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Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, Thames Valley University, London, Vol. 4, pp. 43-69
© 1998 Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó
44 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
portant than the directive function of sued by choice. Accordingly, key variables
motivation. in goal theories concern various goal prop-
(3) We felt that most motivational theories erties. The underlying principle of a third
did not do justice to the fact that moti- main direction in current motivation re-
vation is not a static state but rather a search, self-determination theory, and the
dynamically evolving and changing accompanying intrinsic vs. extrinsic moti-
entity, associated with an ongoing pro- vational paradigm, is that the desire to be
cess in time; thus, we intended to draw self-initiating and self-regulating is a pre-
up a motivation construct that had a requisite for any human behaviour to be
featured temporal axis. intrinsically rewarding, and therefore the
essence of motivated action is a sense of
autonomy. Finally, the key tenet in social
Comprehensive versus reductionist psychology is the assumption that it is
paradigms attitudes that exert a directive influence on
people’s behaviour since one’s attitude
towards a target influences the overall
The fact that motivation theories in general pattern of the person’s responses to the
tend not to offer very detailed and compre- target. It must also be noted that although
hensive taxonomies of the relevant motiva- these broad approaches dominate current
tional components is not at all surprising, thinking, in motivation research, there have
because the main objective of mainstream in the past been a number of other factors as
motivation research has been exactly the well that were at the time seen as central to
opposite. Since the study of motivation the understanding of human behaviour (e.g.
concerns the basic question of why humans inner forces such as instincts, volition, and
behave as they do, it follows that this issue psychical energy; stimulus and
is immensely complex and the number of reinforcement contingencies; basic human
potential determinants of human behaviour needs).
is extensive. A great deal of effort in moti- From the point of view of designing
vation research has, therefore, focused on motivational classroom interventions we
drawing up reductionist paradigms by trying need a particularly detailed and somewhat
to identify a relatively small number of key eclectic model that would list all the main
variables to explain a significant proportion motives that are likely to have an impact on
of the variance in people’s behaviour. learning achievement. Although some key
In order to reduce the number of rele- variables do indeed appear to stand out in
vant motivational components, various terms of their pervasive effect on learning
theories have selected certain motivational behaviour in general, the number of moti-
variables as principal components and then vational influences that are fundamental (in
proposed that these subsumed or mediated the sense that their absence can cancel or
the other interrelated factors. Expectancy- significantly weaken any other factors
value theories assume that motivation to whereas their active presence can boost
perform various tasks is the product of two action behaviour) is far more extensive than
key factors: the individual’s expectancy of each individual theory would suggest.
success in a given task and the value the Weiner’s (1984) conclusion summarises well
individual attaches to success in that task. our stance: “Any theory based on a single
Within this framework, we can find a variety concept, whether that concept is
of subtheories that attempt to explain the reinforcement, self-worth, optimal motiva-
cognitive processes that shape the indi- tion, or something else, will be insufficient
vidual’s expectancy: attribution theory to deal with the complexity of classroom
places the emphasis on how one processes activities” (p. 18).
past achievement experiences (successes or
failures); self-efficacy theory refers to ‘Choice’ versus ‘executive’ motivation
people’s judgement of their capabilities to
carry out certain specific tasks; and self- Another reason why existing motivation
worth theory claims that the highest human models were inadequate for designing mo-
priority is the need for self-acceptance and tivational classroom interventions is related
to maintain a positive face. to the target of our research: the study of a
Following somewhat different princi- foreign language. Schumann (1998) refers to
ples, goal theories propose that human L2 studies as “sustained deep learning” and
action is spurred by purpose, and for action argues that all such sustained learning
to take place, goals have to be set and pur- processes of skill/knowledge acquisition
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 45
(i.e. also applying to other areas such as the tion. In school environments, the key moti-
study of mathematics, bridge, celestial vational issues involve maintaining assigned
navigation, etc.) show different motivational goals, elaborating on subgoals, and
characteristics from short-term activities and exercising control over other thoughts and
simpler learning tasks. This is because in behaviours that are often more desirable
sustained learning contexts a major moti- than concentrating on academic work.
vational function is to maintain the moti- Therefore, in order to explain a significant
vational impetus for a considerable period proportion of the variability in learner
(often several years). In contrasting the persistence in classroom contexts, we need
motivational basis of “skill acquisition” with to focus on ‘executive motivation’, that is,
that of simpler activities that do not require consider motivational influences that operate
task learning because the goal is executed during task engagement, facilitating or
quickly, Kanfer (1996) presents a rather impeding goal-directed behaviour.
similar argument:
R Motivational
Influences on Desires Opportunities
Goal Setting
E Goal Setting
(Table 1)
A
C
Goal
T (Assigned Task)
Motivational
I Influences on Commitment
Action Plan Intention
O Intention (Compliance)
Formation
Formation
N (Table 2)
A
Intention
L
Motivational
Influences on
P the Initiation of Means & Initiation of Start
Intention Resources Intention Condition
H
Enactment Enactment
A (Table 3)
S
E Action-Launching
A Subtask
Generation &
C
Implementation
T
I Appraisal Action Control
Executive Action
O
N Motivational
A
L Influences Modify or
Continue Action
Actional
(Table 4)
P Outcome
H Modify Goal
A - +
S
E Terminated Action Achieved Goal
Forming Elaborating
POST- Motivational Causal Postactional Standards &
AC- Influences on Attributions Evaluation Strategies
TION- Postactional
AL Evaluation Dismissing
PHASE (Table 5) Intention &
Further
Planning
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 49
but rather an emerging opportunity. As can goals or pastimes, along with the re-
be seen in the figure, the above components wards that might have attended them. In
of goal setting are not shaded grey, indi- short, these cases involve placing
cating that at this stage the process has not contingencies on oneself. (p. 37)
as yet reached a state of concrete reality.
