10(e) Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Page 1 of 5

PhysicalGeography.net | FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS
GLOSSARY INTERNET SEARCH
HOME ONLINE ABOUT
OF TERMS WEBLINKS SITE
TEXTBOOK

CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere

(e). Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

Introduction

As described in some of the previous topics, igneous rocks are produced by

the crystallization and solidification of molten magma. Magma forms when
rock is heated to high temperatures (between 625 and 1200° Celsius) beneath
the Earth's surface. The exact temperature needed to melt rock is controlled
by several factors. Chemistry of the rock material, pressure, presence of gases
(like water vapor) all influence when melting occurs. Most of the heat
required to melt rock into magma comes from the Earth's central internal
region known as the core. Scientists estimate that the temperature of the
Earth's core is about 5000° Celsius. Heat moves from the Earth's core
towards the solid outer crust by convection and conduction. Convection
moves hot plumes of magma vertically from the lower mantle to the upper
mantle. Some of these plumes melt through the Earth's solid lithosphere and
can produce intrusive igneous features and extrusive igneous features on the
surface. Heat can also be generated in the lower lithosphere through friction.
The tectonic movement of subducted crustal plates can generate enough
heat (and pressure) to melt rock. This fact explains the presence of volcanoes
along the margin of some continental plates.

Types of Igneous Rocks

The type of igneous rocks that form from magma is a function of three
factors: the chemical composition of the magma; temperature of solidification;
and the rate of cooling which influences the crystallization process. Magma
can vary chemically in its composition. For example, the amount of silica
(SiO 2 ) found in magma can vary from 75 % to less than 45 %. The
temperature of cooling determines which types of minerals are found
dominating the rock's composition. Rocks that begin their cooling at low
temperatures tend to be rich in minerals composed of silicon, potassium, and
aluminum. High temperature igneous rocks are dominated by minerals with

file://D:\ILANK%20POENYA\BACKUP%20DATA%20ILANK\Literatur%20Batauan%20... 6/5/2006
10(e) Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Page 2 of 5

higher quantities of calcium, sodium, iron, and magnesium. The rate of

cooling is important in crystal development. Igneous rocks that form through
a gradual cooling process tend to have large crystals. Relatively fast cooling
of magma produces small crystals. Volcanic magma that cools very quickly
on the Earth's surface can produce obsidian (see image link) glass which
contains no crystalline structures.

Geologists have classified the chemistry of igneous rocks into four basic
types: felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic. Igneous rocks derived from
felsic magma contain relatively high quantities of sodium, aluminum, and
potassium and are composed of more than 65 % silica. Rocks formed from
felsic magma include granite (see image link), granodiorite (see image link),
dacite, and rhyolite (see image link). All of these rock types are light in
color because of the dominance of quartz, potassium and sodium feldspars,
and plagioclase feldspar minerals (Figure 10e-1). Dacite and granodiorite
contain slightly more biotite and amphibole minerals than granite and
rhyolite. Rhyolite and dacite are produced from continental lava flows that
solidify quickly. The quick solidification causes the mineral crystals in these
rocks to be fine grained. Granite and granodiorite are common intrusive
igneous rocks that are restricted to the Earth's continents. Large expanses
these rocks were formed during episodes of mountain building on the Earth.
Because granite and granodiorite form beneath the Earth's surface their
solidification is a relatively slow process. This slow solidification produces a
rock with a coarse mineral grain.

Mafic magma produces igneous rocks rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium
and are relatively poor in silica (silica amounts from 45 to 52 %). Some
common mafic igneous rocks include fine grained basalt (see image link)
and coarse grained gabbro (see image link). Mafic igneous rocks tend to be
dark in color because they contain a large proportion of minerals rich in iron
and magnesium (pyroxene, amphiboles, and olivine). Basalt is much more
common than gabbro. It is found in the upper portion of the oceanic crust
and also in vast continental lava flows that cover parts of Washington,
Oregon, Idaho, and California. Gabbro is normally found in the lower parts of
oceanic crust and sometimes in relatively small intrusive features in
continental crust.

Andesite (see image link) and diorite are intermediate igneous rocks that
have a chemistry between mafic and felsic (silica amounts between 53 to 65
%). These rocks are composed predominantly of the minerals plagioclase
feldspar, amphibole, and pyroxene. Andesite is a common fine grained
extrusive igneous rock that forms from lavas erupted by volcanoes located
along continental margins. Coarse grained diorite is found in intrusive igneous
bodies associated with continental crust.

file://D:\ILANK%20POENYA\BACKUP%20DATA%20ILANK\Literatur%20Batauan%20... 6/5/2006
10(e) Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Page 3 of 5

Ultramafic igneous rocks contain relative low amounts of silica (< 45 %)

and are dominated by the minerals olivine, calcium-rich plagioclase
feldspars, and pyroxene. Peridotite is the most common ultramafic rock
found in the Earth's crust. These rocks are extremely rare at the Earth's
surface.

Figure 10e-1: The classification of igneous rocks. This graphic

model describes the difference between nine common igneous
rocks based on texture of mineral grains, temperature of
crystallization, relative amounts of typical rock forming elements,
and relative proportions of silica and some common minerals.

Igneous Rocks and the Bowen Reaction Series

In the 1920s, N.L. Bowen created the following model to explain the origin
of the various types of igneous rocks (Figure 10e-2). This model, known as
the Bowen reaction series, suggests that the type of igneous rocks that form
from magma solidification depends on the temperature of crystallization and
the chemical composition of the originating magma. Bowen theorized that the
formation of minerals, which make up igneous rocks, begins with two
different chemical sequences at high temperatures that eventually merge into a
single series at cooler temperatures. One sequence, the discontinuous series,

file://D:\ILANK%20POENYA\BACKUP%20DATA%20ILANK\Literatur%20Batauan%20... 6/5/2006
10(e) Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Page 4 of 5

involves the formation of chemically unique minerals at discrete temperature

intervals from iron and magnesium rich mafic magma. In the other sequence,
known as the continuous series, temperature reduction causes a gradual
change in the chemistry of the minerals that form calcium and sodium rich
felsic magma. The discontinuous series starts with the formation of rocks that
are primarily composed of the mineral olivine. Continued temperature
decreases change the minerals dominating the composition of the rock from
pyroxene, to amphibole, and then biotite. The continuous series produces
light colored rocks rich in plagioclase feldspar minerals. At high
temperatures, the plagioclase feldspar minerals are dominated with the
element calcium. With continued cooling, the calcium in these minerals is
gradually replaced with sodium. The convergence of both series occurs with a
continued drop in magma temperature. In the merged series, the minerals
within the crystallizing rock become richer in potassium and silica and we get
the formation of first potassium feldspars and then the mineral muscovite.
The last mineral to crystallize in the Bowen reaction series is quartz. Quartz
is a silicate mineral composed of just silicon and oxygen (SiO2).

Figure 10e-2: Bowen reaction series.

Study Guide
Additional Readings
Internet Weblinks

file://D:\ILANK%20POENYA\BACKUP%20DATA%20ILANK\Literatur%20Batauan%20... 6/5/2006
10(e) Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Page 5 of 5

Created by Dr. Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan

Email Corrections and Suggestions to: michael.pidwirny@ubc.ca

Copyright © 1999-2006 Michael Pidwirny

02/02/2006 11:07

Powered by Mac OS X and Webstar V

file://D:\ILANK%20POENYA\BACKUP%20DATA%20ILANK\Literatur%20Batauan%20... 6/5/2006