Marine

The diesel engines, gear systems and hydraulics required to power today's
marine industry are expected to operate for long periods of time at full load
capacity under extreme, often uncontrollable, conditions. These units are
constantly exposed to the damaging effects of either fresh water or saltwater,
which are also used by some to cool the very systems that keep them up and
running. Where contamination and wear are eminent, maximizing asset reliability
becomes the priority. Monitoring the condition of both the unit and the fluid
through oil analysis identifies wear-causing contaminants and their effect on
performance…it costs so little to protect so much.

Routine oil analysis is critical to managing asset reliability in any marine

application. High performance expectations and harsh environmental operating
conditions present constant obstacles. Continual exposure to water creates
unique problems. Fresh water-cooled engines are susceptible to condensation
and rust. Diesel engines typically operate at very high temperatures, promoting
oxidation and acid formation. Gear systems and hydraulics are vulnerable to
contamination and wear. Oil changes can be difficult and are not always
convenient. Routine testing and analysis can extend oil drain intervals and
identify small problems before they become costly failures.

Diesel Engines

Basic

Basic testing monitors both the unit and the fluid for wear and contamination.

Tests include:

• 24 Metals by ICP
• Viscosity @ 100°
• Fuel Dilution %
• Soot %
• Water by Crackle %

Wear Metals Guide

Advanced
To safely extend oil drain intervals, Total Base Number and Oxidation / Nitration
will determine if the oil is suitable for continued use.
Tests include:

• 24 Metals by ICP
• Viscosity @ 100°
• Fuel Dilution %
• Soot %
• Water by Crackle %
• Total Base Number
• Oxidation / Nitration

Coolant Analysis
Coolant Analysis takes the guess work out of properly maintaining a cooling
system and can identify maintenance problems before catastrophic engine failure
occurs. Regular coolant testing and routine maintenance can help you achieve
maximum system efficiency and save you time and money in less downtime,
fewer repairs and determining proper drain intervals.

A cooling system is subject to pitting, corrosion, cavitation, erosion and

electrolysis. Although coolants are formulated to help prevent these problems
from occurring, coolant analysis will identify them if present and determine if the
coolant you're using is providing adequate protection. It will also identify:

• Rust, which can accelerate wear, reduce heat transfer efficiency and
eventually clog the system
• Scale and deposit formations that can act as insulators, which form
barriers for proper heat transfer
• Oxidation which can lead to rust

Organic acid coolant testing also monitors carboxylic acid to determine if enough
is present for the proper chemical reactions to occur. If a carboxylic acid test
fails, non-compatible coolant or fluid could be present.

Level I
The following tests monitor coolant maintenance levels to ensure proper engine
metal protection, glycol levels for freeze and boil point control, nitrite for prime
metal pitting protection and acidity for adequate corrosion protection.

Tests include:

• Visual (color, oil, fuel, magnetic precipitate, non-magnetic precipitate, &

odor)
• pH
• Glycol
• Freeze Point
 • Boil Point
• Nitrites
• TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)
• Specific Conductance
• Foam
• Carboxylic Acid (ELC Only)

Level II
Level II testing monitors the corrosive attributes of the coolant itself - acidic or
alkaline - in addition to metal movement - the corrosiveness of each metal
affected. This level includes all Level I tests plus:

Tests include:

• SCA # (Supplemental Coolant Additives)

• Total Hardness
• Corrosion Metals & Inhibitors by ICP - (Iron, Copper, Aluminum, Lead, Tin,
Zinc, Silver, Titanium, Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphate, Borate, Molybdate,
Silicate)

Level IV
Level IV testing identifies possible sources of problems detected in testing levels
I and II, such as combustion gas leaks, air contamination, electrical ground
problems, localized over-heating, chemical breakdown or other contamination
sources inside or outside the system. Level IV testing also identifies the type and
degree of degradation acid formation resulting from any cooling system
problems. It includes all tests in Levels I and II plus:

Tests include:

• Inhibitor, Contaminants and Degradation Acids by IC - (Nitrites, Nitrates,

Chlorides & Sulfates, Glycolate, Formate, Acetate, Oxalate)
Turbocharger

A turbocharger, or turbo (colloquialism), is a Centrifugal compressor powered

by a turbine which is driven by an engine's exhaust gases. Its benefit lies with the
compressor increasing the pressure of air entering the engine (forced induction)
thus resulting in greater performance (for either, or both, power & efficiency).
Popularly used with internal combustion engines (e.g. four-stroke engines like
Otto cycles and Diesel cycles). Turbochargers have also been found useful
compounding external combustion engines such as automotive fuel cells.[1]

History
The turbocharger was invented by Swiss engineer Alfred Büchi. His patent for a
turbocharger was applied for use in 1905.[2] Diesel ships and locomotives with
turbochargers began appearing in the 1920s.