The first component to do so is the outcome It needs to be noted here that school situa-
of the goal setting process, the actual goal. tions typically dictate that students meet
It is at this point that the motivated be- established goals as a performance re-
havioural process begins in earnest. quirement for many academic tasks; these
A ‘goal’ is a rather ill-defined or over goals are often set by teachers, sometimes
defined term in motivation theories. The school districts, or by parents (Corno,
assumed role of goals in various constructs 1993). Thus, instead of a voluntarily se-
ranges from being secondary (e.g. the pre- lected goal we often find assigned tasks set
dominating social psychological theory of externally for the students and, therefore,
language learning motivation by Gardner, commitment making can be seen more as a
1985, did not include goals—or as he termed process of reaching compliance. We will
them, orientations—in the core motivation return to this issue at the end of the paper.
concept), to being the single most important Adding commitment to a goal is a cru-
determinants, or the motivational foci, of cial step in the motivational process but it is
action. In Locke and Latham's (1994) goal- not sufficient in itself to energise action if
setting theory, for example, a goal, is seen the goal is not translated into concrete steps
as the ‘engine’ to fire the action and provide the individual needs to take. Thus, a final
the direction in which to act. We take an necessary step in generating a fully
intermediary position and see goals as the operational intention is to develop a man-
first concrete mental representations of a ageable action plan which contains the
desired endstate; goals, in our theory, do not necessary technical details regarding the
directly determine action but are an planned action, namely the action schemata
indispensable step in the motivated (i.e. concrete behavioural guidelines such as
behavioural sequence. subtasks to implement, and a number of
Similarly to Action Control Theory, an relevant attainment strategies to follow) and
‘intention’ in our model is qualitatively the time frame or start condition (i.e.
different from a ‘goal’ in that it already temporal specifications regulating the actual
involves commitment. This is an important timing of the onset of action, e.g. a concrete
distinction and it has been made in order to time - “I’ll get down to it tomorrow” - or a
account for the huge difference which exists condition - “I’ll do it when I have finished
between, on the one hand, the multiple this”). Although a plan of action does not
ideas, wishes, hopes, desires, and long-term have to be completed before initiating an
plans the individual may harbour at a given act—it may be (and usually is) finalised
point of time and, on the other hand, the far while acting—there must be at least a
fewer concrete intentions the individual will general action plan before one is able to act
make actual resolutions to carry out. The at all.
significance of the ‘commitment’ component An operationalised intention is the
was also recognised by goal theoreticians. immediate antecedent of action, but it is
Locke and Latham (1990), for example, state important to realise that action does not
that “Believing that a goal is desirable and follow automatically from it. The right
reachable does not automatically force an opportunity for starting the action may never
individual to act. The individual must materialise, or the means and resources may
choose to put his or her judgement in not be made available, leaving the intention
action” (p. 127); accordingly, they postulate unfulfilled. Thus, our model suggests that
that ‘goal commitment’ is an important goal there are two necessary conditions for
property. Commitment making is a highly issuing an “action-launching impulse”
responsible personal decision and it entails a (Heckhausen & Kuhl, 1985, p. 137): the
significant qualitative change in one’s goal- availability of the necessary means and
related attitudes. As Baumeister (1996) ar- resources and the start condition. The exact
gues, start condition has been specified by the
action plan and, as mentioned above, it can
commitments may involve staking in- be a specific time or a condition. In
terpersonal prestige and even material addition, one usually has several parallel
resources on that goal. Commitments intentions in mind of which only one or two
may also entail forgoing other possible can be implemented at a time. In order to
50 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
coordinate these, the action plan assigns L2 as a subject matter, language learning in
priority tags to the intentions, determining general, learning in the classroom in general,
their order of enactment, and, therefore, the learning in the particular institution in
start condition may also mean that the turn general, learning in general, and
of a certain intention has come. achievement behaviour in general. The
important point is that a person’s appraisal
of one level can easily be transferred to a
Actional phase broader or narrower level; for example,
negative attitudes evoked by failure in doing
a particular task can easily be generalised to
The onset of action is a major step in the the whole language course or to the whole of
motivational process, resulting in significant language learning (“I’m just not good at
qualitative changes. Following Heckhausen, languages…”), and, conversely, established
we believe that action engagement can be attitudes about the whole school can
compared to crossing a metaphorical profoundly affect one’s specific L2 learning
‘Rubicon’: the individual has committed disposition (“I dislike everything that’s
him/herself to action and now the emphasis going on in this building”).
