Chem Final Exam Study Guide

Chapter 10- Energy

- Enthalpy
o How much energy is produced or absorbed by a given reaction
o Is equal to heat
o Found by multiplying number of moles by the net heat of the reaction
o Measured in kJ
- Hess’s Law
o Breaking down a reaction into two smaller reactions and adding their
enthalpies to find the enthalpy of the entire reaction
- Entropy
o Randomness in a system will naturally increase
o Second law of thermodynamics- The entropy of the universe is always
increasing
- Gibbs free energy/Spontaneous processes
o If the Gibbs free energy is < 0, the process is spontaneous
o A process is spontaneous if entropy increases as a result

Chapter 13- Gases

- Kinetic Theory
o Describes gases as large numbers of particles in constant, random motion
- Boyle’s Law
o Pressure and Volume
o Named for Robert Boyle
o Bolye’s experiments determined that Pressure x Volume = 1.4 x 103 in Hg
o P1V1 = P2V2
- Charles’s Law
o Volume and temperature
o V = bT (b is proportionality constant, T is temperature in Kelvin)

o (V1/T1) = (V1T2)

- Gay-Lussac’s Law

o A gas of constant mass and volume’s pressure is directly proportional to

its temperature

o P1T2 = P2T1

- Avogadro’s Law

o Volume and Moles

o V1/n1 = V2/n2
 - Combined Gas Law

o Combination of Boyle’s, Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s

o (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2

- Ideal Gas Law

o PV = nRT

 R is the universal gas constant

o Defines the behavior of an ideal gas

 Most gases obey this equation closely at pressures around or less

than 1 atm

- Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

o Used to find the ‘partial pressure’ of one gas in a mixture of gases in a

container

o Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3…

o Assuming each gas behaves ideally, the ideal gas law can be used to find
partial pressures.

- Graham’s Law of effusion

o (rate of effusion1)/(rate of effusion2) = square root of (M1/M2)

Chapter 14- Liquids and solids

- Phase Changes

o See graph page 449

- Intermolecular forces

o Dipole-Dipole = Occur between permanent dipole molecules (neg attracts

pos and vice versa)

o London Dispersion Forces- Electrons in an atom’s cloud congregate at one

end of the molecule causing an instantaneous dipole, this in turn causes
neighboring atoms to form instantaneous dipoles in a mirror image (see
figure 14.8)
 - Types of solids

o Crystalline solids- Regular arrangement of components

o Ionic Solids (Kind of crystalline)- Form ions when dissolved in water (ex.-
NaCl)

o Molecular Solids (Kind of Crystalline) – Do not form ions when dissolved

in water (ex- Sucrose)

Chapter 15- Solutions

- Characteristics of solutions

o Consist of solvent and solute

o Aqueous solution- solvent dissolved in water

o Saturated- Contains as much solute as will dissolve at the current

temperature

o Unsaturated- Contains less than the amount of solute that will dissolve at
current temperature

o Supersaturated- Contains more solute than will dissolve at the current

temperature

- Mass percent- Mass of solute in mass of solution

- Molarity- Amount of solute in moles v. volume of solution in liters

- Dilution

o Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

o Molarity is being changed

- Colligative properties

o Vapor pressure

 The vapor pressure of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor

pressure of each chemical component and the mole fraction of the
component present in the solution.
 o Boiling point elevation/Freezing point depression

 Proportionate to the vapor pressure of the solution

- Van’t Hoff Factor

o Measures how a solute will affect the colligative properties of a solution- i

is greater than 1 if a solute dissociates, less than one if it associates

- Suspensions v. Colloids

o Colloid- solute is evenly distributed throughout solvent

o Suspension- Similar to colloids, but the solute will eventually settle

because its particles are larger

- Brownian motion

o Random movement of particles within a solution

- Tyndall effect

o Scattering of light that occurs in colloids but not suspensions

Chapter 17- Equilibrium

- Equilibrium expression

o K = (products)coefficients/(reactants)coefficients

- Le Chatelier’s Principle

o When a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the

equilibrium shifts in a direction that tends to reduce the effect of that
change

o Equilibrium position changes, but Keq does not.

Chapter 16- Acids and Bases

• Arrhenius
o First to recognize essential nature of acids/bases
o Postulated that acids produce H+ ions in water and that bases produce
OH- in water

• Bronsted-Lowry Model
 o Improved on Arrhenius’s work (Arrhenius allowed for only one kind of
base, OH-)
o Based upon conjugate acid-base pairs
o General reaction of BL model involves an acid (HA) donating a proton to
a H2O molecule to form a new acid and a new base, the conjugate base
(A-)
 HA(aq) + H2O  H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

o Conjugate acid base pair- HA, A- and H20, H30+

• Acid Strength
o An acid is defined as strong if, when dissolved in water, it dissociates into
ions in high amounts
o Conversely, an acid is defined as weak if its molecules remain largely
intact in water
o When given a reaction such as the one seen in the BL model, if HA is a
strong acid, the forward reaction will dominate. If HA is a weak acid, the
reverse reaction will dominate.
o The reason that an acid would not dissociate into ions would be if its
conjugate base (A-), is more effective in attracting H+ ions than is H20.
 The stronger the acid, the weaker its conjugate base, and vice
versa.
• Ionization of Water
o H2O + H2O  H3O + OH-
o One water molecule acts as an acid (donates a proton), and the other acts
as a base (accepts proton)
o In pure water, H3O+ and OH- are very scarce (1.0 x 10-7) and are produced
in the same amounts.
o The product of the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- is a constant, Kw, or
the ion-product constant (1.0 x 10-14)
 In any aqueous solution, regardless of what it contains, this product
will remain the same.
o Three possible scenarios
1. If an acid is added to water to form an aqueous solution, the
concentration of H3O+ will be greater than that of H+
2. If a base is added to water to form an aqueous solution, the
concentration of H+ will be greater than that of H3O+
3. In a neutral solution (pure water, or one that has equal amounts of
acid and base), the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are equal.

o The pH Scale
o pN = -log10N
 o pH = -log[H+]
o If a substance has a pH of 4, its H+ concentration is 10 times that of one
with pH of 3.
o pOH = -log[OH-]
o –log([H+][OH-]) = 14.00
o If you know either pH or pOH for a substance, the other can always be
calculated using pH + pOH = 14.00
o Buffered Solutions
o A buffered solution will resist change in pH even if a strong acid or base is
added to it
o Solutions are buffered by the presence of a weak acid and its conjugate
base
o Example- solution containing acetic acid and sodium acetate
o H+ ions produced by adding acid stick to the conjugate base ions,
preventing a large pH change
o Any OH- ions produced by adding base react with the weak acid
o Acid-Base Titration
o Used to find the concentration of an acid in solution
o Use equation MaVa=MbVb (a- acid, b- base)
o Amphoteric
o Means that it can react as an acid as well as as a base
o Many metal/metalloid oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric
o Polyprotic
o Able to donate more than one proton per molecule

Chapter 18 – Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Electrochemistry

o An oxidation-reduction reaction is one in which one or more electrons are
transferred.
o OIL RIG- Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)
o Oxidation states
o Helps keep track of electrons in O-R reactions by assigning charges to
atoms in a compound
o Oxidation-Reduction Reactions between nonmetals
o An element is oxidized if its Oxidation state increases
o An element is reduced if its oxidation state decreases
o The electron receptor is referred to as the oxidizing agent
o The electron donor is referred to as the reducing agent
o Electrochemistry
o Involves the production of an electric current from an oxidation-reduction
reaction and the use of electric current to produce a chemical change