During the First World War French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers
to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success.[3]

In 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Moss attached a turbo to a V12

Liberty aircraft engine. The engine was tested at Pikes Peak in Colorado at
14,000 feet (4,300 m) to demonstrate that it could eliminate the power losses
usually experienced in internal combustion engines as a result of reduced air
pressure and density at high altitude.[3]

Turbochargers were first used in production aircraft engines such as the Napier
Lioness,[4] in the 1920s before World War II, although they were less common
than engine-driven centrifugal superchargers. The primary purpose behind most
aircraft-based applications was to increase the altitude at which the airplane
could fly, by compensating for the lower atmospheric pressure present at high
altitude. Aircraft such as the Fw 190D[citation needed], B-17 Flying Fortress, and P-47
Thunderbolt all used turbochargers to increase high altitude engine power.

Turbochargers
What has become a popular product in the automotive industry, had its
conception in 1905 giving birth the a working turbocharged aircraft by 1921.
General Electric called these early turbochargers, turbo-superchargers which is
still a commonly used term. Again, the basic concept is a exhaust driven turbine
powering a centrifugal compressor.

A turbocharger is driven using the engine's exhaust gases to drive the

compressor. It has the ability to be more efficient by using the wasted energy
extracted from the exhaust gas and converting it to useful power to compress the
intake air. The turbine section of the turbocharger is actually a heat engine in
itself

Operating principle
All naturally aspirated otto and diesel cycle engines rely on the downward stroke
of a piston to create a low pressure area (less than atmospheric pressure) above
the piston in order to draw air through the intake system. With the rare exception
of tuned induction systems, most engines cannot inhale their full displacement of
atmospheric density air. The measure of this loss or inefficiency in four stroke
engines is called volumetric efficiency. If the density of the intake air above the
piston is equal to atmospheric, then the engine would have 100% volumetric
efficiency. Unfortunately, most engines fail to achieve this level of performance..

The objective of a turbocharger is to improve an engine's volumetric efficiency by

increasing the intake density. The compressor draws in ambient air and
compresses before it enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This
results in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke. The
power needed to spin the centrifugal compressor is derived from high pressure
and temperature of the engine's exhaust gases. The turbine converts the engine
exhaust's potential pressure energy and kinetic velocity energy into rotational
power, which is in turn used to drive the compressor.

A turbocharger may also be used to increase fuel efficiency without any attempt
to increase power. It does this by recovering waste energy in the exhaust and
feeding it back into the engine intake. By using this otherwise wasted energy to
increase the mass of air it becomes easier to ensure that all fuel is burnt before
being vented at the start of the exhaust stage. The increased temperature from
the higher pressure gives a higher carnot efficiency.

The control of turbochargers is very complex and has changed dramatically over
the 100 plus years of its use. A great deal of this complexity stems directly from
the control and performance requirements of various engines with which it is
used. In general, the turbocharger will accelerate in speed when the turbine
generates excess power and decelerates when the turbine generates deficient
power..

Pressure increase / Boost

In all turbocharger applications, boost pressure is limited to keep the entire
engine system, including the turbo, inside its thermal and mechanical design
operating range. Over boosting an engine frequently causes damage to the
engine in a variety of ways including pre-ignition, overheating and over-stressing
the engines internal hardware.

Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development; it uses

a high speed electrical motor to drive the turbocharger to speed before exhaust
gases are available, e.g. from a stop-light.[5] An alternative to e-boosting is to
completely separate the turbine and compressor into a turbine-generator and
electric-compressor as in the hybrid turbocharger. This allows the compressor
speed to become independent to that of the turbine. A similar system utilising a
hydraulic drive system and overspeed clutch arrangement was fitted in 1981 to
accelerate the turbocharger of the MV Canadian Pioneer (Doxford 76J4CR
engine).