shifts to factors concerning the implemen- The third main process, action control,
tation of action. In other words, “choice denotes those processes which “protect a
motivation” is replaced by “executive moti- current intention from being replaced should
vation” (Heckhausen, 1991, p. 170). As one of the competing tendencies increase in
Dibbelt and Kuhl (1994) state, “The theory strength before the intended action is
of action control explicitly states that the completed.” (Kuhl, 1994, p. 102). In
actual enactment of an action can be based academic situations this can be charac-
on sources of motivation that differ from terised, using Corno’s (1993) words, “as a
those upon which the original decision was dynamic system of psychological control
based.” (p. 179). processes that protect concentration and
During the actional phase three basic directed effort in the face of personal and/or
processes come into effect: subtask genera- environmental distractions, and so aid
tion and implementation, a complex ongoing learning and performance” (Corno, 1993,
appraisal process, and the application of a p.16). Although the term ‘action control’
variety of action control mechanisms. The may sound novel, similar processes have
first of these refers to learning behaviours been the subject of an increasing amount of
proper. Action initiation starts with research in educational psychology for the
implementing the subtasks that were speci- past decade under the umbrella term of ‘self
fied by the action plan; however, as men- regulatory processes’. For the purpose of our
tioned earlier, action plans are rarely com- model we will distinguish between three
plete (particularly not with sustained ac- types of self-regulatory strategy: action
tivities such as the pursuit of L2 learning) maintenance, language learning, and goal
and during the course of action, one con- setting strategies. Active use of such
tinuously generates (or is assigned) sub- strategies may ‘save’ the action when
tasks/subgoals. In fact, the quality of subtask ongoing monitoring reveals that progress is
generation and the accompanying setting of slowing, halting, or backsliding.
subgoals is one of the principal indicators of Action control/self-regulatory strategies
effective learning. are particularly important from an educa-
The second important ongoing process tional point of view for at least two basic
is appraisal. One continuously evaluates the reasons. First, as Wong and Csikszentmi-
multitude of stimuli coming from the halyi (1991) have found, studying and
environment and the progress one has made schoolwork in general are considered among
towards the action outcome, comparing adolescents’ to be the least rewarding
actual events with predicted ones or with activities. When in class or doing homework
ones that an alternative action sequence students report “low intrinsic motivation and
would offer. This complex process is further negative experience. They generally feel
complicated if we consider the multi-level sad, passive, constrained, bored, detached,
nature of the stimuli one receives. The basic and lonely” (p. 544). Schneider,
unit of language learning behaviour is the Csikszentmihalyi & Knauth (1995) report a
participation in language tasks. These tasks strong negative relationship between being
are embedded in a number of physical and in an academic class and feeling motivated,
psychological contexts of various breadths which they explain by the fact that students
such as the language class, the course, the tend to find most academic classroom
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 51
activities unenjoyable and uninteresting. All process (starting from goal-setting) and its
this creates fertile ground for distractions effect on his/her self-esteem (Heckhausen,
that need to be controlled for the sake of 1991). During this phase, the actor compares
learning effectiveness. initial expectancies and plans of action to
Second, as argued in the introduction, how they turned out in reality and forms
in school environments most tasks are causal attributions about the extent the
imposed on the students without involving intended goal has been reached. This critical
them in designing their own learning retrospection contributes significantly to
schedules or choosing which activities to accumulated experience, and allows the
engage in. In school, there is often little learner to elaborate his/her internal
preactional activity by students. Therefore, standards and the repertoire of action-
the cumulative instigation force arising from specific strategies. It is through such
the preactional phase (i.e. ‘choice evaluation that an individual can develop a
motivation’) is often relatively weak and stable identity as a successful learner
needs active scaffolding during the actional (Boekaerts, 1988).
phase, which is exactly what action control The formation of adequate standards to
processes are there for. compare actual and potential performance,
On the basis of the interplay of the and the extension of the repertoire of per-
appraisal and control/maintenance proc- sonalised action-control strategies already
esses, the ongoing action will lead to some serve to prepare the ground for the future,
kind of actional outcome: the optimal sce- but before further action can be taken, the
nario is that the actor achieves his/her goal, initial intention has to be dismissed to give
whereas the other extreme is terminating the way to new wishes, goals, and intentions. An
action completely. However, arriving at a accomplished intention may clear the way
dead end during the actional phase does not for a subsequent intention leading to a more
necessarily lead to action abandonment. If distant superordinate goal—in this case the
the motivational foundation of the initial postactional motivation process evolves into
wish or desire was sufficiently powerful, the a preintentional phase and the cycle begins
individual may mentally step back to the anew.
preactional phase, revise the concrete goal
to be pursued and form a new intention (e.g.
by lowering the level of aspiration). Motivational influences on the different
Alternatively, by maintaining the original action phases of the model
intention, the individual may fine-tune or
modify the strategies and subtasks applied in
the pursuit of the goal during the actional The action sequence dimension described
phase. Finally, in case of a temporary above outlines the sequential pattern of the
interruption, action can be continued at a motivational process but it is incomplete
later time. without a second, complimentary dimension
of motivation which is made up of the
various motivational influences that fuel the
Postactional phase actional sequence. These energy sources can
be enhancing or inhibiting, depending on
whether they contribute to the successful
The postactional stage begins after either the implementation of the goal or dampen the
goal has been attained or the action has been actor’s endeavour. As such, motivational
terminated; alternatively, it can also take influences encompass all the various motives
place when action is interrupted for a longer discussed in the motivation literature,
period (e.g. a holiday). The main processes including cognitive, affective, and situ-
during this phase entail evaluating the ational factors or conditions. In our model,
accomplished action outcome and we have made a point of including every
contemplating possible inferences to be major motivational factor from previous
drawn for future actions. Postactional studies in the L2 field and from mainstream
evaluation is different from the ongoing psychology that has been found to influence
appraisal process in that here the individual the commitment to learning.
