Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO GSM
1
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
1.1 Introduction
2
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European
Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a study group called the Groupe Spécial
Mobile (GSM) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system.
The proposed system had to meet certain criteria:
GSM 900 is a designed for extensive radio coverage even in rural areas. DCS
1800 is designed for radio coverage in areas with very high subscriber density.
GSM is a global standard, GSM 900 being used in most European, Asian and
pacific countries, GSM 1800 being used in the same place to increase the
capacity of the system, and GSM 1900 being used primarily in the US.
In its simplest form, Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a set of
ETSI standards specifying the infrastructure for a digital cellular service. The
3
standard is used in approx. 85 countries in the world including such locations as
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
4
Figure 1.2: GSM Frequency Bands [108]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
5
Chapter 2
Location Area
Cell
6
2.1 GSM Network Areas
2.1.1 Cell
Cell is the basic service area. The cell is the area given radio coverage by one
base transceiver station. The GSM network identifies each cell via the cell global
identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell.
The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is
paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a
single MSC. Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.
7
Figure 2.2: Location Areas
An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is
covered by one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the
MSC (see Figure).
The area covered by one network operator is called PLMN. A PLMN can contain
one or more MSCs. [013]
8
2.2 Cell-Detailed Description
In a cellular system, the communication area of the service provider is divided
into small geographical areas called cells. Each cell contains following
components:
• An antenna
• Solar or AC power network station
The solar or AC powered network station is called the Base Station (BS). [109]
Cells are drawn in hexagonal shape because the hexagonal shaped cells have
9
no gaps or overlaps between them. It causes no interruption to the
communication of a mobile subscriber moving from one cell to another. It is
obvious from the figure that other shapes of the cells are leaving gaps where no
coverage is provided to the mobile users. On the other hand, there is no such
problem in hexagonal cells.
a) Macro Cells
Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed
on a mast or larger building structures that are taller than an average roof-top
level. [017]
A macro cell is a cell in a mobile phone network that provides radio coverage
served by a power cellular base station (tower). Generally, macro cells provide
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
10
coverage larger than micro cell such as rural areas or along highways. The
antennas for macro cells are mounted on ground-based masts, rooftops and the
other existing structures, at a height that provides a clear view over the
surrounding buildings and terrain. Macro cell base stations have power outputs of
typically tens of watts. [018], [019], [020]
b) Micro Cells
A micro cell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular
base station (tower), covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a
transportation hub. A micro cell is usually larger than a Pico cell, though the
distinction is not always clear. Typically the range of a micro cell is less than a
mile wide. [021]
The antennas for micro cells are mounted at street level. Micro cell antennas are
smaller than macro cell antennas and when mounted on existing structures can
often be disguised as building features. Micro cells provide radio coverage over
distances up to, typically, between 300m and 1000m. Micro cell base stations
have lower output powers than macro cells, typically a few watts. [022], [026]
c) Pico Cells
Pico cells are small cells whose diameter is only few dozen meters; they are
used mainly in indoor applications. It can cover e.g. a floor of
a building or an entire building, or for example in shopping centres or airports.
[023] Pico cells provide more localized coverage than micro cells, inside
buildings where coverage is poor or there are high numbers of users. [024], [026]
d) Umbrella Cells
A layer with micro cells is covered by at least one macro cell, and a micro cell
can in turn cover several pico cells, the covering cell is called an umbrella cell.
11
If there are very small cells and a user is crossing the cells very quickly, a large
number of handovers will occur among the different neighboring cells. The
power level inside an umbrella cell is increased compared to the micro cells with
which it is formed. This makes the mobile to stay in the same cell (umbrella cell)
causing the number of handovers to be decreased as well as the work to be
done by the network. [025], [026]
e) Selective Cells
The full coverage of the cells may not be required in all sorts of applications, but
cells with limited coverage are used with a particular shape. These are named
selective due to the selection of their shape with respect to the coverage areas.
For example, the cells used at the entrance of the tunnels are selective cells
because coverage of 120 degrees is used in them. [026]
2.2.3 Clusters
12
Figure 2.6: cluster [028]
13
For the proper function of the cellular system, following two conditions must be
satisfied:
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
• The power level of the transmitter within the single cell must be limited in
order to reduce the interference with the transmitters of the neighboring cells.
The distance of about 2.5 times the diameter of a cell must be maintained
between transmitters of the neighboring cells to avoid any damage to the
system.
• Neighboring cells can not share the same channels. In order to reduce the
interference, the frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.
14
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Chapter 3
HISTORY OF GSM
15
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
1985: West Germany, France and Italy signed an agreement for the development
of GSM. The United Kingdom joined in the following year, and the group decided
that digital technology would become the future of global wireless
communication. Digital technology offered an attractive combination of
performance and spectral efficiency. In addition, such a system would allow the
development of advanced features like speech security and data
16
communications. Digital also was compatible with Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) technology, which was being developed by land-based.
1986: the GSM Permanent Nucleus held a series of validation trials in Paris.
They tested eight or nine different designs in the quest for an appropriate radio
path, because at the heart of developing a new digital standard was the
resolution of questions relating to reliability and error correction. One of the most
important conclusions from the early tests of the new GSM technology was that
the new standard should employ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
technology. The choice was TDMA or FDMA. [032]
17
1991: The GSM 1800 standard was released. Commercial service was started in
mid1991.
1993: Australia becomes the first non-European country to sign the MoU. First
commercial DCS 1800 system was launched in United Kingdom (UK).
there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries, with 25 additional countries having
already selected or considering GSM. [033] This is not only a European standard
– South Africa, Australia, and many Middle and Far East countries have chosen
GSM.
1994: By the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide.
