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On
“Study of Capital Structure management”
_________________________
Submitted by
JITESH JIKU
Roll No.520945372
__________________________
May-2011
Acknowledgement
Firstly I would like to thank NDPL for giving the opportunity to complete my
project in the organization. I put on record my sincere thanks to Mahender sir for
his suggestions and advice. I am extremely grateful to Mamta madam for the
encouragement, discussions and critical assessment of the project.
It was a good experience for me to work with North Delhi Power Limited, a
pioneer in the field of power distribution. I am greatly obliged to Ms. Pooja and
Mr. Vineet Kumar who have shared their expertise and knowledge with me
without which the completion of project would not have been possible
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Bonafide Certificate:
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report titled “Study of Capital Structure management”
is the bonafide work of “JITESH JIKU” who carried out the project work under
my supervision.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
3
<<Full address of the Dept & College >> Full address of the
Dept & College >
4
Financial Management
Procurement of funds:
As funds can be procured from multiple sources so procurement of funds is
considered an important problem of business concerns. Funds obtained from
different sources have different characteristics in terms of potential risk, cost and
control.
Funds issued by the issue of equity shares are the best from risk point of view for
the company as there is no question of repayment of equity capital except when
the company is liquidated.
From the cost point of view equity capital is the most expensive
source of funds as dividend expectations of shareholders are normally higher than
that of prevailing interest rates.
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Financial management constitutes risk, cost and control. The
cost of funds should be at minimum for a proper balancing of risk and control.
In the globalised competitive scenario, mobilization of funds
plays a very significant role. Funds can be raised either through the domestic
market or from abroad. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) as well as Foreign
Institutional Investors (FII) is two major sources of raising funds. The mechanism
of procurement of funds has to be modified in the light of requirements of foreign
investors.
Utilization of Funds:
Effective utilization of funds as an important aspect of financial management
avoids the situations where funds are either kept idle or proper uses are not being
made. Funds procured involve a certain cost and risk. If the funds are not used
properly then running business will be too difficult. In case of dividend decisions
we also consider this. So it is crucial to employ the funds properly and profitably.
2) Wealth Maximization:
It is commonly understood that the objective of a firm is to maximize value and
wealth.
The value of a firm is represented by the market price of the
company's stock. The market price of a firm's stock represents the assessment of
all market participants as to what the value of the particular firm is. It takes in to
account present and prospective future earnings per share, the timing and risk of
these earning, the dividend policy of the firm and many other factors that bear
upon the market price of the stock. Market price acts as the performance index or
report card of the firm's progress and potential.
Prices in the share markets are affected by many factors like
general economic outlook, outlook of the particular company, technical factors
and even mass psychology. Normally this value is a function of two factors:
The likely rate of earnings per shares depends upon the assessment of how
profitable a company may be in the future.
The capitalization rate reflects the liking of the investors for the company.
At the time of evaluating capital expenditure projects methods like average rate
of return, pay back, internal rate of returns, net present value and profitability
index are used. A firm can increase its profitability without adversely affecting its
liquidity by an efficient utilization of the current resources at the disposal of the
firm. A firm can increase its profitability without negatively affecting its liquidity
by efficient management of working capital.
Similarly, for the evaluation of a firm's performance there are
different methods. Ratio analysis is a common technique to evaluate different
aspects of a firm. An investor takes in to account various ratios to know whether
investment in a particular company will be profitable or not. These ratios enable
him to judge the profitability, solvency, and liquidity growth aspect of the firm.
2. Profitability: A sound capital structure is also one that also possesses the
feature of profitability, i.e., it must be advantageous to the company. It should
permit the maximum use of leverage at a minimum cost with the constraints.
Thus a sound capital structure tends to minimize 'cost' of financing and maximize
earnings per share (EPS).
3. Solvency: A sound capital structure should also have the feature of solvency,
i.e., it should use the debt capital only up to the point where significant risk it not
added. As has been already observed the use of excessive debt threatens the
solvency of the company.