Turbochargers start producing boost only above a certain exhaust mass flow
rate. The boost threshold is determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm,
throttle opening, and the size of the turbo. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to
spin the turbine blades, the turbo cannot produce the necessary force needed to
compress the air going into the engine. The point at full throttle in which the mass
flow in the exhaust is strong enough to force air into the engine is known as the
boost threshold rpm. Engineers have, in some cases, been able to reduce the
boost threshold rpm to idle speed to allow for instant response. Both Lag and
Threshold characteristics can be acquired through the use of a compressor map
and a mathematical equation

Charge air cooler/Intercooler

Illustration of inter-cooler location.

For all practical situations, the act of compressing air increases the air's
temperature along with pressure. This temperature increase can cause a number
of problems when not expected or when installing a turbocharger on an engine
not designed for forced induction. Excessive charge air temperature can lead to
detonation, which is extremely destructive to engines.

When a turbocharger is installed on an engine, it is common practice to fit the

engine with an intercooler (also known as a charge air cooler, or CAC), a type of
heat exchanger which gives up heat energy in the charge to the ambient air. To
assure the inter-coolers performance, it is common practice to leak test the
intercooler during routine service, particularly in trucks where a leaking
intercooler can result in a 20% reduction in fuel economy.

• Fuel-air mixture ratio

Main article: Air-fuel ratio

In addition to the use of intercoolers, it is common practice to introduce extra fuel
into the charge for the sole purpose of cooling. The amount of extra fuel varies,
but typically reduces the air-fuel ratio to between 11 and 13, instead of the
stoichiometric 14.7 (in gasoline engines). The extra fuel is not burned, as there is
insufficient oxygen to complete the chemical reaction, and instead undergoes a
phase change from vapor(liquid) to gas. This reaction absorbs heat(the latent
heat of vaporization), and the added mass of the extra fuel reduces the average
kinetic energy of the charge and exhaust gas. The gaseous hydrocarbons
generated are oxidized to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water in the
catalytic converter.

A method of generally coping with this problem is in one of several ways. The
most common one is to add an intercooler or aftercooler somewhere in the air
stream between the compressor outlet of the turbocharger and the engine intake
manifold. Intercoolers and aftercoolers are types of heat exchangers allow the
compressed air to give up some of its heat energy to the ambient air. In the past,
some aircraft featured anti-detonant injection for takeoff and climb phases of
flight, which performs the function of cooling the fuel/air charge before it reaches
the cylinders.

In contrast, modern turbocharged aircraft usually forego any kind of temperature

compensation, because the turbochargers are generally small and the manifold
pressures created by the turbocharger are not very high. Thus the added weight,
cost, and complexity of a charge cooling system are considered to be
unnecessary penalties. In those cases the turbocharger is limited by the
temperature at the compressor outlet, and the turbocharger and its controls are
designed to prevent a large enough temperature rise to cause detonation. Even
so, in many cases the engines are designed to run rich in order to use the
evaporating fuel for charge cooling.
Turbine
The housings fitted around the compressor impeller and turbine collect and direct
the gas flow through the wheels as they spin. The size and shape can dictate
some performance characteristics of the overall turbocharger. Often the same
basic turbocharger assembly will be available from the manufacturer with multiple
housing choices for the turbine and sometimes the compressor cover as well.
This allows the designer of the engine system to tailor the compromises between
performance, response, and efficiency to application or preference. Twin-scroll
designs have two valve-operated exhaust gas inlets, a smaller sharper angled
one for quick response and a larger less angled one for peak performance.

The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust
that can be flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they
operate. Generally, the larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel, the
larger the flow capacity. Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as
curvature and number of blades on the wheels. Variable geometry turbochargers
are further developments of these ideas.

The center hub rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft which connects the
compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to
suspend the shaft, allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction.
For instance, in automotive applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing
or ball bearing lubricated by a constant supply of pressurized engine oil. The
CHRA may also be considered "water cooled" by having an entry and exit point
for engine coolant to be cycled. Water cooled models allow engine coolant to be
used to keep the lubricating oil cooler, avoiding possible oil coking (the
destructive distillation of the engine oil) from the extreme heat found in the
turbine. The development of air-foil bearings has removed this risk. Adaptation of
turbochargers on naturally aspirated internal combustion engines, either on petrol
or diesel, can yield power increases of 30% to 40%.