is not engaged in actual action any longer As indicated in Figure 1, motivational
(that is, he/she is no longer in an influences form five clusters, according to
implementation-oriented mind set), which the five specific phases of the motivated
allows him/her to adopt a broader perspec- action sequence they affect (i.e. goal setting,
tive on the whole motivated behavioural intention formation, initiation of intention
52 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
enactment, action, and postactional reenrolling in the course (since once action
evaluation). The specific lists of the relevant engagement has been terminated, preactional
motives are included in Tables 1-5; Figure 1 forces become activated again). The reason
describes the interrelationship between these why such cycles do not go on ad infinitum is
motive sets. The motivational influences that after the termination (or completion) of
associated with goal-setting are linked with action a third set of motivational influences,
an arrow to the determinants of intention associated with the postactional phase, come
formation, which are in turn linked to those into force, and the explanations one arrives
of the initiation of intention enactment. This at during this phase about the previous
indicates that in the preactional phase the sequence (e.g. “I simply don’t have the
relevant motivational influences are assumed time/energy/aptitude for L2 learning”)
to have a cumulative effect: the forces active significantly affect subsequent action
in the first stage continue to exert their tendencies.
influence in the second and the third phases,
and the factors first appearing in the second
(intention formation) phase also fuel the Goal setting
third (intention enactment) phase.
Thus, the preactional motivational sys-
tem works like a series of interlinked filters: At any given time people harbour a great
Only the wishes that receive sufficient variety of wishes, hopes, desires, ‘what-
support from the first set of motivational would-happen-ifs’, ‘if-onlys’, etc. These
influences qualify for becoming goals; these coexist peacefully alongside each other on
goals are then submitted to a second the plane of unreality; some of them will
motivational phase, intention formation, never get beyond this stage and remain as
where new energy sources are added to the ‘daydreams’, whereas others will be acted
resultant motivational force, and if this out and fulfilled in the long run. How do we
exceeds the necessary threshold for stepping select from the multitude of our wishes and
further, the goal becomes a fully-fledged desires and how do we process the selected
intention; finally, an action launching wish/desire? The understanding of human
impulse will be issued if the sum of the motivation starts at this basic level of
influences that have fuelled the intention so transforming ‘fantasies’ into reality-oriented
far and the new factors that come into force goals.
in the third, action initiation phase reaches a
certain level of strength. The overall
resultant motivational force associated with
the preactional phase is labelled in the figure Table 1. Motivational influences on goal
as the instigation force, which determines setting
the intensity of action initiation.
Moving further ‘down’ Figure 1, how-
ever, the motivational influences associated • Subjective values and norms
with the actional phase are not directly Incentive value of goal-related action,
•
related to the motives affecting the earlier outcomes, and consequences
stages of the process. This is in line with (instrumentality)
Heckhausen and Kuhl’s ‘Action Control
Theory’, which emphasises that ‘executive • Perceived potency of potential goal
motives’ are largely different from the • Environmental stimuli; action
motives making up ‘choice motivation’. possibilities; family expectations
Indeed, very few motivational forces have a • Language/language-learning-related
global effect on every stage of the actor’s attitudes (integrativeness)
behaviour, which explains why even a strong
motivational disposition can be cancelled
out by newly emerging forces. Only by
assuming such a division of motives related
to the preactional and the actional phases In our model we have distinguished five
can we explain, for example, the frequent main motivational factors underlying the
phenomenon of someone deciding to enrol in goal-setting process (Table 1). First and
a language course (motivated by ‘choice foremost are the individual’s subjective
motivation’), then soon dropping out values and norms that have developed
(because the ‘executive motives’ fail to during the past, as a reaction to past expe-
sustain the instigation force), and then again riences. This “sense-of-self” dimension
(Maehr, 1984, p. 126) refers to the more or
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 53
been in the focus of motivational psychology ultimate level of L2 proficiency the learner
for over two decades, and it has become an intends to reach. Not everybody sets out to
integral part of several L2 motivational attain a near-native level of L2 competence:
approaches in the 1990’s (for a review, see some learners, for example, only aim to
Dörnyei, 1998). Without going into details acquire a working knowledge of the L2,
here, it has been generally accepted that which obviously effects their long-term
motivation to learn and learner autonomy go achievement strivings (cf. Dörnyei, 1990).
hand in hand, that is, “enhanced motivation As was said earlier, the development of
is conditional on learners taking an action plan is an imperative to forming a
responsibility for their own learning [...] and fully operational intention. This is why the
perceiving that their learning successes and availability of task opportunities and
failures are to be attributed to their own options is an important, though not indis-
efforts and strategies rather than to factors pensable, motivational condition. It is easy
outside their control” (Dickinson, 1995, p. to see that one may be more inclined to
173-74). decide on a certain course of action where
A further set of influential factors con- ready-made options are given than on an
cern various properties of the selected goal, activity for which creating the necessary
such as goal specificity, proximity, goal conditions already requires considerable
harmony/conflict, and the level of aspira- effort. For example, an advert drawing
tion. Goal specificity refers to how clear and attention to an attractive language course
elaborate goal specifications are. Locke and may be more influential in initiating lan-
Kristof (1996) provide evidence that goals guage learning than a situation in which the
that are specific rather than vague enhance learner needs to find out from scratch what
performance. A second important channels of learning, if any, are available.