5. Control: The capital structure should involve minimum risk of loss of control
of the company.
The effective manager must make trade-offs among these variables to keep this
equation in balance and this requires effective profit planning. A business must
earn sufficient profit to maintain access to the capital markets for the investment
it needs to grow and prosper. This profit can be difficult to determine but it
cannot be less than the business' cost of capital.
Cost of capital is the cost the business must pay for its debt and equity
financing. These minimum profit requirements enable the business sustain its
current operations and maintain its wealth producing potential. A growth strategy
may require additional profit to fund market and/or product research and
development or strategic acquisitions. These profits come from the surplus
generated from business operations or operating profit (also known as net income
before interest and taxes).
(i) Long term finance: Funds which are required to be invested in the business
for a long period (say more than five years) are known as long term finance. It is
also known as long term capital or fixed capital. This type of finance is used for
acquiring fixed assets, such as land, building, plant and machinery, etc. The
amount of long term funds required naturally depends on the type of business and
the investment required for fixed assets. For example, the manufacture of steel,
cement, chemicals, etc. involve heavy expenses to be incurred on buildings,
machinery and equipments. A small factory or a small workshop repairing
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electrical goods will require much smaller investment in fixed assets. On the other
hand, traders generally, require smaller amounts for long term investment as
compared to the requirement of manufacturers. This is because trading concerns
do not require expensive long-lived assets to be used for their activities. The size
of the business firm also determines the amount to be invested in fixed assets.
Large scale manufacturing and trading activities will obviously require more long
term capital than small scale enterprises. Long term finance is required for
acquisition of assets and modernization purposes.
(iii) Short term finance: This type of finance is required for a short period upto
one year. It refers to funds
EXTERNAL TRADE 187 needed to meet day-to-day requirements and for
holding stocks of raw materials, spare parts, etc. to be used for current operations.
Short term finance is often called working capital or short term capital, or
circulating capital. As soon as goods are sold and funds are recovered the amount
is again used for current operations. Generally, speaking, production processes
are completed within a year and goods are ready for sale. Hence, short term funds
can be used over and over again from year to year.
How much short term finance will be required depends on (a) the nature of
business undertaken; (b) the time gap between commencement of production or
purchase of goods and their sale; and
(c) The volume of business. Trading firms normally require proportionately more
of short term capital than long term capital. Manufacturing concerns, on the other
hand, need relatively smaller amounts of short term capital as compared to long
term capital.
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Again, if production time and the time gap between production and sale is shorter
(say one or two months), it will require much less short term finance than if the
time gap is one year. The volume or scale of business activity also determines the
amount of short term finance. Thus, a small factory needs much less short term
capital than a large manufacturing enterprise.
Sources of Finance
The primary responsibility of financing a business venture is that of the owners of
the business. However, loans and credits also meet the financial requirements of
business firms. In sole proprietorship business, the individual proprietor
generally, invests her/his own savings to start with. She/he may reinvest a part of
the profits earned in course of time. She/he may also borrow money on her/his
personal security or the security of assets. Similarly, the capital of a partnership
firm consists partly of funds contributed by the partners and partly of borrowed
funds. If necessary they may also decide to reinvest their own shares of profit.
The company form of organization enables the promoters to raise necessary funds
from the public, who may contribute capital and become shareholders of the
company. In course of its business, the company can raise loans directly from
banks and financial institutions or by issue of debentures to the public. Besides,
profits earned may also be reinvested instead of being distributed as dividend to
the shareholders. Thus, for any business enterprise, there are two sources of
finance, that is, funds contributed by owners, and funds available from loans and
credits. In other words, the financial resources of a business may be provided by
owner’s funds and borrowed funds. Let us examine the characteristics of these
two sources:
It may be useful to distinguish between the term funds and the term capital. 188
BUSINESS STUDIES Ownership capitals consist of the amounts contributed by
owners as well as profits. This is because profits ultimately belong to the owners.
