Advertising

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This article is about the form of communication. For the British musician, see Gaye Advert. For
other uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation).
For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam. For a
proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements.

A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s

Marketing
Key concepts
Product • Pricing
Distribution • Service • Retail
Brand management
Account-based marketing
Marketing ethics
Marketing effectiveness
Market research
Market segmentation
Marketing strategy
Marketing management
Market dominance
Promotional content
Advertising • Branding • Underwriting
Direct marketing • Personal Sales
Product placement • Publicity
Sales promotion • Sex in advertising
Loyalty marketing • Premiums • Prizes
Promotional media
Printing • Publication
Broadcasting • Out-of-home
Internet marketing • Point of sale
Promotional merchandise
Digital marketing • In-game
In-store demonstration
Word-of-mouth marketing
Brand Ambassador • Drip Marketing
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Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or
listeners) to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the
desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although
political and ideological advertising is also common. Advertising messages are usually paid for
by sponsors and viewed via various media; including traditional media such as newspapers,
magazines, television, radio, outdoor or direct mail; or new media such as websites and text
messages.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or
services through "branding," which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an
effort to associate certain qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial
advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include
political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit
organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement.
Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at more than $300 billion in the United
States[1] and $500 billion worldwide[citation needed].
Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom,
Publicis, and WPP.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Definition
• 2 History
○ 2.1 Public service advertising
• 3 Marketing mix
• 4 Advertising theory
• 5 Types of advertising
○ 5.1 Digital advertising
○ 5.2 Physical advertising
• 6 Sales promotions
 • 7 Media and advertising approaches
• 8 Current trends
○ 8.1 Rise in new media
○ 8.2 Niche marketing
○ 8.3 Crowdsourcing
○ 8.4 Global advertising
○ 8.5 Foreign public messaging
○ 8.6 Diversification
○ 8.7 New technology
○ 8.8 Advertising education
• 9 Criticisms
• 10 Regulation
• 11 Advertising research
• 12 Semiotics
• 13 See also
• 14 References
• 15 Bibliography
• 16 External links

[edit] Definition
1.The non-personal communication of information usually paid for & usually persuasive in
nature, about products (goods & services) or ideas by identified sponsor through various media.
(Arenes (1996) 2.Any paid form of non-personal communication about an organisation,
product ,service, or idea from an identified sponsor.( Blech & Blech (1998) 3.Paid non-personal
communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade influence an audience.
(Wells , burnett, & Moriaty (1998) 4. The element of the marketing communication mix that is
non personal paid for an identified sponsor, & disseminated through mass channels of
communication to promote the adoption of oods, services, person or ideas.( bearden, Ingram, &
Laforge (1998) 5.An informative or persuasive message carried by a non personal medium &
paid for by an identified sponsor whose organisation or product is identified in some way.
( Zikmund & d'amico (1999) 6. Impersonal, one way communication about a product or
organization that is paid by marketer. ( Lamb, Hair & Mc. Daniel (2000)
[edit] History
Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and
political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and
found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock
painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form,
which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of
wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[2] History
tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.
As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable
to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image
associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle
or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts
and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts
for the convenience of the customers.
As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising
expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly
newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books
and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and
medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false
advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the
regulation of advertising content.
As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United
States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order
advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages,
allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula
was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the
modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in
various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The
actual ad- the copy, layout, and artwork- was stilled prepared by the company wishing to
advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century
when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan,
create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising
agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established
as a profession. [3] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services
of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group
to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer
& Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W.
Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[3]

An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.

At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however,
advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done
in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the
creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a
woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a
couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[4]
Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and
retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many
non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included:
schools, clubs and civic groups.[5] When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised,
each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief
mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio
station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small
time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than
selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.

A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica

This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was
fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio
spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and
for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC,
originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public
body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to
persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the
passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications
Commission.[5] However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in
the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".[6] Public broadcasting now exists in the United
States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and
National Public Radio.
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling
advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for
many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several
businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the
United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as
The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the
content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the
show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the
Hallmark Hall of Fame.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV.
Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the
consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought.
As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged,
including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and
ShopTV Canada.
Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-
com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering
everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of
websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by
emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users.
This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los
Angeles Times on May 6, 1930
The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in
media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines,
signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9
percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless,
advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent.[7]
A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such
as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with
brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the
advertising message.Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasing more popular with a lot of
companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to
buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such
as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations
utilizing social network services such as Facebook.
[edit] Public service advertising
The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,
political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and
motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—
it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard
Gossage by David Ogilvy.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause
marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated
advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial
enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon
the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these
requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service
announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers
are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying
advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of
more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The
War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer
of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the
longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.
[edit] Marketing mix
Main article: Marketing mix
The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested
by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic
elements called the four P’s. Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price
represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of
getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement
organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market
and convincing them to go out and buy the product.
[edit] Advertising theory
• Hierarchy of effects model[8]
It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The
model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through when
making a purchase. The steps are:
1. Awareness
2. Knowledge
3. Liking
4. Preference
5. Conviction
6. Purchase
• Means-End Theory
This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the
consumer to a desired end state.
• Leverage Points
It is designed to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those
benefits with personal values.
• Verbal and Visual Images
[edit] Types of advertising

Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human
billboard pictured above
A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular
mediums for advertisers.

A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include
wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio,
cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web
popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers,
sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on
seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens,
musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of
bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the
opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and
supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a
medium is advertising.
[edit] Digital advertising
Television advertising / Music in advertising
The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising
format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime
during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is
known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a
single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3 million (as of 2009).
The majority of television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate
to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television
programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank
backdrops[9] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote
broadcast audience.[10] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the
 background[11] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised
sporting events.[12][13] Virtual product placement is also possible.[14][15] Infomercials: An
infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The
word "infomercial" combining the words "information" & "commercial". The main
objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the
presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free
telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate
products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and
industry professionals.
Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio
advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna
and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in
exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to
sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an
expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online. According to
Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93
percent of the U.S. population.
Online advertising
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for
the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Examples
of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages,
banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified
advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam.
Product placements
Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand is
embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use
an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's
character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top
corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in
film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse
shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I,
Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz
logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the
movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac
cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW
and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino
Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a
large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product
placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard.
[edit] Physical advertising
Press advertising
Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper,
magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad
readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly
targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A
form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or
 companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product
or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can
include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.
Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which
display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located
on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they
can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit
vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat
billboard on Lake Michigan.
Mobile billboard advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can
be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected
by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large
banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and
others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for
example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile
displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world,
including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting
events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from
smaller companies.
In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of
a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near
checkout counters, eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and
advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.
Coffee cup advertising
Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed
out of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first
 popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India,
and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]
Street advertising
This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising
Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with
products such as Reverse Graffiti and 3d pavement advertising, the media became an
affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces.
Celebrity branding
This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to
gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers
often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products
or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in
advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general
products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One
mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example,
following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing,
China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's
did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.
[edit] Sales promotions
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because
they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where they
are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games,
sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The
ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.[16]
[edit] Media and advertising approaches
Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio
and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as
well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.
Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising
space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the
website receives.
Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger
audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience
where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to
control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant
to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the
advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets.[17] Another
successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.[18] and malls.[19]
E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known
as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users for many years.
Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster
rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal
advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).
Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal
cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat
of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier",
"Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, "Nintendo" (often
used by those exposed to many video games) = video games, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive
bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some
companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a
common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a
generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost.
As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable
content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile
advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile
advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile
ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture
and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular
feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web
addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web
content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.
A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online
advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it
has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic
information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise
advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using
social network service.
From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content
Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW
pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero
II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota.
Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented
Reality technology.
[edit] Current trends
[edit] Rise in new media
With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner,
Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now
commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an
advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising
community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute
their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and
internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines:
−10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]
[edit] Niche marketing
Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche
market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The
Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the
most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience
possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche
content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers
with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to
viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast
Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These
advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out
more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the
viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[20]
[edit] Crowdsourcing
Main article: Crowdsourcing
The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements.
User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the
company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions.
For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl
contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[21] Chevrolet held a similar
competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[21] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads
in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super
Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact,
the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad
Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were
found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[22][23]
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising
competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions
for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey’s, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio,
and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost
effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it
remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[24]
[edit] Global advertising
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international,
multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business
objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while
speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising
local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the
evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different
approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing
local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[25]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The
ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how
economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can
be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of
Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or
region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[26]
[edit] Foreign public messaging
Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services,
often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the
target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign messaging but
also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from
advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing
by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising
campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services
may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel
campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or
improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is
common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the
tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or
depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a
wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the
destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though
are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways
(Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China).
By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,
countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public
impressions. See: Soft Power
• See also: International Travel Advertising
[edit] Diversification
In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note
that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”.[27] This is reflected by the
growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI
and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[28]
[edit] New technology
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the
programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as
more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people
watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will
receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers
have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor.
[edit] Advertising education
Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees
becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the
strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance
of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run
advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[29]
Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established
companies with students to create these campaigns.
[edit] Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs.
Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have
become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on
internet service providers.[30] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools,
which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[31] In addition, advertising frequently
uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended
consumer, which may be harmful.
[edit] Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation
In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public
realm.[32] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in
the open countryside.[33] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban[34] with London
also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the
influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed
in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish
government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within
the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that
Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries
or via satellite. Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, “banning advertisements for
children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[35]
In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to
children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser
Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children
was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.
In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry
operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a
code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to
ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory
organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding
the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the
UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without
consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence.
All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.
Many advertisers employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g.
printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120
of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in French advertising).[36] The advertisement
of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in
many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display
warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is
often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.
[edit] Advertising research
Main article: Advertising research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness
and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different
methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-
testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will
perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or
campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing
examples of post-testing advertising research types.
[edit] Semiotics
Main article: Advertising research
Today’s culture is made up of meanings between consumers and marketers. These meanings
depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.[37]Semiotics is the study of signs
and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand
names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. The purpose
of semiotics is to study and interpret the message being conveyed in advertisements. Logos and
advertisements can be interpreted at two levels known as the surface level and the underlying
level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for their product.
These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogan. The underlying level is made up of
hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogan must be interpreted by
the audience or consumer.[38] The “key to advertising analysis” is the signifier and the signified.
The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.[39] A product has a signifier and
a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has
two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of
the product. A television’s denotative meaning would be that it is high definition. The
connotative meaning is the product’s deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a
television would be that it is top of the line. [40]
Apple is an excellent example of using semiotics in their advertising campaign. Apple’s
commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They
placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be
constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is
music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through
white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that
the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple’s products.[41]
The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When
considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain
characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product
is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect
attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender-role orientation).
Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.[42]
There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.[43] Objective
claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or
service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features. Subjective claims convey
emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-
physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no
physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design.[44] Males tend to respond better
to objective marketing communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective
marketing communications claims.[45]
When advertising to different genders it is important to remember how men and women process
information. Females process information comprehensively. Males process information through
heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems.[46] Men prefer
to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message where females engage in more
creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation.
In advertisements, men are represented as independent. They are shown in more occupations
than women. Women are represented mainly as housewives and mothers. Men are more likely to
be shown advertising cars or business products, while women advertise domestic products. Men
are more likely to be shown outdoors or in business settings. Women are depicted in domestic
settings. Men are more often portrayed as authorities. As far as ads go, with age men seem to
gain wisdom and are depriced as an authority figure. On the other hand women seem to
disappear with age. Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are men
(figures of up to 94% have been reported). There have been more female voiceovers in recent
years but mainly for food, household products, and feminine care products. [47]
[edit] See also
Business and economics portal

