Why are clouds white?

Clouds appear white because the light coming from the sun has to pass through the
water droplets and ice crystals or we can say that the seven colors of visible spectrum
(red, orange, yellow, green, and blue, indigo, violet) which when combines forms white
light and this process of combining isdone by water droplets or ice crystals present in
theclouds. On the whole we can say that light is reflected in many ways which combines
to give white color. Mainlyclouds at a high altitude appear white and at that height water
vapors are frozen and changed in ice crystals.
Many times cloud alsoappears dark in color it is mainly because of its altitude and
reflection of sunlight. Stormsclouds are thickestclouds. So when sunlight falls on them
from above they soak the light altogether and very negligible light reaches to our eyes
which give dark color to theclouds when we look at them from bottom but if we observe
the sameclouds from above they will be pure white.
Greyclouds are caused because of the shadow of higherclouds on the lowerclouds or
theclouds are sometimes so dense that they cast their own shadow on the base which
gives them grey color. Darkclouds not always cause rain. More the droplets formed in
theclouds more is the light absorbed in it. During sunsetclouds are orange or red because
blue color of sunlight is scattered and light has to pass through thick layer of atmosphere
and dust particles when sun is lowered in the west. Sometimes a cloudappears blue due to
the scattered blue light which makes the sky look blue.
The most unusual color is green. When reddish light falls on the cloud having large
amount of water droplets make them look green.

Clouds
What areclouds?
A cloud is a large collection of very tiny droplets of water or ice crystals.
The droplets are so small and light that they can float in the air.

How areclouds formed?

All air contains water, but near the ground it is usually in the form of an
invisible gas called water vapor. When warm air rises, it expands and cools.
Cool air can't hold as much water vapor as warm air, so some of the vapor
condenses onto tiny pieces of dust that are floating in the air and forms a
tiny droplet around each dust particle. When billions of these droplets come
together they become a visible cloud.
 Why areclouds white?
Clouds are white because they reflect the light of the sun. Light is made up
of colors of the rainbow and when you add them all together you get white.
The sunappears a yellow color because it sends out more yellow light than
any other color.Clouds reflect all the colors the exact same amount so they
look white.

Why do clouds turn gray?

Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals, usually a mixture
of both. The water and ice scatter all light, makingclouds appear white. If
theclouds get thick enough or high enough all the light abovedoes not make it
through, hence the gray or dark look. Also, if there are lots of otherclouds
around, their shadow can add to the gray or multicolored gray appearance.

With extreme weather, emergency preparedness is a necessity for your

family. By taking special precautions and checking for hazards before a
disaster strikes, you'll be much more likely to stay safe.

Why do clouds float?

A cloud is made up of liquid water droplets. A cloud forms when air is heated
by the sun. As it rises, it slowly cools it reaches the saturation point and
water condenses, forming a cloud. As long as the cloud and the air that its
made of is warmer than the outside air around it, it floats!

Howdo clouds move?

Clouds move with the wind. High cirrusclouds are pushed along by the jet
stream, sometimes traveling at more than 100 miles-per-hour. Whenclouds
are part of a thunderstorm they usually travel at 30 to 40 mph.

Why do clouds form at different heights in the atmosphere?

The characteristics ofclouds are dictated by the elements available,
including the amount of water vapor, the temperatures at that height, the
 wind, and the interplay of other air masses.

How is fog formed?

There are many different types of fog, but fog is mostly formed when
southerly winds bring warm, moist air into a region, possibly ending a cold
outbreak. As the warm, moist air flows over much colder soil or snow, dense
fog often forms. Warm, moist air is cooled from below as it flows over a
colder surface. If the air is near saturation, moisture will condense out of
the cooled air and form fog. With light winds, the fog near the ground can
become thick and reduce visibilities to zero.
(Graphic Credit: USA TODAY.)

You need warm air!

Fog Forms! Moisture
Southerly winds bring
condenses into fog as air is
warm, moist air over cold
cooled from below.
ground or snow.