characteristic of goals is their proximity. In As Heckhausen (1991) argues, “The decision
terms of time scale, goals range in time from [of initiating action] is frequently
those that are nearly immediate to those that predetermined by anticipated opportunities
are several months or years away. As that seem favorable for the realization of
Karniol and Ross (1996) summarise, a particular intentions” (p. 11); indeed, it is
“positive time preference” (p. 603) can be this recognition that underlies the provision
observed, with the motivational pull of goals of vocational information to learners before
with immediate outcomes being stronger they commit themselves to a certain career
than that of goals in a temporal distance path.
because it is easier to judge progress toward Another, equally important, determinant
the former. Furthermore, the power of distal of the quality of the action plan one
goals, even if they are selected for action, develops is the learner’s beliefs about L2
may spontaneously decrease more rapidly learning, knowledge of learning strategies,
during goal pursuit than that of proximal and sufficient domain-specific knowledge.
goals, and it is also easy to postpone These factors form influential predisposi-
pursuing a distal goal in the present in the tions in the learners about the learning
belief that there is ample time to mount the process, stemming from the learners’ fami-
effort later. lies, peer groups, and prior learning expe-
A further issue is that an individual may riences. For example, If someone thinks of
often wish to achieve a number of different the study of a language only as tedious and
goals at the same time, for example, acquire hard work characterised by endless memo-
knowledge, meet people, and have a good risation of bilingual word lists, this will
time. With such multiple goals the extent of obviously reduce his/her initial enthusiasm,
goal harmony/conflict is an important factor. whereas an informed, ‘made to measure’
If the various goals one entertains can action plan (e.g. a computer devotee de-
coexist harmoniously, this will increase goal ciding to learn through specially designed
commitment, whereas if striving for a goal computer games) might give the necessary
goes at the expense of a potential other, incentive to engage in the learning process.
efforts towards this goal may eventually Finally, in certain cases commitment
weaken as one thinks about alternatives does not happen even if many of the above
(Green, 1995). A final goal property that is mentioned motivational influences are in
of great importance with complex learning place—at such times what we need is a final
targets such as the mastery of L2 proficiency ‘push’, such as some sort of urgency,
is the level of aspiration. In our case this powerful external demands, or a unique
variable is not so much related to concepts opportunity. In Heckhausen and Kuhl’s
like goal level or goal difficulty as to the (1985) words,
56 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
Actional processes
Table 4. Executive motivational influ-
Once an initial wish has ‘obtained’ sufficient ences
motivational support to pass all the hurdles,
the individual is ready to embark on a course
of action. The intensity of the ‘action- • Selective sensitivity to aspects of the
launching impulse’ will depend on the environment
cumulative or resultant force of all the • Quality of internal model of reference
motivational influences active in the pre- • action schemata
actional phase (i.e. ‘instigation force’). As • performance standards
stated earlier, crossing the metaphorical
• Quality of learning experience
‘Rubicon’ of action opens a whole new
chapter in the motivation scene; indeed, only • novelty
few of the motivational influences • pleasantness
associated with the actional phase in Table 4 • goal/need significance
appeared earlier in relation to preactional • coping potential
events. Not surprisingly, the biggest group • self and social image
of factors concerns the appraisal system and • Perceived contingent relationship
the outcome of the appraisal process. The between action and outcome; perceived
rest of the components concern the progress
effectiveness of the action control processes,
• success
the impact of external influences such the
• “flow”
teacher’s role, and factors inherent to the
action itself. • Sense of self-determination/autonomy
The functioning of the appraisal system • Teacher’s and parents’ motivational
is greatly affected by the individual’s se- influence
lective sensitivity to aspects of the envi- • autonomy supporting vs. controlling
ronment. As Boekaerts (1987) points out, • affiliative motive
learners give different weights to specific direct socialisation of motivation
•
segments of the task-situation complex.
Based on the learners’ idiosyncratic features • modelling
and past experiences, they may encode • task presentation
certain aspects of the learning environment • feedback
in a strikingly different manner. For • Performance appraisal, reward structure,
example, what one person may find stressful, classroom goal structure (competitive.
another may find challenging. For a review Individualistic, cooperative)
of the various psychological factors that • Influence of learner group (goal-
might underlie individual differences in the orientedness, cohesiveness, norm and
learners’ perception and interpretation of the role system, peer role modelling),
environment, the reader is referred to a classroom climate, and school
recent summary by Ehrman and Dörnyei environment
(1998). A second, partly related factor
• Task conflict; competing action
affecting the appraisal system is the quality
tendencies; other distracting influences;
of the internal model of reference
availability of action alternatives
(Boekaerts, 1988). In order to be able to
interpret the learning context, the task • Costs involved and natural tendency to
demands, and one’s own competence to meet lose sight of goal and get bored/tired of
these demands, learners draw on an the activity
internally generated model made up of • Knowledge of and skills in using self-
“declarative, procedural and episodic regulatory strategies
information … activated from long-term • language learning strategies
memory upon confrontation with a learning • goal setting strategies
task” (Boekaerts, 1988, p. 275). This inter- • action maintenance strategies
nal model acts as a frame of reference and
functions as a performance standard in • Perceived consequences of action
defining what success and failure entails in a abandonment
particular situation. It also provides a sound
basis for selecting, constructing, and
monitoring strategies and subtasks.