• Advertising Adstock • Informative advertising • Scad (scam ad)

• Advertising to children • Integrated Marketing • Senior media
• American Advertising Communications creative
Federation Hall of Fame • Local advertising • SEO Copywriting
• Branded content • Market overhang • Sex in advertising
• Classified advertising • Meta-advertising • Shock advertising
• Communication design • Mobile Marketing • Tobacco
• Conquesting • Performance-based advertising
• Coolhunting advertising • Video commerce
• Copy testing • Pseudo-event • Video news
• Psychological release
• Copywriting
manipulation • Viral marketing
• Crowd manipulation
• Public relations • Virtual advertising
• Graphic design
• Reality marketing • Visual
communication
• Web analytics
• World Federation
of Advertisers

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General
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• Lears, Jackson, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America,
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• Leon, Jose Luis (1996) "Los effectos de la publicidad". Barcelona: Ariel, ISBN 84-344-
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• Leon, Jose Luis (2001) "Mitoanálisis de la publicidad". Barcelona. Ariel, ISBN 84-344-
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• McFall, Liz, Advertising: A Cultural Economy, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
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• Mulvihill, Donald F., "Marketing Research for the Small Company", Journal of
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Advertising critics
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Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
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[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Advertising

Look up advertising in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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Marketing

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Advertising

• Advertising Educational Foundation, archived advertising exhibits and classroom

resources
• Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
○ Ad*Access, over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911-1955,
includes World War II propaganda.
○ Emergence of Advertising in America, 9,000 advertising items and publications
dating from 1850 to 1920, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of
a professionalized advertising industry in the United States.
 ○ AdViews, vintage television commercials
• On-Line exhibits at William F. Eisner Museum of Advertising & Design
• Art & Copy, a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry
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BusinessDictionary.com

methodology
Definition
A system of broad principles or rules from which specific methods or procedures may be derived to interpret or solve different problems within the scope of a
particular discipline. Unlike an algorithm, a methodology is not a formula but a set of practices.

