Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170

www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

Micro-satellites thermal control—concepts and components

Volodymyr Baturkin∗
National Technical University of Ukraine, Kyiv Polytechnic Institute, Peremogy Pr., 37, Kyiv 03056, Ukraine

Abstract
The main idea of this paper is to present the survey of current tendencies in micro-satellites thermal control concepts that
can be rational and useful for posterior missions due to intensive expansion of satellites of such type. For this purpose, the
available references and lessons learned by the National Technical University of Ukraine during the elaboration of thermal
control hardware for micro-satellites Magion 4, 5, BIRD and autonomous thermal control systems for interplanetary missions
VEGA, PHOBOS have been used. The main parameters taken into consideration for analysis are the satellite sizes, mass,
power consumption, orbit parameters, altitude control peculiarities and thermal control description. It was defined that passive
thermal control concepts are widely used, excepting autonomous temperature regulation for sensitive components such as
batteries, high-precision optics, and some types of sensors. The practical means for realization of passive thermal control
design as multi-layer insulation, optical coatings, heat conductive elements, gaskets are briefly described.
© 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mini-satellites (100–500 kg), interplanetary small

Last years conferences on small satellites activi-
ties [1,2], the information about currently elaborated
projects and future small-satellite missions planned
[3] emphasized the actuality of satellites and active
interest in them. The intensive expansion of small
satellites could be explained by moderate enough
cost, short time of elaboration and existing possi-
bility to include the complicated devices like multi-
functional equipment and optical systems as payload.
According to small-satellite classification [3], there
are the following conditional groups: nano- and pico-
satellites (< 10 kg), micro-satellites (10–100 kg),
∗ Tel./fax: +380 44 241 75 97.
E-mail address: baturkin@carrier.kiev.ua (V. Baturkin).
missions (< 500 kg). Table 1 presents some tech-
nical data for the above considered small-satellite
groups.
Certain constraints originating in small-satellite de-
signs due to limited mass and power definite available
volume for payload and housekeeping systems pro-
duce the set of requirements for each of the satellite
systems and for the thermal control system as well.
The survey of thermal means used in practice in small-
satellite designs, visible perspectives and difficulties
can be useful to be more oriented in this topic. Main
attention is devoted to small-satellite group with mass
less and near 100 kg (micro-satellites), where compro-
mise in the power/mass/volume distribution between
mandatory housekeeping needs and the payload re-
quirements is actual.

0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.09.003
162 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170

Table 1
Attributes of small-satellite groups

Satellite class Mass (kg) Bus linear sizes (m) Power averaged (W)

Mini 100–500 More than 1 Up to 100

Micro 10–100 0.5–1 Tens
Nano Less than 10 Less than 0.2 Several

number of 2.1. External heat exchange

35 micro satellites per year
(by SSHP 2002)
30
Micro-satellites operate on low Earth circular orbits
25 (450–1200 km) with wide range of NASA
angles
20 and on high elliptical orbits. This means that satellite
15 sides can be exposed to external disturbances as IR
10 Earth radiation, Albedo, Sun. IR and Albedo can be
5 negligible for highly elliptical orbits. The typical max-
0 imal incident fluxes for 550 km orbit for flat surface
with normal to nadir are qIR ∼ 200 W/m2 , qALB,MAX
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003

∼ 450 W/m2 (averaged over orbit < 150 W/m2 ). The

Fig. 1. Launches of micro-satellites in years [3]. Dash line is a
trend linear approximation of flying micro-satellites.
The paper does not cover the analysis of all thermal
control principles used and their technical embod-
iment, as according to [3] (Fig. 1) more than 250
micro-satellite launches have been realized during
1980–2000, and each of them has something spe-
cific. An additional difficulty is the insufficiency of
available descriptions of thermal control details.
eclipse time can reach 0.5 h (circular) up to several
hours for elliptic orbits. Most often used attitude con-
trol systems (ACS) are spin attitude control, gravity
and 3-axes stabilization. This means that the satellites
external light disturbances can be predicted due to ex-
act knowledge of its attitude. Spin attitude presumes
the arrangement of rotation axes perpendicular or par-
allel to Sun direction; ACS for 3-axes stabilized satel-
lites has to be designed to change, often enough, the
satellite orientation along orbit movement to decide
the intended tasks.