[034] the acronym GSM now (aptly) stands for Global System for Mobile
telecommunications. [035]
1995: The specification for the Personal Communication Services (PCS) was
developed in the USA. This version of GSM operates at 1900MHz
1996: The first GSM 1900 systems become available. Those comply with the
PCS 1900 standard. [036]
Finally, the history of GSM is summarized in the form of a simple table given
below:
18
Table 3.1: History of GSM, a quick overview [037]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Chapter 4
MS
19
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
For the GSM-900 system, two frequency bands have been made available:
The 25 MHz bands are then divided into 124 pairs of frequency duplex channels
with 200 kHz carrier spacing using Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Since it is not possible for a same cell to use two adjacent channels, the channel
spacing can be said to be 200 kHz interleaved. One or more carrier frequencies
are assigned to individual Base Station (BS) and a technique known as Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is used to split this 200 kHz radio channel into 8
time slots (which creates 8 logical channels). A logical channel is therefore
defined by its frequency and the TDMA frame time slot number. By employing
eight time slots, each channel transmits the digitized speech in a series of short
bursts: a GSM terminal is only ever transmitting for one eighth of the time. [038]
20
Figure 4.1: Mobile Radio Propagation [039]
Macroscopic variations are due to local mean, long term, or log-normal fading. Its
variation is due to the terrain contour between the BTS and the MS. The fading
effect is caused by shadowing and diffraction (bending) of the radio waves.
21
The analog cellular system is known as the first-generation system. Second
generation cellular systems are digital. GSM systems are second-generation
systems.
The digital transmission over the air interface Um has a number of advantages
over analog transmission:
Cellular radio as a network does not specify how the individual subscribers have
access to the network. The two main access methods are: analog and digital.
a) Analog access
Analog systems use the familiar single channel per user concept, known as
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). World-wide there are up to six
incompatible analog cellular standards, such as NMT. The available spectrum is
divided into channels A, B, C, D, and so on. During the call, a single user will
occupy completely one channel of e.g. 25 kHz bandwidth irrespective whether
the modulation is analog or digital. The signaling over the network is digital, the
speech is modulated analog narrow-band FM
b) Digital access
22
• Better compatibility with the network supporting the cellular radio system
• Alternative access method to achieve a better spectral efficiency
Digital systems let each user have access to the frequency band for a short time
(traffic burst), during which time the user transmits data at a high rate.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is used in GSM-900 and GSM-1800 digital
cellular radio. In TDMA, the user's frequency allocation is shared with other users
(seven in case of GSM) who have time slots allocated at other times. Hence,
there are eight physical channels per frequency carrier.
There are two major processes involved in transmitting and receiving information
over a digital radio link; coding and modulation.
23
Figure 4.2: Digital Radio Transmission System
GSM uses TDMA within a FDMA structure. As a result, different users can
transmit using the same frequency, but they can't transmit at the same time. A
25MHz frequency band is divided using an FDMA scheme into 124 one-way
carrier frequencies. Each base station is assigned one or more carriers to use in
its cell. A 200 kHz frequency band separates the carrier frequencies from each
other. Normally, a 25MHz band should be divisible into 125 carrier frequencies
but in GSM the 1st carrier frequency is used as a guard band between GSM and
other services that might be working on lower frequencies.
24
Figure 4.3: Frequency Division in the Uplink Spectrum
4.4 Bursts
Each carrier frequency is then divided according to time using a TDMA scheme.
Each of the carrier frequencies is divided into a 120ms multiframe. A multiframe
is made up of 26 frames. Two of these frames are used for control purposes,
while the remaining 24 frames are used for traffic.
25
The frequency correction burst and synchronous burst have the same length as
normal burst. They have different internal structures to differentiate them from
normal bursts. The frequency correction burst is used in Frequency Correction
Channels (FCCH) and the synchronous burst is used in Synchronization
Channels (SCH). The random access burst is shorter than a normal burst, and is
only used on Random Access Channels (RACH).
• Normal burst
• Dummy burst
• Access burst
• Synchronization burst
• Frequency correction burst [041]
26
Figure 4.6: The TDMA frame structure [042]
Figure 4.7: Organization of bursts, TDMA frames, and multiframes for speech
and data [046]
27
4.4.3 Burst parts
Examples of burst parts are: training sequence, encrypted bits, tail bits, guard
period and stealing flag bits.
a) Training sequence
A fixed bit pattern, called the TSC (training sequence code) is known by both the
MS and the BTS. It is used to train the MS in predicting and correcting the signal
distortions (due to Doppler and multipath effects) in the demodulation process.
The TSC has a 26, 41 or 64 bit pattern.
b) Encrypted bits
The encrypted bits represent the useful bits serving for speech, data
transmission, or signaling.
c) Tail bits
The tail bits (TB) at the beginning define ("flag") the start of a burst. The tail bits
at the end define the end of a burst.
d) Guard period
The guard period (GP) between to consecutive bursts is necessary for switching
the transmitter on and off. The transmitted amplitude is ramped up from zero to a
constant value over the useful period of a burst and then ramped down to zero
again. This is always required for the MS, and the BTS may do so if the adjacent
burst is not emitted. Switching off will reduce interference to other RF channels.
The network has the option to use the information bits in the normal burst to send
signaling data as needed. By setting a flag, using the stealing flag bits, the
28
receiver can distinguish between traffic (user data) and signaling information.
The stealing flag bits indicate whether the adjacent 57 bits in the associated data
field contain speech/data information or are "stolen" from the traffic channel for
carrying pre-emptive FACCH (fast associated control channel) signaling
information. The FACCH is used for sending signaling data if the capacity of the
SACCH (slow associated control channel) is not sufficient. [043]
4.5. Channels
A channel relates to the recurrence of one burst in every frame. The channel is
characterized by both its frequency and its position within the TDMA frame. This
characterization is cyclical, and the channel pattern repeats every 3 hours.
There are two major categories of channels in GSM: traffic channels, and control
channels. Channels can also be classified as being dedicated or common.
Dedicated channels are assigned to a mobile station, while common channels
are used by idle mobile stations.
29
• Frequency Correction Channels
• Synchronization Channels
• Random Access Channels
• Paging Channels [044], [045]
30
algorithm is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since multipath fading
is dependent on carrier frequency, slow frequency hopping helps alleviate the
problem. In addition, co-channel interference is in effect randomized.