• Advertising
Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience (viewers, ... While
radio has the limitation of being restricted to ...
69 KB (9,752 words) - 06:14, 26 May 2011
• Television content rating systems
C-rated content is subject to certain restrictions and limitations on advertising (typically
five minutes maximum per 30-minute period or ...
79 KB (11,552 words) - 18:43, 27 May 2011
• False advertising
False advertising or deceptive advertising is the use of false or misleading ... an express
statute of limitations Thus, California Code of ...
25 KB (3,637 words) - 15:15, 25 May 2011
• Freedom of speech in the United States
conduct, commercial speech such as advertising , and time, place and manner restrictions.
... Within these limited areas, other limitations on ...
24 KB (3,561 words) - 08:51, 21 May 2011
• Fast food advertising
Fast food advertising is the promotion of fast food products and ventures through ... to
introduce strict limitations on fast food advertising. ...
14 KB (2,154 words) - 12:08, 25 April 2011
• Aerial advertising
Aerial advertising is a form of advertising that incorporates the use of either ... States
have placed limitations on the deployment of ...
9 KB (1,340 words) - 10:30, 12 May 2011
• Brook Andrew
opting the tools of advertising, the media, museums and Wiradjuri language and culture,
Brook Andrew’s art challenges the limitations ...
6 KB (821 words) - 22:56, 12 January 2011
• Billboard (redirect from Billboard (advertising))
is a large outdoor advertising structure (a billing board ), typically found in ... Even given
this limitation, some studies have found ...
29 KB (3,919 words) - 14:38, 24 May 2011
• Persona (marketing)
 technology applications as well as in advertising, where other terms ... desires, and
limitations of brand buyers and users in order to help ...
13 KB (1,849 words) - 11:38, 13 May 2011
• Stanislaw Burzynski
Burzynski had appealed the limitations on his advertising on the grounds of free speech,
but the appeal court upheld the decision, stating ...
9 KB (1,238 words) - 16:45, 29 April 2011
• Pharmaceutical marketing (redirect from Pharmaceutical advertising)
business of advertising or otherwise promoting the sale of pharmaceutical s or drugs . ...
medicine. Canada 's limitations on pharmaceutical ...
28 KB (3,772 words) - 09:58, 30 April 2011
• Model (art)
Although commercial motives dominate over aesthetics in advertising ... ages and
ethnicity, there are no real limitations on who the model can be. ...
13 KB (1,982 words) - 12:12, 14 May 2011
• James Walter Thompson
was the namesake of the JWT advertising agency and a pioneer of many advertising ... It
has no limitations. be sold by advertising is inside ...
5 KB (768 words) - 01:32, 22 April 2011
• World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
and broad limitations concerning the tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship
(which were seen as violating free speech , and are ...
20 KB (2,817 words) - 14:23, 4 May 2011
• Genetic testing (section Risks and limitations)
Risks and limitations ... Critics of DTC testing argue against the risks involved, the
unregulated advertising and marketing claims, and the ...
21 KB (3,151 words) - 22:45, 21 May 2011
• Disaboom (section Advertising Campaign)
the way individuals with disabilities or functional limitations live their lives. ... Its
business model is based on advertising revenue ...
7 KB (949 words) - 00:35, 23 March 2011
• Internet marketing (redirect from Internet advertising)
development, advertising, and sales Internet marketing also refers ... Advantages and
Limitations of Internet marketing: section | date January ...
16 KB (2,066 words) - 04:33, 25 May 2011
• RealJukebox
display advertising and has the ability to be removed if one pays a registration fee to
remove the advertising and other program limitations. ...
 1 KB (148 words) - 18:54, 11 February 2011
• Gbenga Toyosi Olawepo
Public Relation decree and the Advertising Practitioners Council- both ... circumventing
the limitation imposed by the Advertising and Public Relation Law. ...
22 KB (3,429 words) - 06:33, 30 November 2010
• Macintosh (section Advertising)
The limitations of the first Mac soon became clear: it had very little memory, even
compared with other personal ... Advertising: Apple Inc. ...
77 KB (10,849 words) - 18:47, 27 May 2011
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