Cloud Chart
Cloud Group Cloud Height Cloud Types
Cirrus
HighClouds = Cirrus Above 18,000 feet Cirrostratus
Cirrocumulus
Altostratus
MiddleClouds = Alto 6,500 feet to 18,000 feet
Altocumulus
Stratus
LowClouds = Stratus Up to 6,500 feet Stratocumulus
Nimbostratus
Cumulus
Clouds with Vertical Growth
Cumulonimbus
SpecialClouds Mammatus
Lenticular
 Fog
Contrails

CirrusClouds
Cirruscloudsare the most common of the highclouds. They are composed of
ice and are thin, wispyclouds blown in high winds into long streamers.
Cirrusclouds are usually white and predict fair to pleasant weather. By
watching the movement of cirrusclouds you can tell from which direction
weather is approaching. When you see cirrusclouds, it usually indicates that
a change in the weather will occur within 24 hours.

Cirrostratuscloudsare thin, sheetlike highclouds that often cover the entire

sky. They are so thin that the sun and moon can be seen through them.
Cirrostratusclouds usually come 12-24 hours before a rain or snow storm.

Cirrocumuluscloudsappear as small, rounded white puffs that appear in long

rows. The small ripples in the cirrocumulusclouds sometime resemble the
scales of a fish. Cirrocumulusclouds are usually seen in the winter and
indicate fair, but cold weather. In tropical regions, they may indicate an
approaching hurricane.
 "Alto"Clouds
Altostratuscloudsare gray or blue-gray mid levelclouds composed of ice
crystals and water droplets. Theclouds usually cover the entire sky. In the
thinner areas of theclouds, the sun may be dimly visible as a round disk.
Altostratusclouds often form ahead of storms with continuous rain or snow.

Altocumuluscloudsare mid levelclouds that are made of water droplets and

appear as gray puffy masses. They usually form in groups. If you see
altocumulusclouds on a warm, sticky morning, be prepared to see
thunderstorms late in the afternoon.

StratusClouds
Stratuscloudsare uniform grayishclouds that often cover the entire sky.
They resemble fog thatdoesn't reach the ground. Light mist or drizzle
sometimes falls out of theseclouds.
Stratocumuluscloudsare low, puffy and gray. Most form in rows with blue sky
visible in between them. Rain rarely occurs with stratocumulusclouds,
however, they can turn into nimbostratusclouds.

Nimbostratusclouds form a dark gray, wet looking cloudy layer associated

with continuously falling rain or snow. They often produce precipitation that
is usually light to moderate.

CumulusClouds
Cumuluscloudsare white, puffyclouds that look like pieces of floating cotton.
Cumulusclouds are often called "fair-weatherclouds". The base of each cloud
is flat and the top of each cloud has rounded towers. When the top of the
cumulusclouds resemble the head of a cauliflower, it is called cumulus
congestus or towering cumulus. Theseclouds grow upward and they can
develop into giant cumulonimbusclouds, which are thunderstormclouds.
Cumulonimbuscloudsare thunderstormclouds. High winds can flatten the top
of the cloud into an anvil-like shape. Cumulonimbusclouds are associated with
heavy rain, snow, hail, lightning and even tornadoes. The anvil usually points in
the direction the storm is moving.

SpecialClouds
Mammatuscloudsare low hanging bulges that droop from cumulonimbusclouds.
Mammatusclouds are usually associated with severe weather.

Lenticularclouds are caused by a wave wind pattern created by the

mountains. They look like discs or flying saucers that form near mountains.
Fog is a cloud on the ground. It is composed of billions of tiny water droplets
floating in the air. Fog exists if the atmospheric visibility near the Earth's
surface is reduced to 1 kilometer or less.

Contrails are condensation trails left behind jet aircrafts. Contrails form
when hot humid air from jet exhaust mixes with environmental air of low
vapor pressure and low temperature. The mixing is a result of turbulence
generated by the engine exhaust.

GreenCloudsare often associated with severe weather. The green color is

not completely understood, but it is thought to have something todo with
having a high amount of liquid water drops and hail inside theclouds. In the
Great Plains region of the U.S. greenclouds are associated with storms likely
 to produce hail and tornadoes.

Radiation
Laws
The average or bulk properties of electromagnetic radiation interacting with matter
are systematized in a simple set of rules called radiation laws. These laws apply when
the radiating body is what physicists call a blackbody radiator. Generally, blackbody
conditions apply when the radiator has very weak interaction with the surrounding
environment and can be considered to be in a state of equilibrium. Although stars
do not satisfy perfectly the conditions to be blackbody radiators, they do to a
sufficiently good approximation that it is useful to view stars as approximate
blackbody radiators.