2.2. Thermal concepts

2. Typical micro-satellite thermal concepts
Main principles of space thermal control design,
software and hardware used are collected in [4–11] and
many other works. Nevertheless, namely, the details of
thermal control system (TCS) design are mostly im-
portant in the case when they are embodied in practi-
cally realized projects.
The diverse information about thermal designs is
collected by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd., [2,
p. 417], Technical University of Berlin [2, p. 347],
by Design Bureau “Pivdenne” [1, p. 437] and other
leading small-satellite space hardware manufacturers
as well. Summarizing, it is possible to emphasize the
following regularities.
There are three conditional approaches in the
thermal scheme design—autonomous concept, cen-
tralized concept and combined concept (Fig. 2).
Autonomous concept assumes the individual thermal
control for each device or group of devices. The
devices/equipment are thermally disconnected from
each other. The centralized concept guesses the tight
thermal coupling of all units and the use of one
centralized radiator for external heat exchange. The
most exploited concept is combined concept, where
some group of equipments (for example, housekeep-
ing equipment, satellite bus) has a common thermal
control, several devices (some payload) are thermally
disconnected from satellite bus and use autonomous
 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Fig. 2. Conditional thermal concepts of micro-satellites.
thermal control. The thermal concept defines the way
length of heat roaming between the device and the
aimed radiator and effective thermal mass of satellite
and units. Each of the concepts has its own peculiari-
ties, depending on the satellite orientation and attitude
control. For spinning satellite with perpendicular po-
sition of rotation and Sun light axes (Fig. 2) the exter-
nal sides can be used as a thermal sink, as with a ratio
s / < 1 the wall temperature will trend to the level
of 10–20 ◦ C. The solar cells have the similar optical
characteristics, and they can also be used as a thermal
sink. For coinciding longitudinal and Sun light axes
(Fig. 2, spinning and 3-axes stabilized satellites) lat-
eral satellite surfaces can be used for heat rejecting.
The heat removing can be arranged through one cen-
tralized radiator (all thermal lines go to it) or several
radiators distributed. The tight thermal connection of
all components enlarges the thermal mass of satellite,
reduces the temperature non-uniformity throughout
the satellite. Estimating that at power 40 W the area
of the radiator is only 0.15–0.2 m2 and the rest of the
163
lateral area should be covered with multi-layer insu-
lation MLI (1), area ∼ 0.5–1 m2 . Satellite radiator
temperature is sensitive to unsteadiness of the power
rejected, and roughly 1 W in energy variation causes
1–1.5 K temperature change. The coating of the front
satellite area with optical selective coating (OSC)
with s ∼ 0.2,  ∼ 0.85 allows to reach the radiator
temperature level of 0–30 ◦ C.
Predominant design assumes non-hermetic shell of
satellites that requires conductive and radiative means
for a heat transfer.
2.3. Inner thermal tasks
Typical requirements of satellite inner components
are collected in Table 2 [8]. The most delicate devices
are batteries, optic instrumentation and individual pay-
load. Requirements of average heat generation inside
the satellite are in the range of 15–40 W. This power
is produced mainly by housekeeping equipment, peak
heat generation coincides with payload operation and
164 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170

Table 2
Typical thermal requirements

Component name Temperature (◦ C) Peak power (W)

Electrical equipment −10 to +40 Max 10 per unit

Batteries −5 to +15 Up to 20
Consumable gas +9 to +50 —
Microprocessors −5 to +40 Up to 20
Microprocessors −5 to +40 Up to 20
Bearing mechanisms −5 to +40 —
Solar cells −60 to +55 —
Solid-state diodes −60 to +90 —
Orientation sensors −5 to +45 Max 5
Optics 21 Max 10
Payload Individually < 150
Satellite total 250, average 30–60