But the term fund has wider scope and coverage. It includes the profits reinvested
in the business, and amounts received from any other inward remittance. The key
features of ownership funds are as follows:
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(i) Provision of risk capital: One major characteristic of owner’s fund as a
source of finance is that it provides risk capital. It is known as risk capital
because every business runs the risk of loss or low profits, and it is the owners
who bear this risk. In the event of low profits they do not have adequate return on
their investment. If losses continue, the owners may be unable to recover even
their original investment after meeting the loan obligations. However, in times of
prosperity and in the case of a flourishing business the high level of profits earned
accrue entirely to the owners of the business.
Merits
Arising out of its characteristics, the advantages of ownership capital may be
briefly stated as follows:
(i) It provides risk capital, which makes it possible for creditors to deal
confidently with the company. Ownership capital forms the basis for raising
loans.
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i.e., it is not returnable. It is nonrefundable until such time that business ceases.
Therefore, the company is confident of retaining such amounts to meet any
problems and unforeseen contingencies.
(iii) Capital forms the basis on which owners acquire their right of control and
supervision over management. The final say in the management of the
organization rests with the owners, who invest money in the business. This in turn
ensures that the business is conducted in their best interest. EXTERNAL TRADE
189
(v) Since no security is required for equity, the assets of the company are free to
be used for raising loans. Thus, it can be used to enhance the capital base of the
firm.
Limitations
There are also certain limitations of ownership capital as a source of finance.
These are:
(i) Diffusion of control: A joint stock company can raise amounts by issuing
shares to the public. But it leads to an increased number of people having
ownership interest and right of control over management. This may reduce the
original promoter’s power of control over management.
(ii) Possibility of under utilization of ownership funds: Being a permanent
source of capital, ownership funds cannot be reduced easily in the case of a
company. Share capital is non-refundable as long as the company is in existence.
This may mean a part of this fund remaining idle when there is no scope for
expansion or fresh investment opportunities.
(ii) Need for security: Borrowing is possible against personal security but
generally, it is against the security of assets. Banks and financial institutions give
loans against the security of assets. A company can raise loans on different terms
and conditions, or by different modes.
(iii) Repayment: Interest on borrowed capital is payable at periodic intervals.
The principal amount is to be repaid according to the terms and conditions of the
loan. In other words, the borrowing of funds involves two types of liabilities, one
is the payment of interest at regular intervals; and the other is the repayment of
principal amount. These liabilities have to be met even if the earnings are low or
there is loss.
(iv)Control: Ordinarily lenders and creditors do not have any right of control
over the management of the borrowing firm. But, they can sue the
190 BUSINESS STUDIES firm in a law court if there is default in payment of
interest or repayment of loan amount.
Merits
From the business point of view, borrowed capital has several merits:
(ii) Interest is treated as an expense, so it can be charged against income and the
amount of tax liability is thereby reduced.
(iii) It provides flexibility to the capital structure. Finance may be raised when it
is required and repaid when it is not required, according to convenience and
needs.
(iv)A fixed rate of interest is to be paid even when profits are very high. With a
given rate of return, since the rate of interest remains fixed, the balance of profit
17
belongs to the shareholders. Thus, the owners may enjoy a much higher rate of
return on investment than the lenders.
Limitations
Against the above merits, borrowed capital has certain limitations:
(i) Fixed liability: Payment of interest and repayment of loans cannot be avoided
even if there is no profit. Default in meeting these obligations may create
problems for the business. To begin with business may suffer on account of
decline of its credit worthiness. Continuing default may even lead to insolvency
of the firm.
Let us examine the characteristics and implications of each of the long term
sources. EXTERNAL TRADE 191
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(i) Issue of shares: The amount of capital decided to be raised from members of
the public is divided into units of equal value. These units are known as shares
and the aggregate value of shares is known as share capital of the company.
Those who subscribe to the share capital become members of the company and
are called shareholders. They are the part owners of the company. Hence, shares
are also described as ownership securities.