Turbocharging while common on diesel engines in automobiles, trucks, tractors,

and boats is also common in heavy machinery such as locomotives, ships,
axillary power generation.

• Turbocharging can dramatically improve an engine's specific power and

power-to-weight ratio, performance characteristics which are normally
poor in non-turbocharged diesel engines.
• Diesel engines have no detonation because diesel fuel is injected at the
end of the compression stroke, ignited by compression heat. Because of
this, diesel engines can use much higher boost pressures than spark
ignition engines, limited only by the engine's ability to withstand the
additional heat and pressure
Mitigating the impact of varying marine fuel quality
27th March 2009 17:40 GMT

The composition of marine fuel oils is changing. Driven by developments in refining and
bunkering technology, as well as stricter emissions regulations and the growing emphasis on
fuel sulphur content, fuel testing agencies continue to correlate declining sulphur levels,
increasing levels of catalyst fines, and subsequent engine damage.

Recently released data on marine fuel quality from DNV Petroleum Services (DNVPS) show
that the world average aluminium and silicon (Al+Si) content in intermediate fuel oil (IFO)
grades of marine fuel has increased. Also known as catalyst fines, DNVPS data shows that
Al+Si content in IFOs has gone up from 19.0 mg/kg in 2005 to 23.5 mg/kg in 2008, while the
average sulphur content has dropped.

This is likely to be exacerbated in July 2010 when the sulphur limit is set to drop to 1.00% in
line with the revised MARPOL Annex VI. It is predicted that large amounts of low-sulphur
cutter stock will be required to blend residual fuels to achieve compliance, probably resulting
in large regional variations in marine fuel quality, especially with regard to density and
viscosity. As these fuels are known to have an increased level of catalyst fines they will
potentially contribute to increased engine damage.

Even when fuel has derived from reputable and trusted sources, significant wear to critical
equipment and machinery is not uncommon. Indeed a significant number of the vessel
problems reported to DNVPS originated from fuels that had met the ISO 8217 marine quality
specification. The testing of bunker samples is therefore becoming increasingly important, as
is monitoring wear - critical to identifying problems at a very early stage. Online diagnostic
equipment can continuously and automatically provide complete sets of trend data showing
levels of wear in all critical equipment and machinery, enabling immediate action. With the
impact of successful troubleshooting equating to millions of dollars in savings, online tools
and technology are enabling better decisions to be made faster
Fuel quality affects marine engines
THE composition of marine fuel oils is changing, and with it the risk portfolio to
which the health of marine engines is now exposed. Driven by developments in
refining and bunkering technology, the global economy, as well as stricter
emissions regulations and the growing emphasis on fuel sulphur content, fuel-
testing agencies continue to correlate declining sulphur levels, increasing levels
of catalyst fines and subsequent engine damage. With fuel quality affecting
performance, efficiency and maintenance costs, the impact of successful
troubleshooting using onboard and online tools and technology is becoming
increasingly pronounced. Residual fuel has been used on slow-speed diesel
engines successfully for years but, unfortunately for users, as refining and
bunkering technology has improved, more of the crude oil can be converted to
the more expensive fractions such as gasoline.
The leftover residual fuel often contains higher levels of unwanted components
such as sulphur, aluminium and silicon (catalyst fines) and waste plastics; all of
which can have a dramatic effect on engine condition.
Unprecedented levels of catalyst fines have also been accentuated by the length
of time fuel oil sat sedentary last year at the refinery or in floating storage. As
heavy elements, aluminium and silicon condense at the bottom of the tank over
time and it is this, the dirtiest fuel, that is sold into the marine market.

Controlling emissions

Impending stricter emissions regulations and the growing emphasis on fuel

sulphur content have also driven changes in the composition of marine fuel oils.
In the past few years, high bunker prices and the blending of fuel with little
attention paid to the origin and quality of the hydrocarbon additives, known as
cutter stock, have resulted in fuel quality becoming more suspect. This is likely to
be exacerbated in July 2010 when the sulphur limit is set to drop to one per cent
in line with the revised Marpol Annex VI, and even further in 2015 when levels
drop to 0.1 per cent in Environmental Control Areas (ECAs).