The most important component of DTX is, of course, Voice Activity Detection. It
must distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not as trivial as it
appears, considering background noise. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as
noise, the transmitter is turned off and a very annoying effect called clipping is
heard at the receiving end. If, on the other hand, noise is misinterpreted as a
voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased. Another
factor to consider is that when the transmitter is turned off, there is total silence
heard at the receiving end, due to the digital nature of GSM. To assure the
receiver that the connection is not dead, comfort noise is created at the receiving
end by trying to match the characteristics of the transmitting end's background
noise.
31
4.9 Power control
There are five classes of mobile stations defined, according to their peak
transmitter power, rated at 20, 8, 5, 2, and 0.8 watts. To minimize co-channel
interference and to conserve power, both the mobiles and the Base Transceiver
Stations operate at the lowest power level that will maintain an acceptable signal
quality. Power levels can be stepped up or down in steps of 2 dB from the peak
power for the class down to a minimum of 13 dBm (20 milliwatts).
The mobile station measures the signal strength or signal quality (based on the
Bit Error Ratio), and passes the information to the Base Station Controller, which
ultimately decides if and when the power level should be changed. Power control
should be handled carefully, since there is the possibility of instability. This arises
from having mobiles in co-channel cells alternatively increase their power in
response to increased co-channel interference caused by the other mobile
increasing its power.
Figure 3 depicted the sequence of operations from speech to radio waves and
from radio waves to speech. These operations are described in the following
sections.
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
32
Chapter 5
GSM ARCHITECTURE
33
5.1 Basic Architecture
34
5.2.1 Mobile station
Mobile station (MS) is a portable data and/or voice communications statio which
acts as a normal telephone whilst being able to move over a wide area. A mobile
station is typically made up of:
• an antenna
• an amplifier
• a receiver
• a transmitter and
• similar hardware and software for sending and receiving signals and
converting between RF waves and audio signals [052]
The mobile station (MS) comprises all user equipment and software needed for
communication with a Wireless telephone network. MS refers to the Mobile
Phone. i.e. the handset held by the users in the mobile network. This is the
terminology of 2G systems like GSM. In the 3G systems, MS (mobile station) is
now referred as User Equipment UE. The MS includes radio equipment and the
man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the
services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be
portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data
communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to
and from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue
connections through the system. [053], [064]
• Mobile Terminal (MT)- offers common functions that are used by all the
service the Mobile Station offers. It is equivalent to the network termination
of an ISDN access and is also the end-point of the radio interface.
• Terminal Equipment (TE) - is a peripheral device of the Mobile Station
and offers services to the user. It does not contain any functions specific in
GSM.
35
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used to
identity the mobile subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in different
phases of call setup. The Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the
number that the calling party dials in order to reach the subscriber. It is used by
the land network to route calls toward an appropriate MSC. The international
mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function of the subscriber within
the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him.
36
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
The MS has two very important entities, each with its own identity:
GSM subscribers are provided with a SIM (subscriber identity module) card with
its unique identification at the very beginning of the service. By divorcing the
subscriber ID from the equipment ID, the subscriber may never own the GSM
mobile equipment set. The subscriber is identified in the system when he inserts
the SIM card in the mobile equipment. This provides an enormous amount of
flexibility to the subscribers since they can now use any GSM-specified mobile
equipment.
37
The SIM is a removable, the size of a credit card, and contains an integrated
circuit chip with a microprocessor, random access memory (RAM), and read only
memory (ROM). The subscriber inserts it in the MS unit when he or she wants to
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
use the MS to make or receive a call. As stated, a SIM also comes in a modular
from that can be mounted in the subscriber’s equipment.
When a mobile subscriber wants to use the system, he or she mounts their SIM
card and provide their Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is compared
with a PIN stored within the SIM. If the user enters three incorrect PIN codes, the
SIM is disabled. The service provider if requested by the subscriber can also
permanently bypass the PIN. Disabling the PIN code simplifies the call setup but
reduces the protection of the user’s account in the event of a stolen SIM. [067],
[068]
38
a) Fixed Terminals
These MEs are installed in cars having the maximum power output of 20 W.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
b) Portable Terminals
Portable terminals are also installed in the vehicles. Their maximum allowed
output power is 8 W.
c) Handheld terminals
The handheld terminals are most popular because of their smaller size and
weight, which are decreasing continuously. These terminals can emit up to 2 W
of power. With evolution in technology, the maximum allowed power is reduced to
0.8 W.
5.1.2.5 Mobile subscriber identities in GSM
It would be better to discuss some of the important subscriber identities in the
GSM, which make the use of this technology safer for every person whether
he/she is a subscriber of GSM or not.
1) International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
An IMSI is assigned to each authorized GSM user. It consists of a mobile country
code (MCC), mobile network code (MNC) (to identify the PLMN), and a PLMN
unique mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN). The IMSI is the only
absolute identity that a subscriber has within the GSM system. The IMSI consists
of the MCC followed by the MNC and MSIN and shall not exceed 15 digits. It is
used in the case of system-internal signaling transactions in order to identify a
subscriber. The first two digits of the MSIN identify the HLR where the mobile
subscriber is administrated. [069]
39
(such as traffic system disruption and malfunctioning of the system), the MSC
can direct individual TMSIs to provide the MSC with their IMSI.
The Base Station (BS) terminates the radio interface (Um) on the stationary
network side. The BS has a modular design and includes the:
40
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
• Base Station Controller (BSC)
• Transcoding and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU) [070], [071]
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
In GSM, the Base Station System is a term given to a BSC (Base Station
Controller) and the BTS (Base Transceiver Station) associated with it. The
number of BTS associated with a BSC is dependent on the manufacturer.
Although not mandatory, through interpretation of the Abis interface standard
BTS and BSC employed within a BSS will always be supplied by the same
manufacturer. [072], [073]
41
paging, quality management of transmission and reception over the air interface
and many other tasks related to the radio network. [074]
A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or
more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a
BTS. BSC within a mobile network is a key component for handling and routing
information. The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions
such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF)
power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an
MSC.
