circle
r2=4e-2 !m ! Radium of inner circle
r=4.8e-3 !m ! Diam. of the magnet
l=15e-3 !m ! length of the magnet
!
/TITLE, 2D MAGNET AND STRING ! Title to the work
/prep7 ! Preprocessor
ANTYPE,STATIC,NEW ! Static new analisys
/PNUM,AREA,1 ! Plot Area, turn on numbers/colors
RECTNG,0,r/2,-l/2,l/2 ! Magnet
RECTNG,0,2e-2,10e-3,10.4e-3 ! String (Diam=.2mm)
cyl4,0,0,r1,-90,0,90 ! External circle (INF110)
cyl4,0,0,r2,-90,0,90 ! Internal circle (PLANE13)
AOVLAP,all ! Overlap all areas
NUMCMP,area ! Compress out unused area numbers
!
! Material models
mp,murx,1,1 ! Material 1 for air
TB,BH,2 ! B-H Curve definition (mat 2)
TBPT,,1592,.34
TBPT,,7164,.93
TBPT,,9552,.99
TBPT,,17512,1.07
TBPT,,25472,1.117
TBPT,,33432,1.156
TBPT,,41392,1.19
TBPT,,49352,1.22
TBPT,,62884,1.25
TBPLOT,BH,2 ! Material 2 for magnet
MP,MGYY,2,49352
TB,BH,3 ! B-H Curve definition: String
TBPT,,400,.52
TBPT,,1400,.8
TBPT,,2400,.88
TBPT,,3400,.94
TBPT,,4400,.98
TBPT,,5400,1.01
TBPT,,6400,1.03
TBPT,,7400,1.05
TBPT,,7900,1.06
TBPLOT,BH,3
! Two kind of elements, PLANE13: 2-D Coupled-Field Solid and INFIN110: 2-D Infinite Solid
! Element Type
et,1,13,,,1 ! Element type 1: PLANE13 and behaviour to axisymmetric
et,2,110,,,1 ! Element type 2: INFIN110 and behaviour to axisymmettic
!

! Material attributes
6 ANSYS EXAMPLES 39

ASEL,S,AREA,,3 ! Assign attributes to magnet

AATT,2,1,1
ASEL,S,AREA,,1 ! Assign attributes to magnet
AATT,3,1,1
ASEL,S,AREA,,4 ! Assign attributes to air
AATT,1,1,1
ASEL,S,AREA,,2 ! Assign attributes to air
AATT,1,1,2 ! In this case, element type 2 INF110
APLOT ! Plot areas
ALLSEL,ALL
!
! MESHING PROCESS
LESIZE,7,,,200
LESIZE,5,,,200
LESIZE,6,,,10
LESIZE,8,,,10
AMESH,1 ! Magnet
!
LESIZE,3,,,10
LESIZE,1,,,10
LESIZE,18,,,50
LESIZE,17,,,50
LESIZE,2,,,100
AMESH,3 ! String
!
LESIZE,12,,,100 ! 100 divisions on line
LESIZE,9,,,100 ! 100 divisions on line
LESIZE,16,,,1
LESIZE,15,,,1
!
LESIZE,19,,,100,3
LESIZE,21,,,70,3
LESIZE,20,,,70
!ASEL,s,area,,5 ! Select area
!MSHAPE,0,2D ! Free meshing
!MSHKEY,0
AMESH,4 ! Mesh area
!
/PNUM,MAT,2
ESEL,S,MAT,,2
CM,MAGNET,ELEM ! Component -> magnet
ALLSEL,all
!
/PNUM,MAT,2
ESEL,S,MAT,,3
CM,STRING,ELEM ! Component -> string
ALLSEL,all
! DEFINE LOADS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
LSEL,s,,,9 ! Select line9 to make a flag
SFL,all,INF ! Apply boundary condition
ALLSEL,all
EPLOT,all
!
NSEL,ALL ! Use frontal solver
FINISH ! Finish of preprocessor
! **************************** obtain solution *****************************************
/SOLU
MAGSOLV
FINISH
! *************************** retrieve results *****************************************
/POST1
PATH,Bsum,2,,600 ! Magnetic Flux Density
PPATH,1,,0,10.2e-3,0
PPATH,2,,2e-2,10.2e-3,0
PDEF,Bsum,B,SUM
/AXLAB,sum,Magnetic Flux Density (T)
PLPATH,Bsum ! Path to calculate the maximum flux density on the string
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] John D. Kraus:

Electromagnetics, Fourth edition.
Mc. Graw Hill, 1.992.