58 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
The next group of factors affecting the their action is conducive to reaching that
results of the appraisal process are the actual outcome they experience a feeling of
stimuli generated by the environment, that success, which then provides further
is, the perceived quality of the learning motivation. In Boekaerts’s (1988) words,
experience. According to Schumann’s
(1998) neurobiological model of stimulus When a learner perceives a contingent
appraisal, the brain evaluates the stimuli it path between his potential actions and
receives along five dimensions: novelty the learning outcome, his confidence
(degree of unexpectedness/ familiarity), will be high and his performance will
pleasantness (attractiveness), goal /need not be impeded by debilitating anxiety.
significance (whether the stimulus is When the opposite relation holds,
instrumental in satisfying needs or achieving mental withdrawal from the threatening
goals), coping potential (whether the demands may result as well as the
individual expects to be able to cope with perception of discomfort and tension.
the event), and self and social image (p. 275)
(whether the event is compatible with social
norms and the individual's self-concept). A particularly powerful state of optimal
The five dimensions capture well the various experience is the concept of ‘flow’ intro-
situation-specific appraisals proposed in the duced by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). It repre-
L2 literature (e.g. Crookes & Schmidt’s, sents a state of total involvement during
1991, system made up of interest, relevance, some creative activity that is characterised
expectancy, and satisfaction, also adopted by an equilibrium between the amount of
by Dörnyei, 1994), as well as covering challenge in activities and the individual’s
several of the most important current issues capabilities.
in the educational psychological literature A further powerful factor regarding
(e.g. the concern about self-esteem/self- learning experiences that was already
worth, self-efficacy, intrinsic interest, well- mentioned with respect to the intention
being). For example, based on her extensive formation stage is the learner’s sense of self-
classroom research, Boekaerts (1994) determination/autonomy. The issue of the
identified three types of appraisals to type of regulation seems to be one of the
explain much of the variance in learning most pervasive ones during the motivated
intention: (1) task attraction, (2) perceived behavioural process; this underlies Deci and
personal relevance, and (3) perceived self- Ryan’s (1985) claim that the need for
competence. Schumann’s model covers all autonomy, that is, the desire to be self-
the three components. In a more detailed initiating and self-regulating of one's ac-
summary of the main aspects of the task- tions, is an innate human need, and is a
situation complex from the pupils’ point of prerequisite for any behaviour to be intrin-
view, Boekaerts (1988) also listed sically rewarding (indeed, Csikszentmi-
familiarity judgement, success expectancy halyi’s, 1990, ‘flow’ also presupposes a
judgement, reward value judgement, primarily intrinsically regulated behavioural
perceived teacher utility judgement, and sequence).
peer success expectancy in addition to the Besides the learner, there are certain
above factors. Only the last two components other key figures affecting the motivational
are not directly covered by Schumann’s quality of the learning process, namely the
proposed appraisal dimensions, but they can teacher and the parents. Their role as mo-
be seen as being subsumed by the other tivational socialisers has been described in
components. However, in order to emphasise detail by a number of works in the literature
the social nature and aspects of classroom (e.g. Colletta, Clément & Edwards, 1983;
learning, we have also separated peer and Dörnyei, 1994; Gardner, 1985, Gottfried,
teacher appraisals from the more general Fleming & Gottfried, 1994). Teachers are
appraisal of the course and the curriculum the officially designated leaders within the
(see below). classroom; as such they are the most visible
Because learning is a goal-oriented figures, who embody group conscience and
activity, the perceived contingent relation- serve as a reference and a standard. They are
ship between action and outcome and the often the focus of attention and, as Jesuíno
perceived progress the learner has made on (1996) summarises, they function as an
this contingent path deserves explicit “emotional amplifier of the group whose
treatment. Students constantly evaluate how appeals and example are critical for
well they are doing in terms of approaching mobilising the group” (p. 115) In short, “To
the desired outcome, and if they feel that lead is to motivate, that is, ‘directing’ and
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 59
‘energizing’ ” (p. 114). One of the main recently looked into group-specific cognitive
impacts teachers and parents exert is related constructs (like group efficacy). Recent
to self-determination, as several studies have studies suggest that the psychological
found that these authority figures’ environment of the school as a whole (e.g.
motivational practices can be described school-wide stress on accomplishment,
along a continuum between autonomy- power, recognition, affiliation; school-level
supporting versus controlling (e.g. Gottfried authority and management structures,
et al. 1994; Noels, Clément & Pelletier, in grouping and evaluation practices) may also
press). Another important motive related to have a strong influence on students’
these superordinate figures is the ‘affiliative motivation (Maehr & Midgley, 1991). For
motive’, which refers to students’ need to do example, Anderman and Maehr (1994)
well in school in order to please the teacher report on a study which demonstrated that
or their parents. Finally, teachers can also school effects such as the above seem to
exert a direct motivational influence by increase with grade level: whereas in the 4th
actively socialising the learners’ motivation grade these explained 7% of the variance in
through appropriate modelling, task pres- motivation, the figure grew to 21% when
entations, and their feedback. students reached the 10th grade.