Two types of shares may be issued by a company to raise capital: (a) equity
shares; and (b) preference shares.
(a) Equity shares: The amount raised by the issue of equity shares is known as
equity share capital, it is the most important source of raising long term capital
for a company. Equity capital represents ownership capital as equity shareholders
collectively own the company. They enjoy the reward as well as bear the risk of
ownership.
(i) with equal rights; or (ii) with differential rights as to dividend, voting or
otherwise.
This has been permitted after an amendment to the Companies Act in 2000. Prior
to this, public companies were not allowed to issue equity shares with differential
rights.
(i) The holders of equity shares are the primary risk bearers. It is the issue of
equity shares that mainly provides risk capital. This implies that in case the
company suffers losses and has to be closed down, the equity shareholders may
lose the entire amount they had invested. Creditors’ dues must be met before any
payment is made to the preference or equity shareholders.
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(ii) Equity shareholders have a residual claim in the firm. In other words, the
income left after satisfying the claims of all creditors, outsiders, and preference
shareholders, belongs to equity shareholders.
(iii) Equity shareholders are likely to enjoy a higher profit as well as higher
increase in the value of the shares.
(iv)Equity share capital is the basis on which loans can be raised. It provides
credibility to the company and confidence to the loan providers.
(v) Since equity shareholders have the right to vote for the election of the board of
directors, collectively they ensure that the company is managed in the best
interests of the shareholders.
Merits
From the company’s point of view, there are several merits of issuing equity
shares to raise long term finance.
(ii) It facilitates a higher rate of return to be earned with the help of borrowed
funds because loans carry a fixed rate of interest.
Hence, equity shareholders are likely to enjoy a higher rate of return based on
profitability.
(iii) It is on the basis of equity share capital that loans can be raised.
Equity provides the credibility to the company and confidence to the prospective
loan provider.
Limitations
Although there are several advantages of issuing equity shares to raise long term
capital, there are certain limitations also of this source of finance:
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(i) Equity shares have the risk of fluctuating returns and the risk of fluctuating
market value of shares.
In times of adversity, there may be low returns or even no returns.
(iii) Issue of additional equity shares to raise funds for expansion poses a threat to
the existing shareholders as regards their power of control over management of
the company.
Existing shareholders are generally, offered the new issue of shares and in case
they decline, the shares are offered to the public.
New shareholders may exercise their voting rights against the continuation of
existing directors.
(iv)There are too many procedural delays and too many time consuming
formalities to be completed before any public issue of shares can be made.
(v) An equity issue cannot be made any time the company wants. It depends on
market conditions. These generally, determine the time of issue of shares and the
value of the shares.
(b) Preference shares: The amount of share capital which is raised by the issue
of preference shares is called preference share capital. It is referred to as
preference shares as the owners of these shares have a preferential claim over
dividends and repayment of capital. Preference shares represents a hybrid form of
financing in that, it consists of some characteristics of equity shares and some
attributes of debentures. It resembles equity shares in the following ways:
(i) preference dividend is payable only out of profit after tax;
(ii) Preference shareholders have also the preferential right of claiming repayment
of capital in the event of winding up of the company. Preference capital has to be
repaid out of assets after meeting the loan obligations and claims of creditors but
before any amount is repaid to equity shareholders. Different kinds of preference
shares may be issued as:
Merits
Issue of preference shares as a source of finance is preferred by many companies
due to the following reasons:
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(i) It helps to enlarge the sources of funds as some financial institutions and
individuals prefer to invest in preference shares due to the assurance of a fixed
return. This helps the company to attract investors.
(ii) Dividend is payable only when there are profits. There are no fixed liabilities
as is the case with loans and borrowings.
(iii) A higher return is possible if the company is in good times, in the case of
participating preference shares.
(iv) It does not affect the equity shareholders control over management.
(v) The rate of preference dividend is fixed. Hence, in years of prosperity, the rate
of return on equity capital is likely to be higher than it would be otherwise, due to
preference share capital.