Planck Radiation Law

The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the Planck Radiation Law, which
governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area into a fixed direction
(solid angle) from the blackbody as a function of wavelength for a fixed
temperature. The Planck Law can be expressed through the following equation.

The behavior is illustrated in the figure shown above. The Planck Law gives a
distribution that peaks at a certain wavelength, the peak shifts to shorter
wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area under the curve grows rapidly
with increasing temperature.

The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws

The behavior of blackbody radiation is described by the Planck Law, but we can
derive from the Planck Law two other radiation laws that are very useful. The Wien
Displacement Law, and the Stefan-Boltzmann Law are illustrated in the following
equations.

The Wien Law gives the wavelength of the peak of the radiation distribution, while
the Stefan-Boltzmann Law gives the total energy being emitted at all wavelengths by
the blackbody (which is the area under the Planck Law curve). Thus, the Wien Law
explains the shift of the peak to shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases,
while the Stefan-Boltzmann Law explains the growth in the height of the curve as
the temperature increases. Notice that this growth is very abrupt, since it varies as
the fourth power of the temperature.

The following figure illustrates the Wien law in action for three different stars of
quite different surface temperature. The strong shift of the spectrum to shorter
wavelengths with increasing temperatures is apparent in this illustration.
For convenience in plotting these distributions have been normalized to unity at the
respective peaks; by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, the area under the peak for the hot
star Spica is in reality 2094 times the area under the peak for the cool star Antares.

Temperatures and Characteristic Wavelengths

By the Planck Law, all heated objects emit a characteristic spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation, and this spectrum is concentrated in higher wavelengths
for cooler bodies. The following table summarizes the blackbody temperatures
necessary to give a peak for emitted radiation in various regions of the spectrum.
Some Blackbody Temperatures
Region Wavelength Energy Blackbody Temperature
(centimeters) (eV) (K)

Radio > 10 < 10-5 < 0.03

Microwave 10 - 0.01 10-5 - 0.01 0.03 - 30

Infrared 0.01 - 7 x 10-5 0.01 - 2 30 - 4100

Visible 7 x 10-5 - 4 x 10-5 2-3 4100 - 7300

Ultraviolet 4 x 10-5 - 10-7 3 - 103 7300 - 3 x 106

X-Rays 10-7 - 10-9 103 - 105 3 x 106 - 3 x 108

Gamma Rays < 10-9 > 105 > 3 x 108

Blackbody radiation corresponds to radiation from bodies in thermal equilibrium.
We will consider later the emission of non-thermal radiation, which doesn't follow a
blackbody law. Such radiation is often produced by violent collisions rather than
equilibrium heating. For example, in astrophysical environments radiation at the
long and short wavelength ends of the above table is more likely to be produced by
non-thermal processes.

Java Virtual Experiments: Blackbody Radiation

Here are three Java applets illustrating some important properties of blackbody
radiation.

• The Planck Law

• Wien's Law, Stefan-Boltzmann Law, and Color Indices
• BlackBody: The Game!

RADIATION

Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through some material or through
space. Light, heat and sound are types of radiation. The kind of radiation discussed in this
presentation is called ionizing radiation because it can produce charged particles (ions) in matter.

Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable atoms
because they have an excess of energy or mass or both.

Unstable atoms are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these atoms give off, or
emit, the excess energy or mass. These emissions are called radiation. The kinds of radiation are
electromagnetic (like light) and particulate (i.e., mass given off with the energy of motion).
Gamma radiation and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation. Beta and alpha radiation
are examples of particulate radiation. Ionizing radiation can also be produced by devices such as
X-ray machines.

A scale heightis a term often used in scientific contexts for a distance over which a
quantity decreases by a factor of e (the base of natural logarithms). It is usually denoted
by the capital letter H.

For planetary atmospheres, it is the vertical distance upwards, over which the pressure of
theatmosphere decreases by a factor of e.The scale height remains constant for a
particular temperature. It can be calculated by:-

where:
 • k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10−23 J·K−1
• T = mean planetary surface temperaturein kelvins
• M = mean molecular mass of dry air (units kg)
• g = acceleration due to gravity on planetary surface (m/s²)

The pressure at the Earth's surface (or at higher levels) is a result of the weight of the
overlyingatmosphere [force per unit area]. If at a height of ztheatmosphere has density ρ
and pressure P, then moving upwards at aninfinitesimally small height dz will decrease
the pressure by amount dP, equal to the weight of a layer ofatmosphere of thickness dz.