One particularly featured aspect of how It probably requires little justification
teachers structure classroom life is the type that task conflict, competing action ten-
of performance appraisal, reward structure, dencies, other distracting influences, and
and the more general classroom goal the availability of action alternatives have a
structure they introduce. It is well docu- weakening effect on the resultant moti-
mented in the literature that these have far vational force associated with the particular
reaching and often unintended consequences course of action. In such cases, unless ef-
on how learners approach the learning tasks fective action control strategies are activated
(e.g. Ames, 1992; Maehr, 1984; Pintrich & (see below), the behavioural process may be
Schunk, 1996). Harter (1992), for example, interrupted and in some cases terminated.
found that the combination of comparative Further negative influences are provided by
grading practices, standardised test scores, a the costs involved in pursuing the activity (a
focus on the correct solutions, and the factor already mentioned at the intention
salience of social comparison, serve to formation phase) and one’s natural tendency
decrease children’s interest in and to lose sight of goal and get bored/tired of
enjoyment of the learning process and the activity; these factors have been part of
moderate their preference for challenge. what Atkinson and Birch (1974) termed
Cooperation in the classroom, on the other ‘consummatory force’ in their ‘Dynamic
hand, has been shown to augment motivation Action Model’.
to learn (e.g. Dörnyei, 1997; Sharan & An important source of scaffolding and
Shaulov, 1990; Slavin, 1996). enhancing motivation is the knowledge of
Parents and teachers are not the only and skills in using self-regulatory strategies.
external sources of situation-specific moti- Winne (1995) argues convincingly that all
vation. An increasing body of research has learners inherently self-regulate, but there
highlighted the influence of the learner are individual differences regarding their
group, the classroom climate, and the school knowledge base about self-regulatory
environment. Learners do not exist in learning and their knowledge about when to
isolation but function within organisational engage that knowledge and their skills. We
structures through socially mediated effort. already stated in the introduction that in
Therefore, various aspects of the dynamics sustained learning of skills and knowledge,
of the learner group (e.g. goal-orientedness, self-regulatory processes take on special
cohesiveness, the emerging classroom role significance as key motivational influences
and norm system, peer role modelling; for a on learning and performance (Kanfer, 1996).
review, see Ehrman & Dörnyei, 1998) have a As mentioned earlier, we distinguish three
profound influence on the individual types of such strategies: learning, goal
members’ motivation as they try to conform setting, and action maintenance strategies.
to social standards set by the class group and By using learning strategies, a learner
the school. Our belief is that the significance already demonstrates motivation, since they
of these factors has not been sufficiently involve processes whereby the learner vol-
highlighted in the motivational literature untarily activates cognitions/behaviours/
relative to their importance, although, as affects (depending how one defines learning
Dörnyei (1998) summarises, several studies strategies) in order to increase the
in social and educational psychology have effectiveness of his/her own learning (in-
60 Working Papers in Applied Linguistics
deed, Corno, 1993, p. 17, for example, “Set contingencies for performance that can
refers to them as “mindful effort invest- be carried out mentally (e.g. self-reward;
ments”). The fact that learning strategies self-imposed penance”, “Escalate goals by
enhance achievement generates positive prioritising and imagining their value”, and
affect in the learners about how and what “Visualise doing the work successfully”(p.
they study, thereby reinforcing their moti- 16). Emotion control strategies include
vated disposition. “Generate useful diversions”, “Visualise the
Goal-setting strategies are more di- work successfully and feeling good about
rectly related to motivation. Goals are not that (change the way you respond
only outcomes to shoot for but also stan- emotionally to the task”, “Recall your
dards by which to evaluate one's perform- strengths and your available resources”, and
ance. Thus, goal setting refers to estab- “Consider any negative feelings about the
lishing quantitative and qualitative standards experience and ways to make it more
of performance that can help guide and reassuring” (p. 16).
regulate action better than distal, vague, or Baumeister (1996) emphasises the as-
‘do-your-best’ kind of goals. In the case of pect of action maintenance strategies that
long-lasting, continuous activities such as provides people with powerful motivational
language learning, where there is only a forces to enable them to regulate the cog-
rather distal goal of task completion (i.e. nitive and emotional impact of ego threats.
mastering the L2), the setting of proximal By consciously ignoring face-threatening
subgoals (i.e. short-term objectives, such as stimuli, by adopting ‘defensive preoccupa-
taking tests, passing exams, satisfying tion’ (i.e. focusing on an alternative stimulus
learning contracts) may therefore have a that can absorb attention), by summoning
powerful motivating function in that they positive feelings/happy memories to defuse
mark progress and provide immediate the threat, or by constructing their narratives
incentive and feedback. Winne (1995) points of events so as to place themselves in a more
out that although it may appear relatively positive light, people may self-regulate
simple to train students to set more and more cognitive processes and thus protect their
precise objectives, their ‘stylistic self-esteem from threatening implications.