Limitations
The limitations of preference shares relate to some of its main features:
(i) Dividend paid cannot be charged to the company’s income as an expense;
hence, there is no tax saving as in the case of interest on loans.
(ii) Issue of preference share does not attract many investors as there is no assured
return, and the return is generally, low and lesser than the rate of interest on loan.
(iii) The holders of preference shares have a right to vote on any resolution of the
company directly affecting their rights, which includes any resolution for winding
up the company, repayment or reduction of its share capital, etc.
(ii) Debentures: Debentures are instruments for raising long term debt capital.
When a company decides to raise loans from the public, the amount of loan raised
from a particular issue of debentures is divided into units of similar value. A
debenture certificate is issued by the company to acknowledge its debt. Those
who invest money in debentures are known as debenture holders. They are
creditors of the company. Debentures are, therefore, called creditor ship
securities.
Debentures have the following characteristics:
(a) Debentures carry a fixed rate of interest.
(b) Debentures are redeemable i.e., repayable after a certain period which is
specified at the time of issue. They may become due for repayment after a period
of 5 years or more.
EXTERNAL TRADE 195
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(c) When debentures are sold to the public and involve a considerable number of
persons, a trustee is appointed and a trust deed is formed to convey the property
of the company to her/him. The trustee is usually a bank, an insurance company
or a financial institution. The trustee is appointed to ensure that the borrowing
firm fulfills its contractual obligations.
Depending upon the terms and conditions of issue there are different types of
debentures. These are:
Secured or unsecured debentures, convertible or non-convertible debentures.
Debentures which are secured by a charge on the immovable properties, of the
company are Secured debentures. Debentures which are not secured by a charge
or mortgage of any asset are called unsecured debentures. The holders of these
debentures are treated as ordinary creditors. A company may issue debentures
which are convertible into equity shares at the option of debenture holders.
The ratio of conversion and the period during which conversion can be effected
are specified at the time of debenture issue. Such debentures are known as
convertible debentures. If there is no mention of conversion at the time of issue,
the debentures are regarded as nonconvertible debentures.
Merits
Debenture issue is a widely used method of raising long term finance by
companies. This is due to the following merits:
(i) The cost of debt capital, represented by debentures is lower than the cost of
preference or equity capital. This is because the interest on debentures is tax
deductible and hence, it helps in increasing the rate of return. Thus, debenture
issue is a cheaper source of finance.
(ii) Debenture financing does not result in dilution of control of equity
shareholders, since debenture holders are not entitled to vote.
(iii) The fixed monetary payment associated with debentures is interest. This
fixed return appeals to many investors, since they are not affected by the
fluctuating fortunes of the company.
(iv)Funds raised by the issue of debentures may be used in business to earn a
much higher rate of return than the rate of interest. As a result, the equity
shareholders earn more.
Limitations
We have noted above the advantages of debenture issue as a source of finance.
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But, it has certain limitations also:
(i) It involves a fixed commitment to pay interest regularly and fixed obligation to
pay the amount when it is due on the part of the company.
196 BUSINESS STUDIES
(ii) This liability must be discharged even if the company has no earnings. The
burden may be difficult to bear in times of falling profits.
(iii) Retained profits: Retained earnings are the undistributed profits after
payment of dividends and taxes, commonly referred to as reserves and surplus.
They represent the internal sources of finance available to the company. The
company’s use of surplus or free reserves is termed as ploughing back of profits.
It provides the basis of financial expansion and growth of companies. It is
considered as a very important source of funding. Since it is internally generated,
this method of financing is known as self financing. The retained earnings serve
many purposes:
(a) They provide a cushion of security in times of adversity, which the company
can fall back upon.
(b) In certain industries such as pharmaceuticals research and development
activities are of vital importance. Constant innovation and new products are
essential for survival. Funds for these purposes can be available out of retained
profits.
(c) Finance for new projects and expansion plans are sometimes required to enter
new forays which are important areas for the future. Retained profits prove useful
such times.