can reach 200 W; typical housekeeping heat generated

components are board computer, transmitter, ACS, and
batteries. If payload operates constantly, the power
generation does not change abruptly.
The most temperature sensitive units are battery
sets, which should be used in the range of −5– +15 ◦ C.
More details about satellite component exploitation
temperatures are presented in [4–10]. Overwhelming
majority of the satellites are built as non-sealing ob-
jects, and heat transfer inside is realized by conduc-
tion of structure elements and radiation (black surface
coating  ∼ 0.85). Heat pipes (HP) and high conduc-
tive carbon materials are effective means to improve
the temperature uniformity.
2.4. Satellite structure concept
Two tendencies are noticeable. The first: payload
and housekeeping are developed and arranged by one
institution. In this case it will provide with the thermal
solution for the whole satellite. The second tendency:
the multimission satellite bus with changeable payload
is proposed to the consumer. That means that pay-
load should be accommodated into the satellite thermal
surroundings. The solar arrays may cover the satel-
lite outer surface or could be deployable. After open-
ing they can not be re-oriented. The modern micro-
satellite will carry the high-precision optics, which is
sensitive to satellite structure and geometrical stability,
and this requirement can essentially influence on the
structure design. Sometimes interesting details about
Fig. 3. Predicted rate of heat flux density for space electronic
components [16].
micro-satellite thermal arrangement can be found on
web sites of satellite developers [12–15].
3. Potential thermal control future tasks
The following tasks have been distinguished for
satellite thermal control: to cool the high power gen-
erating components. The future problem is associated
with growing heat dissipation of modern board com-
puter processors reaching 15–30 W with density up to
100 kW/m2 [16], as seen in Fig. 3; to provide thermal
and geometrically stable mounting places for devices
(illustration in Fig. 4 [17]); to ensure the conditions for
operation of payloads with several temperature levels.
The other important direction is miniaturization of
space equipment that leads to reduction of sizes of all
the components and increase in the heat flux densities
of thermal control components.
4. Software for thermal design
The wide set of the following products is available
in the market:
1. Lumped parameter methods: ESATAN (Ther-
mXL), SINDA/G/FLUINT, TRASSA,
 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Fig. 4. Thermo- and geometry stable payload baseplate of mi-
cro-satellite BIRD [17]: provides the geometrical stability of
mounting places and supports, parallel—precise of optical axes
(± arcmin); provides the comfortable temperature regime for op-
tics (+15–+20 ◦ C); provides heat removal. Courtesy of DLR.
2. finite element and finite difference methods: NAS-
TRAN, COSMOS, ANSYS, FLOTHERM, TAS,
TAK2000,
3. radiation heat exchange (internal and external):
ESARAD, TERMICA, TRASYS, RadCAD,
SSPTA, OAZIS,
4. specific software is very useful for the thermal con-
tact conductance definition, thermoelectric cooler
design, and heat pipe design.
The following peculiarities and problems can be
discovered during the thermal model preparation:
1. Retrieval information and definition of exact ther-
mal properties: thermal conductivity, heat capac-
ity, density, uniformity of properties, and temper-
ature dependence of properties,
2. retrieval of information and definition of exact op-
tical properties and their variation during exploita-
tion
• emittance, diffuse reflectivity, specular reflectiv-
ity, and transmissivity in IR band,
• absorptance, diffuse reflectivity, specular reflec-
tivity, and transmissivity in solar band,
3. definition of realistic values of thermal contacts in
joints,
4. reasonable simplification of thermal structure of
simulated object, preparation of the thermal loads
functions, and choice of heat transfer process func-
tionalities,
165
5. the trace ability of mechanical and structural de-
sign changes in the course of project and adequate
modification of thermal model.
5. Thermal hardware
Main thermal control components did not vary
abruptly. For micro-satellites they are mainly passive:
multi-layer insulation, optical coating and finishing,
thermal conductive lines, thermal isolators, heat stor-
age, heat pipes, and electrical heaters. Conditional
classification of hardware is presented in Table 3.
Typical multi-layer insulation consists of 20–30 in-
ner layers of less than 0.006 mm aluminized Mylar and
innermost and outermost layers 0.025 or 0.05 mm alu-