dispositions’ to set such objectives for Garcia and Pintrich (1994) highlight one
themselves may constitute an important particular strategy that serves to maintain
individual difference variable. self-worth, ‘self-affirmation’: If an
Finally, action maintenance strategies individual experiences a negative evaluation
are specifically directed at maintaining of the self in a valued domain, a self-
motivation and protecting the currently affirmative process is initiated, and the
active intention. This reactive, protection individual will “seek to affirm a positive
function is of particular significance be- global evaluation of the self by activating
cause, as Atkinson and Birch (1974) em- positive conceptions of the self (those in
phasised, there are many action tendencies other, equally valued domains)” (p. 137).
awaiting implementation at a given point of Just like in the preactional phase, the
time and even during the course of a last motivational factor to be listed here is
seemingly smoothly running activity the the perceived consequences of action
opportunity to pursue other attractive ac- abandonment. It is sometimes only when
tivities can suddenly surface. Action main- everything else fails and one is about to quit,
tenance strategies are also useful with distal that one thinks over what action
goals to help individuals to maintain their abandonment would really entail, and the
priorities in the face of temptation and perceived possible negative consequences
adversity. may activate enough energy to keep going.
During the last decade quite an array of
action maintenance strategies have been
documented in the literature. We have Postactional evaluation
already described Kuhl’s (1987) system of
six major types of self-regulatory strategies.
Adapting this conceptualisation to In our model we distinguished four major
educational contexts, Corno (1993) distin- motivational influences active in the post-
guishes two large classes of “volitional actional phase: attributional factors, self-
control strategies” (the term she uses for concept beliefs, the quality and quantity of
action maintenance and goal-setting strate- evaluational/attributional cues and feed-
gies): motivation control and emotion con- back, and action versus state orientation
trol strategies. Examples of the former are (Table 5).
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 61
voluntarily by the students but are very often to action. Level of motivation is
assigned to them, and in such cases it makes typically indexed in terms of choice of
more sense to talk about compliance rather courses of action and intensity and
than commitment. This being the case, task- persistence of effort. Attempts to
specific motives may have more significance explain the motivational sources of
in the motivation complex than our model behaviour therefore primarily aim at
suggests. Imposed tasks may be seen not clarifying the determinants and inter-
merely as contributors to the general quality vening mechanisms that govern the
of the learning experience (as our model selection, activation, and sustained di-
suggests) but also as being associated with rection of behaviour toward certain
the general power structure of the classroom goals. (p. 69)
as a social unit (since compliance is
dependent on the perceived power base of Although the two definitions (by Heck-
the authority figure assigning the task). hausen and Bandura) cited above do provide
Although we are sensitive to the significance an appropriate reflection of the complexity
of the social psychological organisation of of motivation, and they also emphasise
the learning environment (cf. Ehrman & certain process-oriented elements, they do
Dörnyei, 1998), because of space limitations not highlight sufficiently the dynamic
we have not gone into details regarding character of motivation in sustained learning
issues such as leadership types, the bases of activities. As outlined in this article, the
social influence, or the manner in which motivational forces that are at work during
leadership is exercised and tasks are the preactional phase accumulate in the
assigned. combined instigation force, the degree of
which determines the intensity of the initial
action commitment. This initial force will be
What is motivation? increased or decreased by additional forces
that come into play during action
engagement, and the postactional evaluation
Having surveyed a great variety of ap- of the actional outcome has a forward
proaches to and aspects of the notion of pointing role as it is contributing to the
‘motivation’, and having set up a construct motivational base of further action. Thus, in
detailing what we see as the main compo- a general sense, motivation can be defined
nents of the motivation complex, it is time to as the dynamically changing cumulative
take stock of what this suggests about the arousal in a person that initiates, directs,
nature and definition of motivation. This is coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and
no easy task if we do not want to restrict the evaluates the cognitive and motor processes
definition to superficial generalisations; in whereby initial wishes and desires are
order to capture the multiple aspects and selected, prioritised, operationalised, and
dimensions represented in Figure 1, we need (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out.
a relatively complex formulation.
Heckhausen (1991) sees motivation as a
Conclusion
global concept for a variety of proc-
esses and effects whose common core is
the realization that an organism selects The theory presented in this chapter is not
a particular behaviour because of novel in the sense that it offers radically new
expected consequences, and then im- insights. Rather, it is a synthesis that
plements it with some measure of en- attempts to integrate propositions and mod-
ergy, along a particular path. (p. 9) els from several sources into a more com-
prehensive scheme. Our goal was to con-
Separating various levels of motivation, struct a framework which is based on sound
Bandura (1991) provided the following theoretical foundations and which is at the
definition: same time useful for practitioners. We are
aware that the discussion has been highly
Motivation is a general construct linked theoretical and at points speculative. We can
to a system of regulatory mechanisms see two obvious ways to verify the
that are commonly ascribed both propositions made: (a) by formally assessing
directive and activating functions. At the construct validity of the model and (b)
the generic level it encompasses the by testing whether the interventions based
diverse classes of events that move one on this model turn out to be effective in
Zoltán Dörnyei & István Ottó 65
Notes
1
An earlier version of this paper was presented
as a keynote address at the Annual Conference
of the Education Section of the British
Psychological Society (September, 1998,
Exeter) by the first author. We are grateful to
Bob Burden, Ben Rampton, Peter Skehan, Sarah
Thurrell, Peter Tomlinson and Marion Williams
for their helpful comments and support.