Since profits belong to the shareholders, retained profit is considered to be an
ownership fund. It serves the purpose of medium and long term finance. The total
amount of ownership capital of a company can be determined by adding the share
capital and accumulated reserves. Companies may convert reserves and surplus
into share capital by issuing bonus shares. From the company viewpoint, bonus
shares are issued free of cost and do not result in any outflow of cash. Investors
too are benefited by the issue of shares free of cost.
Merits
This source of finance has the following
Advantages:
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(i) As an internal source, it is more dependable than external sources. It does not
depend on the investors’ preference and market conditions.
(ii) Use of retained profit does not involve any cost to be incurred for raising the
funds. There are no expenses on prospectus, advertising, etc.
(iii) There is no fixed commitment to pay dividend on such funds.
(iv)Control over the management of the company remains unaffected as there is
no addition to the number of shareholders.
(v) Unlike debentures, no charge is created against the assets and no restrictions
are put on the management.
(vi)Retained earnings add to the financial strength and improved credibility of the
company. An EXTERNAL TRADE 197 company with large reserves can face
unforeseen contingencies, trade cycles and any other crisis.
Limitations
Use of retained earnings may result in the following drawbacks:
(i) The management of a company may not always use the retained earnings in
the best interest of shareholders. It may misuse them by investing in unprofitable
or undesirable channels. Excessive reserves may make the management wasteful
and extravagant.
(ii) Large retention of earnings over a long period of time may cause
dissatisfaction among shareholders as they do not receive the expected rate of
dividend.
(iii) If the quantum of retained earnings is too high, the management may issue
bonus shares to equity shareholders. Frequent
Capitalization of reserves may result in over capitalization.
(iv)Public deposits: These are unsecured deposits invited by companies from the
public mainly to finance working capital requirements. Public deposits can be
invited by companies for a period of 6 months to 3 years as per rules. However,
they can be renewed from time to time. Though, they are primarily sources of
short term finance, the renewal facility enables them to be used as medium term
finance. Fixed deposits are simple to raise. A company intending to invite
deposits simply has to advertise in the newspapers. Any member of the public can
fill up the prescribed form and deposit the money with the company.
The company in return issues a deposit receipt which is an acknowledgement of
debt by the company. The terms and conditions of the deposit are printed on the
26
back of the receipt. Earlier interest rates were subject to a ceiling. But now,
interest rates are in tune with the market trends but generally, public deposits pay
out a higher rate than the interest rate on bank deposits. The rate of interest on
public deposits depends on the period of deposit and reputation of the company.
Since these deposits are unsecured, a company which has public deposits is
required to set aside, as deposit or investment, in the current year an amount equal
to 10 per cent of the deposits maturing by the end of the year. The amount so set
aside can be used only for repaying such deposits. Public deposits cannot exceed
25 per cent of share capital and free reserves.
Merits
The merits of public deposits are the following:
(i) The procedure for obtaining public deposits is much simpler than equity and
debenture issues. Thus, there are fewer administrative costs for deposits. 198
BUSINESS STUDIES
(ii) Public deposits are unsecured. Thus, the assets are free to be used as mortgage
in future, if need arises.
(iii) Interest paid on public deposits is tax deductible. Hence, it helps in bringing
down the tax liability.
(iv)Public deposits introduce flexibility in the financial structure of the company.
This is because the deposits can be repaid when they are not required.
(v) There is no dilution of shareholders’ control because the depositors have no
voting rights.
Limitations
Raising finance through public deposits suffers from the following limitations:
(i) The amount of funds that can be raised by way of public deposits is limited,
because of legal restrictions.
(ii) The maturity period is relatively short. The company cannot depend on them
for long term financing requirements.
(iii) Public deposits are an uncertain and unreliable source of finance.
The depositors may not respond when conditions in the economy are uncertain.
Also, deposits may be withdrawn whenever, the depositors feel shaky about the
financial health of the company.