[2] I.S. Grant – W.R. Phillips:

Electromagnegnetism, Second edition.
Manchester Physics Series, 1.990.

[3] B.H. Flowers and E. Mensoza:

Properties of Matter.
Manchester Physics Series, 1.987.

[4] Halliday & Resnick:

Fundamentals of physics, third edition.
Library of Congress Cataloging, 1988.

[5] P.A. Tipler:

Physics for scientists and engineers
World Publishers, 1995.

[6] J. Ewing:
Experimental researches in magnetism
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1985.

[7] ANSYS 5.5 & 7.0 Documentation

Ansys Corp.

[8] Magnetfabrik Bonn

Permanent magnets

[9] Engineering Methods Inc: http://www.engmeth.com/

[10] Gary´s Guitars: http://www.6strings.com/
[11] Gibson Official Webpage: http://www.gibson.com/
[12] Fender Official Webpage: http://www.fender.com/
[13] Ansys Emag Webpage: http://www.ansys.com/
Magnetic Flux Density, 2mm above Magnets

SINGLE COIL PICKUPS.

Telecaster Bridge (level), with plate Telecaster Bridge (level), without plate
50 50

45 45

40 40

35 35

30 30
Fluxdensity in mT

Fluxdensity in mT
25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
mm mm

Telecaster (level, with plate) Telecaster (level, without plate)

DiMarzio SDS1
Jazzmaster Bridge 50
50

45
45

40
40

35
35

30 T 30
m
Fluxdensity in mT

ni
yt 25
25 si
n
e
d
x
ul 20
20 F

15
15

10
10

5 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
mm mm

Jazzmaster Bridge DiMarzio SDS1

Stratocaster 70s (staggered) Gibson P90

50 50

45 45

40 40

35 35

30 30
Fluxdensity in mT

Fluxdensity in mT

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
mm mm

Stratocaster 70s (staggered) Gibson P90

HUMBUCKERS (Two coils):

Gretsch Filtertron Squier

50 50

45 45

40 40

35 35

30 30
Fluxdensity in mT

Fluxdensity in mT
25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
mm mm

Gretsch Filtertron Squier Humbucker

ES335 Bridge ES335 Neck

50 50

45
45

40
40
35

35
30
Fluxdensity in mT

Fluxdensity in dB

25 30

20
25

15
20
10

15
5

0 10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
mm mm

Gibson PAF Bridge Gibson PAF Neck

Preliminary draft!

Zollner, Manfred: The Physics of Electric Guitars; Fachhochschule Regensburg, 2003. (to be
published)

In those pictures is shown the relation between flux density and distance of most commercial
pickups. Each curve represents a magnet of the pickup, so in a graph we consider all the magnets of
its.
Erklärung

1. Mir ist bekannt, dass die Diplomarbiet als Prüfungsleistung in das Eigentum des Freistaats
Bayern übergeht. Hiermit erkläre ich mein Einverständnis, dass die Fachhochschule
Regensburg diese Prüfungsleistung die Studenten der Fachhochschule Regensburg einsehen
lassen darf, und dass sie die Abschlussarbeit unter Nennung meines Names als Urheber
veröffentlichen darf.

2. Ich erkläre hiermit, dass ich diese Diplomarbeit selbständig verfasst, noch nicht anderweitig
für andere Prüfungszwecke vorgelegt, keine anderen als die angegeben Quellen und
Hilfsmittel benützt sowie wörtliche und sinngemässe Zitate als solche gekennzeichnet habe.

Regensburg, den 24.07.03

Martín Martínez Villar

Unterschrift

Diese Erklärungen sind mit der Diplomarbeit (eingeheftet ) abzugeben.