minized Kapton [7]. The effective emittance depends
on discontinuity of MLI blankets, averaged tempera-
ture, pressure, and pressing of blankets. The summary
on effective emittance is presented in Fig. 5 [7]. Rec-
ommended in [7] for draft estimation the value of ef-
fective emittance is 0.03 with tolerance ±0.02. This
value should be precised in the subsequent experi-
ments.
Optical coating and finishing, optical selecting coat-
ing can provide the value of ration emittance/solar
absorptance 0.1 < /s < 10. Typical optical painting
for low-temperature radiator has s ∼ 0.2,  ∼ 0.85.
Fig. 6 shows the optical properties for some finishing
and coatings [7].
Heat transfer inside the satellite is realized by means
of conduction through structural elements and special
conductive lines. Aluminum alloys are used as bus
and conductive lines and heat capacity storage ( =
2700 kg/m3 ,  = 150 W/mK, cp = 900 J/kg K), beryl-
lium as heat transfer and heat storage (=1850 kg/m3 ,
 = 180 W/mK, cp = 1850 J/kg K). Conductive lines
can be fabricated from flexible copper strings [18,19]
as geometrically adjustable thermal conductors (ther-
mal resistance less than 2 K/W). They allow to con-
jugate the elements with unknown exact layout and
permit to reduce the torque on clamping points.
The other very effective heat conductance lines
are the heat pipes. For space application they are
mostly presented by ammonium axially grooved heat
pipes produced by extrusion, though other types of
structures (as metal felts, screens) are used as well.
166 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Table 3
Classification of thermal hardware for micro-satellites
Name of hardware
Passive means to regulate the satellite structure temperature level
Radiating surfaces and finishing
Multilayer insulation
Heat transport means to manipulate with satellite integral heat capacity
Semi-passive and active means to regulate the satellite structure temperature level
Heaters; Louvers
Heat storages; Variable conductance heat pipes
Changes of satellite orientation; Change of on-off of device
Hardware for individual devices installed on micro-satellite platform
Passive means to regulate the device/equipment temperature level
Radiating surfaces and finishing
Multilayer insulation
Heat conductive lines (flexible lines, heat pipes)
Low conductive supports and standsoff
Contact conductance means
Semi-passive and active means to regulate the device temperature level
Heaters; Heat storages
Thermal switches, Thermoelectric coolers, Stirling coolers
Fig. 5. Effective emittance of MLI blankets as function of area
and discontinuity by Stimpson & Jaworski [11]. AMLI -sizes of
MLI area for microsatellites, rec -recommended range of effective
emmitence.
Typical extruded profile has the diameter more than
8 mm, thermal resistance less than 0.1 K/W.
Frequency of application
Often
Often
Not often
Not often
Very random
Possible
Very often
Often
Often
Very often
Very often
Often
Random
Selecting the type of capillary structure and liquid
heat transfer medium one can match these heat transfer
instruments over wide temperature range from −190
to +100 ◦ C. Dimensional configurations of heat pipes
are presented in Fig. 7 [20].
The illustrations of heat pipe application in micro-
satellite thermal design are small-satellites Magion 4,
Magion 5 [21] and BIRD [22]. The aim of heat pipes
in both cases is to transport heat between remote satel-
lite zones (front and back compartments for Magion
satellites, distance 0.5 m; payload and main radiator
for BIRD satellite, distance 0.3 m). Scheme of heat
pipe configuration for BIRD satellite thermal control
system is presented in Fig. 8.
For future micro-satellite missions one of the heat
pipe modifications will be useful, namely, micro-heat
pipes by circumcircle diameters 1–6 mm. They are
constant conductance heat pipes, have wire wick or
grooves as liquid transfer medium; material of shell-
copper and silver; typical circumcircle diameter from
1–6 mm; length up to 100 mm, heat carrier: alco-
hol, water; maximum transfer heat flux 2–10 W/cm2 ;
thermal resistance of HPs: less than 0.5–10 K/W.
Micro-heat pipe array dimensions are: 20–40 mm
width, 110 mm length with thickness of 1–3 mm. The
other type of new heat pipe technology, so-called
 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Fig. 6. Values of emittance  and solar absorptance [7]. Zone
1—selective blacks (solar absorbers); 2—sandblasted metals and
conversion coatings; 3—white paints and second surface mirrors;
4—bulk metals (unpolished); 5—dielectric films on polished met-
als. Ideal reflector  = 0; s = 0—in left bottom corner; ideal
painting  = 1; s = 0—in right bottom corner; ideal solar ab-