The BSC is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The
BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its
control. It assigns and releases frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own
area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in
42
its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally
heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the
power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and
frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC
also measures the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If
the received MS signal is not centered in its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The
BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such that proper
synchronization takes place. The BSC may also perform traffic concentration to
reduce the number of transmission lines from the BSC to its BTSs. [074]
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies,
frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border
calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio
planning engineering which involves modeling of the signal propagation as well
as traffic projections. [075], [076]
The packet control unit (PCU) is a late addition to the GSM standard. It performs
some of the processing tasks of the BSC, but for packet data. The allocation of
channels between voice and data is controlled by the base station, but once a
channel is allocated to the PCU, the PCU takes full control over that channel.
The PCU can be built into the base station, built into the BSC or even, in some
proposed architectures, it can be at the SGSN site. In most of the cases, the
43
PCU is a separate node communicating extensively with the BSC on the radio
side and the SGSN on the Gb side.
The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the
network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
A BTS is a network component that serves one cell and is controlled by a BSC.
BTS is typically able to handle three to five radio carries, carrying between 24
and 40 simultaneous communication. Reducing the BTS volume is important to
keeping down the cost of the cell sites.
44
single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same
TDM frame.
There are two categorize in which, BTS may be arranged in the cells depending
upon the circumstances of the region in which they are to be used. The two
arrangements are shown in figure below.
Collocated BTS
Remote BTS
45
Star BTS
The primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from
a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the
signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the
antenna system at the cell site. Transcoding to bring 13-kbps speech to a
standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals to 64
kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though; it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The
voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech
channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and
time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and
BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded,
decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments.
Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to
BSC. The channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is
determined by BTS. BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink
radio channel measurement corresponding to the downlink measurements made
by MS has to be made by BTS. [078], [079]
46
5.2.2.5 Sectorization
47
Figure 5.8(b): Site Sectorization-Tri Cell site [056]
48
BTSs are connected by individual lines to the same BSC; and sectorized urban
configuration in which three BTSs share the same site and are controlled by
either a collocated or remote BSC. In rural areas, most BTSs are installed to
provide maximum coverage rather then maximum capacity.
The interface between the MSC and the BSS is a standardized SS7 interface (A-
interface) that, as stated before, is fully defined in the GSM recommendations.
This allows the system operator to purchase switching equipment from one
supplier and radio equipment and the controller from another. The interface
between the BSC and a remote BTS likewise is a standard the Abis. In splitting the
BSS functions between BTS and BSC, the main principle was that only such
49
the BSS. This approach allows for the maximum of flexibility and innovation in
optimizing the transmission between MSC and BTS.
The transcoder is the device that takes 13-Kbps speech or 3.6/6/12-Kbps data
multiplexes and four of them to convert into standard 64-Kbps data. First, the 13
Kbps or the data at 3.6/6/12 Kbps are brought up to the level of 16 Kbps by
inserting additional synchronizing data to make up the difference between a 13-
Kbps speech or lower rate data, and then four of them are combined in the
transcoder to provide 64 Kbps channel within the BSS. Four traffic channels can
then be multiplexed on one 64-Kbps circuit. Thus, the TRAU output data rate is
64 Kbps. Then, up to 30 such 64-Kbps channels are multiplexed onto a 2.048
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Mbps if a CEPT1 channel is provided on the Abis interface. This channel can carry
up to 120-(16x 120) traffic and control signals. Since the data rate to the
PSTN is normally at 2 Mbps, which is the result of combining 30-Kbps by 64-
Kbps channels, or 120- Kbps by 16-Kbps channels. [080]
5.2.3.1 Um-interface
50
It is the air interface between the mobile station (MS) and the BTS. This interface
uses LAPDm protocol for signaling, to conduct call control, measurement
reporting, handover, power control, authentication, authorization, location update
and so on. Traffic and signaling are sent in bursts of 0.577 ms at intervals of
4.615 ms, to form data blocks each 20 ms.
5.2.3.2 Abis-interface
The interface between the BTS and BSC. Generally carried by a DS-1, ES-1, or
E1 TDM circuit. Uses TDM subchannels for traffic (TCH), LAPD protocol for BTS
supervision and telecom signaling, and carries synchronization from the BSC to
the BTS and MS.
The Abis interface uses multiplexing (Mult) or rate adaptation (RA) on its links.
The first option means that four 16 kbit/s links are multiplexed into one 64 kbit/s
channel. The latter option means that no multiplexing of the 16 kbit/s channels
takes place. [058]
5.2.3.3 A-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and MSC. It is used for carrying traffic
channels and the BSSAP user part of the SS7 stack. Although there are usually
transcoding units between BSC and MSC, the signaling communication takes
51
place between these two ending points and the transcoder unit doesn't touch the
SS7 information, only the voice or CS data are transcoded or rate adapted.
5.2.3.4 Ater-interface
It is the interface between the BSC and transcoder. It is a proprietary interface
whose name depends on the vendor (for example Ater by Nokia), it carries the A
interface information from the BSC leaving it untouched.
5.2.3.5 Gb-interface
It connects the BSS to the SGSN in the GPRS core network . [059]
52
• Authentication Centre (AuC)
The network and the switching subsystem together include the main switching
functions of GSM as well as the databases needed for subscriber data and
mobility management (VLR). The main role of the MSC is to manage the
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
53
nature of the subscribers and has to perform, in addition, at least, activities
required for the location registration and handover.
The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred to as the GSM core network,
usually refers to the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM
services such as voice calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls.
There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM core network to provide packet-
switched data services and is known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile
phones to have access to services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.
All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based
services, so most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard
GSM core network. [062]
from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
54
• The home location register (HLR) for obtaining data about the SIM and mobile
services ISDN number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number).
• The UMTS terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN) which handles the radio
communication with 3G mobile phones.
• The visitor location register (VLR) for determining where other mobile
subscribers are located.
