Materials Engineering

Name :
Date :

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The quality that is required from any material depends on its use: it's obvious that
wires and springs can't be manufactured out of the same metal as the former must
possess ductility and the latter elasticity. Aluminium will certainly not do for a drill
but is advisable for electricity. Thus a designer must estimate the loads that a piece
will carry and determine which material, shape and size is best suited.

External forces can affect solid materials in different ways, but basically their
effects can be divided into three categories: compression, tension and shear. A
material is said to be stressed when an external force tends to cause it to change
shape. Sometimes the force applied is so strong that the shape is actually
permanently altered: the piece is said to be strained i.e. distorted.

Tests performed on specimens enable to determine their mechanical properties.

Hardness, for instance, is measured by applying a constant vertical load onto a test
area (Brinell test). Tensile tests are carried out by exerting a progressively
increased increased load to a specimen, until elongation and finally fracture
happens. It's also possible to determine how tough a material is by means of an
Izod test : a pendulum hits the specimen with a given kinetic energy at a given
speed, and the energy absorbed in bending the specimen indicates its toughness.

The natural properties of materials can sometimes be widely altered by various

treatments. Thus corrosion, which attacks metals in particular, can be reduced by
applying paint or by electrical treatment such as electro-plating. Metallic elements
can also be added so as to improve the original properties: nickel added to steel
increases toughness and ductility, whereas brass (a copper and zinc alloy) is much
stronger than copper though less ductile.

The properties of ferrous metals depend on the amount of carbon that they contain.
Cast iron contains approximately 3% carbon whereas in steel the proportion ranges
from 0.1 to 1.5%. Depending on the exact percentage of carbon and of various
other metals which have been added, alloy steel can exhibit such different
properties as ductility, hardness, elasticity or plasticity.

Moreover, heating metals, either during or after shaping, provides them with new
physical or mechanical properties: atoms are arranged as 3-D shapes ( called
crystals) which determine the properties. When heated, the structure of some
crystals (especially iron) is changed, thus resulting in different properties. The basic
operation consists in heating steel (for instance) up to a determined temperature
and cooling it down more or less slowly depending on the result to be achieved.

I Comprehension: Give full answers

1. When choosing a material, what must a designer always think about?

2. According to the text, which properties should wires possess? What about
springs?
3. What can aluminium be used for?
4. What is the definition of ‘stress’?
5. What has caused a piece to be strained?
6. What does corrosion attack?
7. When is a material said to be stressed?
 8. How is hardness measured?

II Make the question (Yes/No or Information questions)

1. Nickel added to steel increases toughness and ductility.

2. The proportion of carbon in steel ranges from 0.1 to 1.5
3. Heating metals provides them with new physical or mechanical properties

III Write down the element(s) to which these words refer to:

1. ...a designer must estimate the loads that a piece will carry (paragraph 1 –
line 3)
2. ...but basically their effects can be divided into three categories (paragraph 2
– line 1)
3. Tests performed on specimens enable to determine their mechanical
properties (paragraph 3 – line 1)
4. ... and the energy absorbed in bending the specimen indicates its toughness.
(paragraph 3 – line 5)
5. ...corrosion, which attacks metals in particular, can be reduced by applying
paint ... (paragraph 4 – line 2)
6. Moreover, heating metals, either during or after shaping, provides them with
new physical or mechanical properties (paragraph 6 – line 1)
7. The basic operation consists in heating steel (for instance) up to a determined
temperature and cooling it down more or less slowly (paragraph 6 – line 4)

LANGUAGE STUDY

1 - Definitions

*Toughness can be defined as the ability to resist / withstand repeated bendings

(adjective : tough).

*A material which can be easily drawn into wires exhibits / possesses the property
of ductility. (adjective: ductile).

*A material which easily breaks when subjected to impacts or elongation is said to

be brittle (noun: brittleness).

Using the same structures, make definitions and give the corresponding noun or
adjective.

-malleability - can be easily given a new shape by hammering

-hardness - resistance to scratching or indentation
-elasticity - ability to return to its original shape
-plasticity - does not return to its original shape
-stiff (adjective) - resistance to deflection, in the case of springs
-density - ratio between mass and volume
-fusiblility - the material can easily melt

2 - Look at the following table.

Temperat New
Cooling
ure properties
ductile+
annealing 800 C Very slow
soft +
quenching tough+
tempering 250 C ductile+
= hard -
immediate

hardening 800 C cooling in hard +

oil
or water
hard+
normalizing 800 C Slow
ductile -

a) When /if normalized, steel acquires / gains increased hardness and

decreased ductility.

Make similar sentences with the other three operations.

b) annealing:
* after the metal is heated (= after heating the metal) up to 800 C, it is very slowly
cooled down.

* before the metal is very slowly cooled down (= before very slowly cooling the
metal down), it is heated up to 800 C.

Make similar sets of sentences for each of the other three operations.

3- Transform as in the example:

If we add chromium to steel, corrosion-resisting properties are improved. -->

“Adding chromium to steel results in / brings about improved corrosion-

resisting properties.”

-If we add nickel to steel, ductility and toughness are increased.

-If we quench a piece, hardness and strength are improved.
-If we anneal steal, ductility is increased.
-When we use tin to coat another metal, corrosion-resisting properties are enhanced
(=improved).
-If we vary the proportion of carbon, steel will possess quite different properties.

4- Transform as in the example:

If you add chromium TO steel, it'll resist corrosion. -->

”Steel TO WHICH chromium is added will resist corrosion.”

-If you incorporate chromium INTO steel, it'll withstand corrosion. --> Steel...
-If you apply a high load TO a piece, it'll break. --> a piece...
-If a rivet is submitted TO a shear force, the latter can break the rivet. --> a shear
force ...
-If you exert a tensile force ON an elastic material, it'll return to its original shape.
--> an elastic material ...

5- Fill in the blanks with a preposition (or [Ø])

Brass is made ... zinc and copper. Painting iron prevents it ... rusting. The properties
of steel depend ... the amount of carbon it contains. Quenching consists ... cooling
metals in water. Cast iron is not capable ... resisting impacts. Copper can be
drawn ... wires. When heated, steel is provided ... new properties. Painting steel
helps it to resist ... corrosion. When a material is subjected ... a tensile load, it tends
to extend. Adding certain properties ... steel or removing some ... it may be done by
heating it.

6- Turn into the passive - See Figure 1

(Note: don't forget to download figure 1. See below.)

If two forces act on body, each force exerts an influence on it. Each separate effect
produces a total effect which we can represent as a vector: we call this vector the
'resultant'. Thus we can draw a parallelogram, in which the diagonal represents the
resultant of the two forces. If we add E to the system, it produces equilibrium, so
that we say E is the equilibrant.

7- a) Look at Fig. 2 and write a description of the steel tensile test. You may use
the following expressions:

as the applied force increases - a rise in the extension - proportional to - return to

its original shape - if the load is removed - up to point M - general extension
continues until - phenomenon called 'waisting' ( cross-sectional area becomes
narrower) - notice that the load - elongation continues until - break at a load of x
KN.

b) write a similar description of the copper tensile test. (figures 1 and 2 (just
below))
This document comes from Gearing Up a coursebook by Jean-Claude Viel pu

blished by Hachette - France.