sorber  = 0; s = 1—in left upper corner; ideal black painting
 = 1; s = 1—is in right upper corner.
Fig. 7. Examples of heat pipe configurations with metal belt wick.
167
Fig. 8. Scheme of heat pipe arrangement in BIRD satellite. Heat
moves from evaporator (payload)—condensator (radiator) in mea-
surement.
loop-heat pipes (LHPs), allows to operate indepen-
dently of gravity forces. Distance between heat input
and output zones can reach several meters at transfer
power up to 100 W. Also, the connecting lines in LHP
are flexible (thin wall tubes with diameter of 2–3 mm)
that allows to apply this device for thermal coupling of
moveable parts. Alternative solution for heat transport
at a distance less than 0.3 m and for heat spreading
is based on the use of variety of graphite materials,
with effective conductivity more than copper [23].
Thermal contacts between satellite structural ele-
ments, thermal contact of high power generating com-
ponents with cooling means or substrates could be im-
proved by application of different types of interface
pads, greases, gap fillers and encapsulates. Typically,
these means are placed between contacting surfaces
that is presented in Fig. 9 [24].
Typical conductivity of pads is 1–6 W/mK, they can-
not be applied with high pressure (typically 10–30 psi
or 0.7–2 bar), and allow to reduce the contact resis-
tance in coupling joint [25]. Other variant to cool the
power-generated micro-elements is to use the con-
formable gap fillers, which allow to connect the heat
generated component with thermal shield and rear-
range the heat flux. Scheme of conformable pad ap-
plication is shown in Fig. 10.
Potential problems in space application of inter-
face pads, gap fillers, greases, encapsulates and ad-
hesives are associated with risk of mass losses and
subsequent spacecraft and payload contamination. The
168 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Fig. 9. Scheme of interface pad application to improve the contact
conductance [25].
Fig. 10. Cooling of electronic components of different
sizes: 1—printed card; 2—electromagnetic and thermal shield;
3—electronic components; 4—conformble pad; 5—ways of heat
movement to heat sink.
other important task is to verify the stability of the
component characteristics under space environment
factors and preliminary estimation of technical effi-
ciency of selected application.
Important passive thermal control means are the low
conductive supports and standoffs. They are exploited
for thermal isolation of the device (part of the device)
from the satellite. Mainly such a measure is necessary
for devices with autonomous thermal control either for
devices or their parts, which have other temperature
levels, different from interior of the satellite. Typical
materials for these supports are a wide variety of low-
conductivity materials, including fiberglass, stainless
steel, titanium or plastics. The choice of material is dic-
Fig. 11. Scheme of low-conductance standoff [19]. Insulating
material—glass fibers with epoxy, attachment elements made of
stainless steel.
tated by the conductivity, temperature range, thermal
expansion and mechanical properties. Typical variant
of support design, used many times in space for the
temperature range of 170–350 K for thermal isolation
of 2 kg device is shown in Fig. 11. Four such supports
provide the thermal resistance higher than 400 K/W
and thermally disconnect the device from satellite bus
[19].
Such effective thermal control means as the louvers,
radiators with changeable optical properties, unfolded
radiators, radiators-variable conductance heat pipes,
heat storage, thermal switches, controlled electrical
heaters have not been considered in this paper.
The louvers and radiators with variable emitting
ability are more typical for larger satellite with mass
more than 100 kg. Heat storage, thermal switches, ther-
moelectric cooling and controlled electrical heaters are
the attributes of autonomous thermal control techno-
logy. More details concerning the above-mentioned
instruments can be found in special literature [7].
Among advanced thermal technologies one can note
the following means, which are very soon going to be
used in practice [7]:
1. Variable emittance coating technology (variation of
emittance 0.2–0.8),
2. micro-louvers (change of effective emittance in 2
times),
3. mini two-phase heat transfer devices
• mini heat pipes: diameters 1–2 mm, length
60–100 mm, heat power transferred 1–10 W,
• mini capillary pump loops: diameter 1–2 mm,
length 300–1000 mm, heat power transferred
3–100 W,
4. mechanical thermal mini-switches (thermal resis-
tance change 100:1),
 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170 169