• Other MSCs for procedures such as handover.
a) Billing Center
Each MSC writes call accounting records to local disk memory. Billing Center
periodically polls the disk records of each MSC to collect the billing data for the
PLMN.
b) Service Center
The Service Center interfaces with the MSCs to provide special services, such as
the Short Message Service (SMS), to mobile subscribers in the PLMN. The
Billing Center and Service Center are not a basic part of the GSM system. [083]
55
• Arranging handovers from BSC to BSC.
• Carrying out handovers from this MSC to another.
• Supporting supplementary services such as conference calls or call hold.
• Generating billing information. [084]
There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects
their complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the
same MSC, but doing different things at different times.
The gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the
subscriber who is being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the
PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a
G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may
provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function; however, some
manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs
connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the
calls they handle.
The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The
VLR associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
3) Anchor MSC
The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The
target MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. A mobile
56
switching centre server is a part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from
3GPP Release 5. [084]
Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from
Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the
subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery
system
'Home Location Register' The home location register (HLR) is a central database
that contains details of each mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use
the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical, HLRs per
public land mobile network (PLMN), though one international mobile subscriber
identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which
can span several physical nodes) at a time.
57
The HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator.
Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each
HLR record.
The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs,
which are the telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive
calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used for making and receiving voice
calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs
associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a primary key to the
HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the
mobile phone operator.
The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions
and messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location
update messages received as mobile phones roam around.
58
• The AUC for authentication and ciphering and exchange of data (triplets)
The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move
around a lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
The visitor location register is a temporary database of the subscribers who have
roamed into the particular area which it serves. Each base station in the network is
served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than
one VLR at a time.
The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected
from the MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the
VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly
linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.
59
• IMSI (the subscriber's identity number).
• Authentication data.
• MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number).
• GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access.
• access point (GPRS) subscribed.
• The HLR address of the subscriber.
• The V-MSC to pass needed data for its procedures; e.g., authentication or call
setup.
• The HLR to request data for mobile phones attached to its serving area.
• Other VLRs to transfer temporary data concerning the mobile when they roam
into new VLR areas. For example, the temporal mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).
• To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered
by the VLR.
• To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no
call is ongoing.
• To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use.
• To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls.
• To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the
area of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period
of inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off
and left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for
a long time).
60
• To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another,
as instructed by the HLR. [086], [087], [088]
The authentication centre (AUC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that
attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is
powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to
manage the SIM and services described above. An encryption key is also
generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications
(voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.
If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular
combination of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an
additional form of identification check performed on the serial number of the
mobile phone described in the EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the
AUC processing.
The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead
generates data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The
security of the process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the
SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and
is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between the
AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for
identification purposes and an encryption key called Kc for use in over the air
communications. [088]
61
The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile
equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile
stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a
combined AUC/EIR node.
EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The
IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN.
It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units
in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME
identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or originating
call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each
group has different characteristics:
White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid
MS’s. This is the category of genuine equipment.
Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen.
Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty
software, and wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with
faults not important enough for barring. [088]
62
Figure 5.13: The OMC [089]
The OMC provides alarm-handling functions to report and log alarms generated
by the other network entities. The maintenance personnel at the OMC can define
that criticality of the alarm. Maintenance covers both technical and administrative
actions to maintain and correct the system operation, or to restore normal
operations after a breakdown, in the shortest possible time.
63
collect large amounts of data exists, maintenance personal can select which of
the detailed statistics to be collected based on personal interests and past
experience. As a result of performance analysis, if necessary, an alarm can be
set remotely.
The OMC provides system change control for the software revisions and
configuration data bases in the network entities or uploaded to the OMC. The
OMC also keeps track of the different software versions running on different
subsystem of the GSM. [090], [091]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Husain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
64
Chapter 6
GSM SERVICES
65
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Telephony services are mainly voice services that provide subscribers with the
complete capability (including necessary terminal equipment) to communicate
with other subscribers. Data services provide the capacity necessary to transmit
appropriate data signals between two access points creating an interface to the
network. In addition to normal telephony and emergency calling, the following
subscriber services are supported by GSM:
66
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
area of the network. This function ensures that the message will be
received.
• Fax mail —with this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at
any fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which
they can be retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the
desired fax number. [091], [92], [93], [097]
• Call forwarding —this service gives the subscriber the ability to forward
incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable,
if it is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed
unconditionally.
67
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
• Call hold —this service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call
and then subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only
applicable to normal telephony.
68
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
69
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Chapter 7
GSM FUNCTIONS
70
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
In this chapter, the description of the GSM network is focused on the different
functions to fulfill by the network and not on its physical components. In GSM,
five main functions can be defined:
• Transmission
• Radio Resources Management (RRM).
• Mobility Management (MM).
• Communication Management (CM).
• Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM).
7.2 Transmission
Transmission means sending and receiving of data and signaling bits. Not all the
components of the GSM network are strongly related with both types of types of
Tx. While the MSC, BTS and BSC, among others, are involved with data and
signaling, components such as HLR, VLR or EIR registers, are only concerned
with signaling. The GSM standard also provides separate facilities for
transmitting digital data. This allows a mobile phone to act like any other
computer on the Internet, sending and receiving data via the Internet Protocol.
[097]
71
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
7.3.1 Handoff
The user movements may result a change in the channel/cell, when the quality of
the communication is degrading; this is known as handoff. Handoffs occur
between:
72
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
To perform the handoff the mobile station controls continuously its own signal
strength and the signal strength of the neighboring cells. The list of cells that
must be monitored by the mobile station is given by the base station. Power
measurements allow deciding which the best cell is in order to maintain the
quality of the communication link. Two basic algorithms are used for handoffs:
73
The `power budget' algorithm: Here the handoff pre-empts the power
increase, to obtain a good SIR.
Authentication involves the SIM card and the Authentication Center. A secret key,
stored in the SIM card and the AuC together with a ciphering algorithm called A3,
are used to authenticate the user. The MN and the AuC computes a SRES
through A3 using the secret key and a nonce generated by the AuC. If the two
computed SRES are the same, the subscriber is authenticated. The different
services to which the subscriber has access are also checked. Next the a
security check is performed in the equipment identity (IMEI). If the IMEI number
of the mobile is authorized in the EIR, the mobile station is allowed to connect the
network. To assure user confidentiality, the user is registered with a Temporary
Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) after its first location update procedure.