Thus:

where g is used to denote the acceleration due to gravity. For small dz it is possible to
assume gto be constant; the minus signindicates that as the heightincreases the pressure
decreases. Therefore using the equation of state for an ideal gas of mean molecular mass
M at temperature T, the density can be expressed as such:

Therefore combining the equations gives

which can then beincorporated with the equation for H given above to give:

which will not change unless the temperature does.Integrating the above and assuming
where P0 is the pressure at height z = 0 (pressure at sea level) the pressure at height z can
be written as:

This translates as the pressure decreasing exponentially with height.[3]

In the Earth'satmosphere, the pressure at sea level P0 averages about 1.01×105Pa, the
mean molecular mass of dry air is 28.964 u and hence 28.964 × 1.660×10−27 =
4.808×10−26 kg, and g= 9.81 m/s². As a function of temperature the scale height of the
Earth'satmosphere is therefore 1.38/(4.808×9.81)×103= 29.26 m/deg. This yields the
following scale heights for representative air temperatures.

T = 290 K, H = 8500 m
T = 273 K, H = 8000 m
T = 260 K, H = 7610 m
T = 210 K, H = 6000 m

These figures should be compared with the temperature and density of the
Earth'satmosphere plotted at NRLMSISE-00, which shows the air density dropping from
1200 g/m3 at sea level to 0.53 = .125 g/m3at 70 km, a factor of 9600,indicating an average
scale height of 70/ln(9600) = 7.64 km, consistent with theindicated average air
temperature over that range of close to 260 K.

Note:

1. Density is related to pressure by the ideal gaslaws. Therefore with some

departures caused by varying temperature—density will also decrease
exponentially with height from a sea level value of ρ0 roughly equal to 1.2 kg m−3
2. At heights over 100 km, molecular diffusion means that each molecular atomic
species has its own scale height.

inertial force
An apparent force that appears to affect bodies within a non-inertial
frame, but is absent from the point of view of an inertial frame.
Centrifugal forces and Coriolis forces, both observed in rotating
systems, are inertial forces. Inertial forces are proportional to the
body's mass.

Homogeneneous and heterogeneous nucleation

The main difference between the treatment of homogeneous and

heterogeneous nucleation is the geometry of the system. The classical
theory of homogeneous nucleation treats the forming droplet as a
spherical object. In the heterogeneous case the forming embryo is
considered to be part of a sphere attached to the substrate surface. As
in the homogeneous case, the cluster is thought to consist of
incompressible, uniform liquid.

The shape of the cluster is a part of a sphere with the base attached
to the insoluble surface. The angle θ between the embryo surface and
the substrate surface is called the contact angle. The critical radius in
heterogeneous nucleation is the same as in homogeneous nucleation,
as it only depends on the vapor super saturation.
Diamond and Graphite
Graphite and diamond are two of the most interesting minerals. They are identical
chemically—both are composed of carbon (C), but physically, they are very different.
Minerals which have the same chemistry but different crystal structures are called
polymorphs.

When you look at graphite and diamond, it is hard to imagine that they are identical
chemically, for they are so different physically. Graphite is opaque and metallic- to
earthy-looking, while diamonds are transparent and brilliant. (See examples on display.)

Another important physical difference is their hardness. The hardness of minerals is

compared using the Mohs Hardness Scale, a relative scale numbered 1 (softest) to 10
(hardest). Graphite is very soft and has a hardness of 1 to 2 on this scale. Diamonds are
the hardest known natural substance and have a hardness of 10. No other naturally
occurring substance has a hardness of 10. The crystal structure of graphite yields physical
properties that permit the use of graphite as a lubricant and as pencil lead. The gem and
industrial properties of diamond, physical properties that we cherish and exploit, are also
a result of diamond's crystal structure.