5. high performance C–C composites with conductiv-

ity 400–1100 W/mK, which can be used either for
the structure elements or heat transport elements.

6. Ground testing and verification of thermal

control design

Verification of the thermal design should be con-

ducted prior to the launch. For micro-satellites the vac-
Fig. 12. Space simulation chamber of DLR’s Space Center in
uum chamber with inner sizes of about 2 m length and Berlin with volume of 3.2 m3 [26].
1.5 m in diameter is often enough for arbitrary satellite
layout inside the chamber. The vacuum chamber with
pressure of 0.0013 Pa (10−5 Torr) or less, cooled by
liquid nitrogen screen simulates the thermal condition
of the outer space (Figs. 12 and 13).
The Earth, Sun heat fluxes are simulated by aiding
heaters, installed on the back side of radiating sur-
faces, on the base of the absorbed fluxes knowledge.
Sometimes the Earth radiation is simulated by radia-
tive heat sinks with regulated temperature. The ther-
mal balance test of the satellite system, for cold and
hot cases of exploitation, should confirm or precise
the accepted parameters of most of the thermal control
components and approve used thermal concept.
Exploitation temperature boundary for satellite
components should be enlarged by ±11 ◦ C [7] to
compensate the uncertainty connecting with calcula-
tions, design and environmental conditions. Among
Fig. 13. Installation of micro-satellite BIRD into vacuum chamber
possible recommendations, based on satellite design for thermo-vacuum testing. Courtesy of DLR [27,28].
and flight performance experience, the following ones
could be useful:
7. Conclusion
• Keep in mind the possibility of unpredictable sit-
uation with satellite orientation with respect to Summary of the information concerning present-
sun light and with variation of power generation day thermal control concepts conformably to micro-
value inside the satellite. They can shift satellite satellite group (mass less than 100 kg) is surveyed and
temperature level essentially. analyzed. The description of the conventional thermal
• Maintain the battery in comfortable temperature hardware used in micro-satellite design is briefly pre-
range during charge–recharge mode during the sented. The base for the survey was the lessons learned
satellite’s shadow period. by the National Technical University of Ukraine “Kyiv
• Degradation of optical surfaces is the real pro- Polytechnic Institute” during the elaboration of ther-
cess, which is important especially for the front mal control hardware for micro-satellites Magion 4,
direction toward the Sun surfaces. 5 (launched in 1995 and 1996), BIRD (launched in
• Not all the factors can be simulated and estimated 2001), autonomous thermal control systems for inter-
in the ground tests and by calculations. Design planetary missions VEGA (launched in 1984), PHO-
your equipment for wider temperature range. BOS (launched in 1986) and other public data.
170 V. Baturkin / Acta Astronautica 56 (2005) 161 – 170
Acknowledgements
The author thanks the BIRD team of the Institute
of Space Sensor Technology and Planet Exploration
(DLR, Berlin, Germany) for the permission to use
illustrations and technical data.
Exchange of information in related fields can be
realized via email: Baturkin@carrier.kiev.ua and fax:
(38044) 241-75-97.
References
[1] Small satellites for Earth observation, Digest of the First
International Symposium of the IAA, Berlin, November 4–8,
䉷Copyright 1996 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1996.
[2] H.P. Roser, R. Sandau, A. Valenzuela (Eds.), Small satellites
for Earth observation, Digest of the Second International
Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics
(IAA), Berlin, April 12–16, Wissenschaft und Technic Verl.,
Berlin, ISBN 3-89685-561-1, 1999.
[3] Website of Surrey Space Center, Small Satellite Home Page,
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/SSC/SSHP.
[4] O. Favorsky, Ya. Kadaner, Questions of Heat Transfer in
Space, Vyschya shkola, Moscow, 1972.
[5] V. Andreanov, V. Artamonov, et al., Autonomous Planet