Enciphering is another option to guarantee a very strong security. [100], [102]
74
The CM component manages:
• a country code
• a national destination code; this identifies the subscriber's operator
• a code mapping to the subscriber's HLR.
• The call is then passsed to the GMSC (if the call is originated from a
fixed network) that 'knows' the HLR corresponding to the particular
MSISDN number. The GMSC signals the HLR for call routing
information. The HLR requests this information from the subscriber's
current VLR. This VLR allocates temporarily a Mobile Station Roaming
Number (MSRN) for the call. The MSRN number is the information
returned by the HLR to the GMSC. It is latter that routes the call
through the MSRN number, to the subscriber's current MSC/VLR. In
the subscriber's current LA, the mobile is paged.
75
7.7 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
The OAM component allows the operator to monitor and control the system as
well as modify the configuration of the elements of the system. Not only the OSS
is part of the OAM, but also the BSS and NSS participate in functions such as:
• Provide the operator with all the information it needs. This information is
forwarded to the OSS to control the network.
• Perform self-test tasks in addition to the OAM functions.
• Control of multiple BTSs by the BSS. [105]
When a mobile subscriber roams into a new location area (new VLR), the VLR
automatically determines that it must update the HLR with the new location
information, which it does using an SS7 Location Update Request Message. The
Location Update Message is routed to the HLR through the SS7 network, based
on the global title translation of the IMSI that is stored within the SCCP Called
Party Address portion of the message. The HLR responds with a message that
informs the VLR whether the subscriber should be provided service in the new
location.
76
Figure 7.2: Call routing for a mobile terminating call [106]
When a user dials a GSM mobile subscriber's MSISDN, the PSTN routes the call
to the Home MSC based on the dialed telephone number. The MSC must then
query the HLR based on the MSISDN, to attain routing information required to
route the call to the subscribers' current location.
The MSC stores global title translation tables that are used to determine the HLR
associated with the MSISDN. When only one HLR exists, the translation tables
are trivial. When more than one HLR is used however, the translations become
extremely challenging; with one translation record per subscriber (see the
example below). Having determined the appropriate HLR address, the MSC
sends a Routing Information Request to it.
When the HLR receives the Routing Information Request, it maps the MSISDN to
the IMSI, and ascertains the subscribers' profile including the current VLR at
which the subscriber is registered. The HLR then queries the VLR for a Mobile
Station Roaming Number (MSRN). The MSRN is essentially an ISDN telephone
77
number at which the mobile subscriber can currently be reached. The MSRN is a
temporary number that is valid only for the duration of a single call.
The HLR generates a response message, which includes the MSRN, and sends
it back across the SS7 network to the MSC. Finally, the MSC attempts to
complete the call using the MSRN provided. [107]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Chapter 8
ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES OF
GSM
78
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
• GSM is mature; this maturity means a more stable network with robust
features
• Less signal deterioration inside buildings
• Ability to use repeaters
• Talk-time is generally higher in GSM phones due to the pulse nature of
transmission
• The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch
networks and handsets at will
• GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international roaming is not a
problem.
• The subscriber can enjoy the broadest international coverage. It is
possible with the GSM roaming service. [110]
• Good coverage indoors on 850/900 MHz. Repeaters possible. 35 km hard limit.
79
• Very good due to simple protocol, good coverage and mature, power-efficient chipsets.
[111], [112]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Chapter 9
CONCLUSIONS
80
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
From our discussion on the GSM technology in this report, it may be concluded
that GSM is a very complex standard for the telecommunications. it may be
considered as the first attempt to create a global and universal communication
system involving all the countries of the world. Then the GSM technology was
used as the basis for developing the Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS). Today, 160 different countries are using the GSM, and the
growth is much rapid with increase in the GSM subscriber in millions a year. The
GSM provides continuous and uninterruptible communication to all its
subscribers with strong signal quality. The marvelous and awe-inspiring feature of
roaming in GSM increases the attraction of this technology, making it more
popular among people than any other technology. Actually, GSM has many
features for its users which require much space to cover in depth.
81
The GSM architecture is quite amazing as it employs the modular structure. The
advantage associated with this type of modular structure is that it becomes easy
to work with and understand each of the modules separately without causing the
functionality of remaining modules to be interrupted. The main three parts
involved are; Radio subsystem (RSS), Network (switching) subsystem (SSS),
and Operation and maintenance subsystem (OMS). The RSS consists of; Mobile
Equipment (ME), Base Station (BS), and Radio Interface (Um). The SSS has five
main parts; Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC), Home Location Register
(HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), Authentication Centre (AuC), Equipment
Identification Register (EIR). Finally, an OMS, the heart of the BSS, consists of
one or more Operation & Maintenance Centre (OMC).
The services provided by the GSM are divided into three categories; the
teleservices, Bearer services, and supplementary services. Its functions include;
Transmission, Radio Resources Management (RRM), Mobility Management
(MM), Communication Management (CM), Operation, Administration and
Maintenance (OAM).
There are many advantages of GSM technology, but few of them are; GSM more
stable network with robust features, there is less signal deterioration inside
buildings etc., the availability of SIMs allows users to switch networks and
handsets at will, GSM covers virtually all parts of the world so international
roaming is not a problem, the subscriber can enjoy the broadest international
coverage. It is possible with the GSM roaming service, Very good due to simple
protocol, good coverage and mature, power-efficient chipsets.
Nothing in this world is ideal, drawbacks are always there. The disadvantage
associated with the GSM is that pulse nature of TDMA transmission used
interferes with some electronics, especially certain audio amplifiers. GSM has a
fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km, which is imposed by technical
limitations.
82
Overall, GSM is really a great and efficient technology bringing world together
and making every place as our homes due to a communication with people
anywhere anytime.