27
Sources for raising the long-term funds for a large-scale organization for
growth of a company are:
Existing cash reserves: Every Company will maintain cash reserve to meet the
working capital needs. If the company does not have any cash reserves, then it
can go for the alternatives. Mostly, the new companies will not keep more cash
reserves, as it will become a blocked reserve.
Profits: If the company is earning profits, it can turn some percent of profits
towards working capital reserves. In the time of inflation or depression, company
can use this reserve as working capital.
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Bank overdrafts or lines of credit: Banks play vital role in financing the working
capital to the organizations. However, banker will look the following before
financing:
Working capital management or short-term financial management is a significant
facet of financial management. It is important due to 2 reasons:
Banks play vital role in financing the working capital to the organizations.
However, banker will look the following before financing:
The form of assistance may be either Non-fund based or Fund based lending. In
case of non-fund based lending, the banker will not commit any physical outflow.
It will be in the form of Bank Guarantee or Letter of Credit. Both the Bank
Guarantee and Letter of Credit helps the organization to make purchases and
selling goods overseas. These will also act as guarantee for the goods that are
supplied.
Commercial papers:
29
It is an unsecured obligation issued by a corporation or bank to finance its short-
term credit needs, such as accounts receivable and inventory. Maturities typically
range from 15 to 365 days. Commercial paper is available in a wide range of
denominations, can be either discounted or interest bearing, and usually have a
limited or nonexistent secondary market. Companies with high credit ratings
usually issue commercial paper, meaning that the investment is almost always
relatively low risk.
A company with a tangible net worth of more than 4 crores as per the latest
audited balance sheet.
Borrowed amount of the company is classified as a standard asset by the bank.
The company needs to obtain satisfactory credit rating (Minimum rating required
is p-2 of CRISIL or equal lent) from any credit rating agency before issuing CPs.
The RBI approved credit rating companies are:
CRISIL
CARE
ICRA
Fitch Rating India (P) Ltd.
Nature:
The maturity period ranges from 15 to 365 days.
The value of the CP is Rs.5 Lakhs.
Every renewal will be considered as a fresh issue.
It is not a deposit as per Provisions of Section 58-A of Companies Act, 1956.
Spontaneous sources: These are the sources through which working capital is
generated automatically and these are unsecured sources. For e.g.: If the company
has good net worth, it can make purchases on credit and can avail a gap to make
the payment.
The bank may not issue the extending amount in the form of cash. Based upon the
documents produced and good will of the company, the form differs. The
following are the two different forms:
Instead of providing cash funds to the company, the bank will provide working
capital assistance in other forms, they are:
Bank Guarantee:
This is the document supplied by the bank by certifying that the company has the
sufficient funds on deposit at the bank and can enter into the transaction. To issue
the bank guarantee, the company needs to provide the information about the raw
material or machinery that is purchasing. Bank will issue a letter to the company
about the amount that can be used as working capital. After utilizing the bank
guarantee, company needs to provide the corresponding documents.
31
Letter of Credit:
This is the primary or secondary source of security for a bond issue. Either a
commercial bank or a private corporation can issue this. This is normally found in
the International trade. If the company is importing any goods from other country,
he can approach the bank for the letter of credit on the exporter name. The banker
will undertake to pay the exporter or accept the bills of draft drawn by the
exporter on the exporter fulfilling the terms and conditions specified in the letter
of credit.
Revocable or Irrevocable.
Confirmed or Unconfirmed.
Fund based lending:
In case of Fund based lending, the bank commits physical outflow of funds. As
such, the funds position of the lending bank does get affected. The fund based
lending can be in the following forms:
Loans.
Overdraft.
Cash credit.
Bills purchased/discounted.
Working capital term loans.
Packing credit.
Security:
To avail working capital assistance, the company needs to provide security to the
bank. The following are the different forms of security:
Hypothecation: Under this method, the company needs to provide any moveable
property as security. The bank will not possess the security, unless the company
has an outstanding amount. The banker has the right to sell the security.