Regional variations

To meet demand it is predicted that higher volumes of cutter stock will be

required to blend residual fuels to optimise sulphur content and achieve
compliance. This will probably result in large regional variations in marine fuel
quality, especially with regard to density and viscosity.
Benjamin Toh Festin, business development consultant from DNV Petroleum
Services (DNVPS), says that monitoring these two characteristics alone would
achieve average fuel cost savings of some 3 per cent.
Higher average levels of abrasives are another side effect. Data on marine fuel
quality from DNVPS shows that the world average aluminium and silicon (Al+Si)
content in intermediate fuel oil (IFO) grades of marine fuel has increased. DNVPS
data shows that Al+Si content in IFOs has gone up from 19.0 mg/kg in 2005 to
23.5 mg/kg in 2008, while the average sulphur content has dropped. Elevated
levels of highly abrasive catalyst fines can lead to accelerated wear of diesel
engine components such as piston rings, cylinder liners and fuel pumps.
BMT Marine and Offshore Surveys is another industry player that supports this
trend. The company has reported at least 30 instances of engine damage caused
by fuel problems related to catalytic fines since 2001. And each casualty required
a complete renewal of pistons, liners and injectors, at a cost of US$1 million to
US$3 million each, with one resulting in a vessel failing to keep up with a convoy.
Bunker fuel-related problems are also, unsurprisingly, being influenced by the
global economy. Not only by the unscrupulous activities of a minority of bunker
suppliers trying to maximise profits, but also by the reduced quality of ship
personnel, notably chief engineers. With some major ship operators reporting to
have cut crews' wages by a third in attempt to curb costs, it is inevitable that the
standards of yesteryear are no longer the norm. The trend for operational cost-
cutting has led to the recruitment of less qualified personnel who are less
capable of implementing robust condition-monitoring practices.
Gerry Williams, principal surveyor at BMT Marine and Offshore Surveys, was
recently quoted as saying that 'bad fuel' in casualties often had more to do with
poor handling than sub-standard fuel.
With so many variables influencing fuel quality and the resulting impact on
combustion and engine damage, the testing of bunker samples is becoming
increasingly important. However, to maximize effectiveness, sound fuel oil-
testing practices should be supported by monitoring wear; critical to identifying
any problems at a very early stage.
There is a clear benefit in knowing what is going on at an exact point in time -
not just when the engineer can get to a machine for a routine, scheduled sample
and analysis. The liner is one of the most crucial and costly components of a
ship's engine and monitoring wear not only extends its life but also protects
against considerable financial pain, as the average insurance claim for an
unexpected liner loss is over US$350,000.

Optimising lubrication

By monitoring the scrapedown oil for ferrous wear, online diagnostic equipment
can continuously and automatically provide complete sets of trend data showing
levels of wear in all critical equipment and machinery, enabling immediate
action. This allows the application of corrective measures to avoid the damage of
the liner, including checking the fuel-cleaning system, preventative maintenance
during the ship's passage to the next port, or even a
route change if necessary, and ultimately insures against costly ship downtime.
Effective maintenance translates into obvious cost savings, but monitoring liner
wear also helps to
optimise lubricant feed rate. Even electronic lubrication systems do not offer an
exact science, and resultantly a safety buffer is often applied. As one of the
engine's largest overheads, an average container ship can spend US$14 million
on cylinder lubrication in its life. Dependent upon trade, load, running hours and
other factors, constant realtime monitoring is a vital tool in optimising cylinder
lube oil feed rate and, as a result, improving
efficiency, decreasing lubricant costs and avoiding issues related with over and
under lubrication.
As risks to the health of marine engines increase, the collective impact of
successful troubleshooting using online tools and technology can equate to
millions of dollars in savings. Sending samples off to the laboratory for analysis is
an effective means of condition monitoring, if you are graced with the blessing of
time. But by the time the results come back it may be too late to heed the
warning and implement effective preventative measures.
Spotting problems at such an early stage can ultimately make the difference
between damage control and financial catastrophe.