The reason for the differences in hardness and other physical properties can be explained
with the molecular models below. In graphite, the individual carbon atoms link up to
form sheets of carbon atoms. Each sheet of carbon atoms is translated (offset) by one-half
of a unit such that alternate sheets are in the same position. Within each sheet every
carbon atom is bonded to three adjacent carbon atoms that lie at the apices of equilateral
triangles. This produces hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has four
valence electrons available to participate in the formation of chemical bonds. Three of
these electrons are used in forming strong covalent bonds with the adjacent atoms in the
sheet. Covalent bonds are a type of chemical bond in which electrons are shared between
atoms. The fourth electron is free to wander over the surface of the sheet making graphite
an electrical conductor. The spacing between the sheets of carbon atoms is greater than
the diameter of the individual atoms. Weak bonding forces called van der Waals forces
hold the sheets together. Because these forces are weak, the sheets can easily slide past
each other. The sliding of these sheets gives graphite its softness for writing and its
lubricating properties.

In diamonds, each carbon atom is strongly bonded to four adjacent carbon atoms located
at the apices of a tetrahedron (a three-sided pyramid). The four valence electrons of each
carbon atom participate in the formation of very strong covalent bonds. These bonds have
the same strength in all directions. This gives diamonds their great hardness. Since there
are no free electrons to wander through the structure, diamonds are excellent insulators.
The brilliance and "fire" of cut diamonds is due to a very high index of refraction (2.42)
and the strong dispersion of light; properties which are related to the structure of
diamonds.
Derivation of Lamkbert’s law for the attenuation of solar
radiation by the atmosphere.

The derivation is quite simple in concept. There are many details, so think of this first
paragraph as a conceptual overview. Divide the absorbing sample into thin slices that are
perpendicular to the beam of light. The light that emerges from a slice is slightly less
intense than the light that entered because some of the photons have run into molecules in
the sample and did not make it to the other side. For most cases where measurements of
absorption are needed, a vast majority of the light entering the slice leaves without being
absorbed. Because the physical description of the problem is in terms of differences---
intensity before and after light passes through the slice---we can easily write an ordinary
differential equation model for absorption. The difference in intensity due to the slice of
absorbing material dI is reduced; leaving the slice, it is a fraction β of the light entering
the slice I. The thickness of the slice is dz, which scales the amount of absorption (thin
slice does not absorb much light but a thick slice absorbs a lot). In symbols, dI = βIdz,
or dI / dz = βI. This conceptual overview uses β to describe how much light is
absorbed. All we can say about the value of this constant is that it will be different for
each material. Also, its values should be constrained between -1 and 0. The following
paragraphs cover the meaning of this constant and the whole derivation in much greater
detail.

Assume that particles may be described as having an absorption cross section (i.e. area),
σ, perpendicular to the path of light through a solution, such that a photon of light is
absorbed if it strikes the particle, and is transmitted if it does not.

Define z as an axis parallel to the direction that photons of light are moving, and A and dz
as the area and thickness (along the z axis) of a 3-dimensional slab of space through
which light is passing. We assume that dz is sufficiently small that one particle in the slab
cannot obscure another particle in the slab when viewed along the z direction. The
concentration of particles in the slab is represented by N.

It follows that the fraction of photons absorbed when passing through this slab is equal to
the total opaque area of the particles in the slab, σAN dz, divided by the area of the slab A,
which yields σN dz. Expressing the number of photons absorbed by the slab as dIz, and
the total number of photons incident on the slab as Iz, the fraction of photons absorbed by
the slab is given by

Note that because there are fewer photons which pass through the slab than are incident
on it, dIz is actually negative (It is proportional in magnitude to the number of photons
absorbed).

The solution to this simple differential equation is obtained by integrating both sides to
obtain Iz as a function of z
The difference of intensity for a slab of real thickness ℓ is I0 at z = 0, and Il at z = ℓ. Using
the previous equation, the difference in intensity can be written as,

rearranging and exponentiating yields,

This implies that

and

The derivation assumes that every absorbing particle behaves independently with respect
to the light and is not affected by other particles. Error is introduced when particles are
lying along the same optical path such that some particles are in the shadow of others.
This occurs in highly concentrated solutions. In practice, when large absorption values
are measured, dilution is required to achieve accurate results. Measurements of
absorption in the range of I1 / I0 = 0.1 to 1 are less affected by shadowing than other
sources of random error. In this range, the ODE model developed above is a good
approximation; measurements of absorption in this range are linearly related to
concentration. At higher absorbances, concentrations will be underestimated due to this
shadow effect unless one employs a more sophisticated model that describes the non-
linear relationship between absorption and concentration