Stations, Nauka, Moscow, 1973.
[6] V. Zaletaev, Yu. Karpinos, O. Surguchev, Spacecraft Heat
Transfer Calculation, Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 1979.
[7] D. Gilmore (Ed.), Satellite Thermal Control Handbook, The
Aerospace Corporation Press, El Segundo, CA, 2002.
[8] P. Fortescue, J. Stark (Eds.), Spacecraft System Engineering,
third ed., ISBN 0 471 95220 6, Copyright 䉷 John Wiley,
1995.
[9] Vincent L. Pisacane, Robert C. More (Eds.), Fundamental of
Space Systems, ISBN 0-10-507497-1, Copyright 䉷 Oxford
University Press Inc., Oxford, 1994.
[10] P. Zemlianoy, C. Combes, Thermal control of space
electronics, http://www.electronic-cooling.com/Resources/
EC-articles/SEPT96/Sep96_03.htm, 2000.
[11] C. Jilla, D. Miller, Satellite design: past, present and
future, International Journal of Small Satellite Engineering,
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/EE/CSER/OUSAT/IJSSE/IJSSC/
issue1/cjilla/cjilla.html.
[12] Website of Institute of Atmospheric Physics of Czech
Academy of Science, http://www.ufa.cz, 2000.
[13] Website of Institute for Space Research Russian Academy of
Science, http://www.iki.rssi.ru, 2000.
[14] Website of OHB System, http://www.fuchs-gruppe.com/
ohb-system, 2000.
[15] Website of Institute of Space Sensor Technology and Planet
Exploration, http://www.ba.dlr.de/ne/ws.
[16] Kaveh Azar, History of power dissipation, http://electronics-
cooling.com/html/2000_jan_a2.html.
[17] I. Walter, B. Heym, W. Stadthaus, Microsatellite structure
solutions: highly integrated, modular design of BIRD,
Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium, Small
Satellites Systems and Services, 14–18 September, Antibes-
Juan les PINS/France, CNES, 1998.
[18] G. Avanesov, Ya. Ziman, V. Tarnopolsky, et al., TV Survey of
Comet Halley, Nauka, Moscow, p. 295, ISBN 5-02-000093-0,
1989.
[19] V. Kostenko, V. Baturkin, N. Grechina, et al., Cryogenic
System for the Videospectrometric Complex (VSC) Cooling
in Project “PHOBOS”, preprint, Space Research Institute,
Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Pr-1409, 1988, p. 39.
[20] V. Baturkin, S. Zhuk et al., Autonomous heat pipe systems
for electronic components thermostating at near-earth orbit
exploitation, Proceedings of the 24th International Conference
on Environmental Systems, Friedrichshafen, Germany, June
20–23, Rep. No. 941302, 1994.
[21] J. Vojta, S. Zhuk, V. Baturkin, Thermocontrol system concept
of Magion small subsatellites of Intreball Mission, Digest
of the First International Symposium of the International
Academy of Astronautics (IAA), Berlin, November 4–8, 1996,
pp. 380–383.
[22] F. Lura, B. Biering, V. Baturkin, et al., Heat pipe application
for thermal stable bench arrangement in small satellite
design, Proceedings of the 30th International Conference
on Environmental Systems (ICES) and Seventh European
Symposium on Space Environmental Control Systems,
Toulouse, France, July 10–13, Rep. No. 2000-01-2460, 2000.
[23] Material TC1050, Website http://www.Advceramic.com.
[24] Journal Electronics Cooling 5 (1) (1999) 38.
[25] C. Latham, Technical brief, thermal resistance of interface
materials as a function of pressure, Journal Electronics
Cooling 2 (3) (1996) 35.
[26] F. Lura, D. Hagelschuer, System conditioning—our ways
and testing tools for the development of reliability for
spaceborne components and small satellites, Digest of the
First International Symposium of the International Academy
of Astronautics (IAA), Berlin, November 4–8, pp. 365–368,
1996.
[27] B. Biering, F. Lura, H.G. Lotzke, I. Walter, et al.,
TCS design of the microsatellite BIRD for infrared Earth
observation, Proceedings of the 28th International Conference
on Environmental Systems, Dancers, Massachusetts, USA,
July 13–16, Rep. No. 981639, 1998.
[28] K. Brieß, W. Bärwald, F. Lura, et al., The BIRD mission
is completed for launch with the PSLV-C3 in 2001, in: H.
Röser, R. Sandau, A. Valenzuela (Eds.), Digest of the Third
International Symposium of IAA, Small Satellites for Earth
Observation, Berlin, April 2–6, Wissenschaft und Technic
Verl., Berlin, 2001, ISBN 3-89685-566-2, 2001, pp. 323–326.