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Appendix A
83
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Although these technologies sound very intimidating, you can get a good sense
of how they work just by breaking down the title of each one. The first word tells
you what the access method is. The second word, division, lets you know that it
splits calls based on that access method.
FDMA puts each call on a separate frequency.
TDMA assigns each call a certain portion of time on a designated frequency.
CDMA gives a unique code to each call and spreads it over the available
frequencies.
The last part of each name is multiple access. This simply means that more than
one user can utilize each cell.
FDMA
FDMA separates the spectrum into distinct voice channels by splitting it into
uniform chunks of bandwidth. To better understand FDMA, think of radio stations:
Each station sends its signal at a different frequency within the available band.
FDMA is used mainly for analog transmission. While it is certainly capable of
carrying digital information, FDMA is not considered to be an efficient method for
digital transmission.
84
Figure A1: In FDMA, each phone uses a different frequency. [113]
TDMA
TDMA is the access method used by the Electronics Industry Alliance and the
Telecommunications Industry Association for Interim Standard 54 (IS-54) and
Interim Standard 136 (IS-136). Using TDMA, a narrow band that is 30 kHz wide
and 6.7 milliseconds long is split time-wise into three time slots. Narrow band
means "channels" in the traditional sense. Each conversation gets the radio for
one-third of the time. This is possible because voice data that has been
converted to digital information is compressed so that it takes up significantly less
transmission space. Therefore, TDMA has three times the capacity of an analog
system using the same number of channels. TDMA systems operate in either the
800-MHz (IS-54) or 1900-MHz (IS-136) frequency bands.
85
Figure A2: TDMA splits a frequency into time slots [113]
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Appendix B
86
Difference between GSM and CDMA
In cellular service, there are two chief competing network technologies: Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). Understanding the difference between GSM and CDMA will permit you
to choose a carrier that uses the preferable network technology for your needs.
Coverage
The most important factor is getting service in the areas you will be using your
phone. Upon viewing competitors' coverage maps you may discover that only
GSM or CDMA carriers offer cellular service in your area. If so, there is no
decision to be made, but most people will find that they do have a choice.
With the advent of cellular phones doing double and triple duty as streaming
video devices, podcast receivers and email devices, speed is important to those
87
who use the phone for more than making calls. CDMA has been traditionally
faster than GSM, though both technologies continue to rapidly leapfrog along this
path. Both boast "3G" standards, or 3rd generation technologies.
EVDO, also known as CDMA2000, is CDMA's answer to the need for speed with
a downstream rate of about 2 megabits per second, though some reports
suggest real world speeds are closer to 300-700 kilobits per second (kbps). This
is comparable to basic DSL.
GSM's answer is EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), which
boasts data rates of up to 384 kbps with real world speeds reported closer to 70-
140 kbps. With added technologies still in the works that include UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telephone Standard) and HSDPA (High Speed Downlink
Packet Access), speeds reportedly increase to about 275—380 kbps. This
technology is also known as W-CDMA, but is incompatible with CDMA networks.
An EDGE-ready phone is required.
In the case of EVDO, theoretical high traffic can degrade speed and
performance, while the EDGE network is more susceptible to interference. Both
require being within close range of a cell to get the best speeds, while
performance decreases with distance.
In the United States only GSM phones use SIM cards. The removable SIM card
allows phones to be instantly activated, interchanged, swapped out and
upgraded, all without carrier intervention. The SIM itself is tied to the network,
rather than the actual phone. Phones that are card-enabled can be used with any
GSM carrier. The CDMA equivalent, a R-UIM card, is only available in parts of
Asia but remains on the horizon for the U.S. market. CDMA carriers in the U.S.
88
require proprietary handsets that are linked to one carrier only and are not card-
enabled.
To upgrade a CDMA phone, the carrier must deactivate the old phone then
activate the new one. The old phone becomes useless.
Roaming
For the most part, both networks have fairly concentrated coverage in major
cities and along major highways. GSM carriers, however, have roaming contracts
with other GSM carriers, allowing wider coverage of more rural areas, generally
speaking, often without roaming charges to the customer. CDMA networks may
not cover rural areas as well as GSM carriers, and though they may contract with
GSM cells for roaming in more rural areas, the charge to the customer will
generally be significantly higher.
International Roaming
If you need to make calls to other countries, a GSM carrier can offer international
roaming, as GSM networks dominate the world market. If you travel to other
countries you can even use your GSM cell phone abroad, providing it is a quad-
band phone (850/900/1800/1900 MHz). By purchasing a SIM card with minutes
and a local number in the country you are visiting, you can make calls against the
card to save yourself international roaming charges from your carrier back home.
CDMA phones that are not card-enabled do not have this capability.
Syed Muhammad Munavvar Hussain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
Citations
89
“When something can be read without effort,
Great effort has gone into its writing.”
001:
http://pt.com/page/tutorials/gsm-tutorial
90
002:
http://www.palowireless.com/gsm/tutorials.asp
003:
http://user.cs.tu-berlin.de/~jutta/gsm/js-intro.html
004:
www.hutchison-whampoa.com/eng/telecom/htil/htil.htm - 67k
005:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_frequency_ranges
006:
www.hutchison-whampoa.com/eng/telecom/htil/htil.htm - 67k
007:
http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/gsm/topic05.asp]
008:
http://www.telecomspace.com/gsm-specifications.html
009:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_specification.htm
010:
http://www.visualtron.com/gsm_topic05.htm
011:
http://www.visualtron.com/gsm_topic04.htm
012:
http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/t.pagtzis/wireless/gsm/arch.html
013:
www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_architecture.htm
014:
http://www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/jargon.htm]
015:
Javier Gozálvez Sempere, Research Engineer in Mobile Communications,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
016:
http://paginas.fe.up.pt/~mleitao/CMOV/Tecnico/GSM_Sempere.html
91
017:
in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080824235013AA8MYFA - 24k -
018:
http://www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/jargon.htm
019:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocell#cite_note-0
020:
http://www.mpirical.com/companion/mpirical_companion.html#GSM/Macro_Cell.
htm
021:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcell
022:
http://www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/jargon.htm
023:
in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080824235013AA8MYFA - 24k -
024:
http://www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/jargon.htm
025:
in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080824235013AA8MYFA - 24k -
026:
http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/t.pagtzis/wireless/gsm/cellular.html
027:
http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/t.pagtzis/wireless/gsm/cellular.html
028:
http://www.gsmfavorites.com/documents/introduction/gsm/
029:
http://www.mobiledia.com/glossary/108.html
030:
http://www.telecomabc.nl/c/plaatjes/cel-cluster.gif
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
031:
http://wireless.per.nl/reference/chaptr04/cellplan/reuse.htm
92
032:
http://www.emory.edu/BUSINESS/et/P98/gsm/history.html
033:
C. Déchaux and R. Scheller. What are GSM and DCS. Electrical Communication,
2nd Quarter 1993.
034:
Torbjorn Nilsson. Toward a New Era in Mobile Communications
035:
http://user.cs.tu-berlin.de/~jutta/gsm/js-intro.html
036:
http://www.indiabroadband.net/mobile-phone-service-providers/16433-history-
gsm.html
037:
http://www.visualtron.com/gsm_topic01.htm
038:
http://www.tns.lcs.mit.edu/~turletti/gsm-overview/node4.html
039:
http://www.geocities.com/gsmmobilereport/gsmradiolink.htm
040:
http://www.geocities.com/gsmmobilereport/gsmradiolink.htm
041:
http://www.geocities.com/gsmmobilereport/gsmradiolink.htm
042:
http://www.privateline.com/PCS/GSM06.html
043:
http://www.geocities.com/gsmmobilereport/gsmradiolink.htm
044:
http://www.azizi.ca/gsm/ma/index.html
045:
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html
93
046:
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html
047:
http://www.hit.bme.hu/~mihaly/mobil.hir/gsmbase.pdf
048:
C. B. Southcott et al. Voice control of the pan-European digital mobile radio
system. In IEEE GLOBECOM 1989, November 1989.
049:
http://www.tns.lcs.mit.edu/~turletti/gsm-overview/node5.html
050:
Performance Enhancements in a Frequency Hopping GSM Network, By Thomas
Toftegaard Nielsen, Jeroen Wigard, Edition: illustrated, Published by Springer,
2000
051:
http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/t.pagtzis/wireless/gsm/arch.html
052:
http://www.electronics-manufacturers.com/products/wireless-
communication/mobile-station/
053:
Hutchison Whampoa Limited Company manual
054:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_station
055:
santos.ee.ntu.edu.tw/mobile/2_2%20GSM.pdf
056:
Motorola Training manual
057:
http://www.radio-
electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gsm_technical/gsm_interfaces.php
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
058:
94
http://www.mpirical.com/companion/mpirical_companion.html#GSM/AbisInterface
.htm
059:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Station_Subsystem
060:
http://www.pulsewan.com/data101/gsm_basics.htm
061:
http://www.radio-
electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gsm_technical/gsm_architecture.php
062:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS_Core_Network
063:
www.tcil-india.com/new/new_site/white%20paper/RK-3%20GSM%20Network.ppt
064:
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html
065:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_mobile_station.htm
066:
http://www.pulsewan.com/data101/gsm_basics.htm
067:
Hutchison Whampoa Limited manual
068:
http://waridtel.net/?p=7
069:
http://www.mpirical.com/companion/mpirical_companion.html#Generic/IMSIIdenti
ty.htm
070:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMEI
071:
95
http://www.gsm-security.net/faq/imei-international-mobile-equipment-identity-
gsm.shtml
072:
http://www.wicomtech.com/html/bss.asp
073:
http://www.mpirical.com/companion/mpirical_companion.html#GSM/BSS.htm
074:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Station_Subsystem
075:
http://www.electronics-manufacturers.com/products/wireless-
communication/base-station-controller/
076:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_base_station_subsystem.htm
077:
http://d.scribd.com/docs/1c3diyhjursdmjkxn406.ppt
078:
http://www.webschool.co.in/telecom/gsm/arch/functions_of_bts.php
079:
http://www.electronics-manufacturers.com/products/wireless-
communication/base-transceiver-station/
080:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/4757109/Gsm
081:
www.urtracked.com/gsm.htm
082:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gsm_network.png
083:
www.geocities.com/.../architecture.htm
084:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS_Core_Network
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
085:
96
Nokia SYSTRA Training Material
086:
http://www.m-indya.com/gsm/gsmarchitecture.php
087:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_architecture.htm
088:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_network_switching_subsystem.htm
089:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_operation_support_subsystem.htm
090:
http://www.telecomspace.com/gsm.html
091:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/gsm/gsm_network_switching_subsystem.htm
092:
http://e-articles.info/e/a/title/Features-and-Services-of-GSM/
093:
http://www.ewh.ieee.org/r10/bombay/news5/GSM.htm
094:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_services
095:
http://www.visualtron.com/gsm_topic06.htm
096:
http://www.aws.cit.ie/personnel/dpesch/notes/msc_sw/GSM_services.pdf
097:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_services
098:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_resource_management
099:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_resource_management
100:
97
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html#5.2
101:
http://www.gsmfavorites.com/documents/introduction/gsm/
102:
http://www.pulsewan.com/data101/gsm_basics.htm#Mobility%20Management%
20
103:
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html#5.2
104:
http://www.privateline.com/mt_gsmhistory/2006/01/communication_management.
html
105:
http://www.tns.lcs.mit.edu/~turletti/gsm-overview/node6.html
106:
http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html
107:
http://pt.com/page/tutorials/gsm-tutorial
108:
http://www.azizi.ca/gsm/ma/index.html#ref2
109:
http://www.sitefinder.ofcom.org.uk/jargon.htm
110:
http://ezinearticles.com/?Several-Advantages-of-World-GSM-Cellular-
Phones&id=2024801
111:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_mobile_phone_standards
112:
http://in.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20070202053500AA6OrQt
113:
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone7.htm
98