Pledge: Under this method, the company needs to provide any moveable property
as security. The bank will possess the security and provides assistance. If the
company has an outstanding amount, the banker has the right to sell the security
with issuing a notice to the company.
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Lien: Under this method, the banker will keep the security with the bank. The
company needs to clear the loan and can handover the security provided.
Debentures
Preference Shares
Equity Shares.
To meet the capital requirement, the company can issue shares, debentures and
can also take term loans, accept public deposits and go for leasing and hire
purchasing. The total amount is subdivided and allocated as per the requirements.
However, equity shares, debentures, and preference shares are the sources for
long-term funding. On the strength of these only, a company can avail short &
medium term loans.
Debentures:
The investors are called as creditors, as the company needs to repay the
investment as described in the “Acknowledgement of indebtedness.”
Funds rose in the form of debentures need to be repay in the stipulated time.
Hence, these are considered as long-term sources.
The company will offer the investors a security against their investments.
Interest should be paid, even though the company did not earn profits.
The risk involved with debentures is two-fold in the company’s point. If the
company is not earning profits, it has to pay interest and after maturity period, it
has to repay the investment.
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The debentures will not carry any voting rights, as the debenture holders are
treated as creditors.
Preference shares:
Preference shares are the other sources for the company to acquire long-term
loans. It provides a specific dividend that is paid before any dividends are paid to
common stock holders, and which takes precedence over common stock in the
event of liquidation. Like common stock, preference shares represent partial
ownership in a company, although preferred stock shareholders do not enjoy any
of the voting rights of common stockholders. Also unlike common stock,
preference shares pay a fixed dividend that does not fluctuate, although the
company does not have to pay this dividend if it lacks the financial ability to do
so. The main benefit to owning preference shares is that the investor has a greater
claim on the company’s assets than common stockholders.
Preferred shareholders always receive their dividends first and, in the event the
company goes bankrupt, preferred shareholders are paid off before common
stockholders. Also, the company needs to clear off the preference shares with-in
20 years. The features are:
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These shares will not carry any voting rights. However, as per companies Act,
1956, a preference share holder will have the right to vote under the following
circumstances:
If the dividend is not paid for cumulative preference shares for an aggregate
period of two years.
If the dividend is not paid for non-cumulative preference shares either for a period
of two consecutive years or for an aggregate period of three years out of the six
preceding years.
Also, the company can issue the following types of preference shares:
It is advised to issue convertible preference shares, as they can be converted to
equity shares after a stipulated time. This helps the company to have long-term
capital and the rate of dividends payable will also reduce after certain time.
Equity shares:
The Equity shares play the vital role of the financial structure of the company. On
the strength of these shares the company can procure other sources of capital. The
characteristic features are:
Investors are treated as real owners. The investors are entitled to the profits
earned and the losses incurred by the company.
The funds raised in the form of equity shares need to be repaid at the time of
closure of the company.
Funds raised in the form of equity shares are on unsecured basis, i.e., company
need not offer any security against the investment.
Company needs to pay the dividend in return, which is not fixed.
Equity shares are risk free source income to the company.
The investors have the right to vote. By exercising the voting rights, the investors
can participate in the affairs regarding the business of the company.
However, the recent amendments to the
Companies Act, 1956 – It may be possible for the companies to issue equity
shares with disproportionate voting rights.
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7. The equity shareholder cannot compel the company to pay dividend. However,
if the company wants to issue additional equity shares, they need to be offered to
the existing shareholders first, and then announce in the open market. These are
called as “Pre-emptive rights”. Some of the advantages are:
To the company:
Need not offer any security.
Need not commit the repayment.
Need not offer a fixed dividend.
To the investor:
Limited liability, only to the extent of the face value.
Possibility of higher returns when compared to preference shareholders and
debenture holders, as he will get dividend and good value in secondary market.
Easily transferable.
Hence, the equity shares will be the good sources to acquire the capital.
SEBI guidelines affecting the public issue and rights issue of shares & issue
of debentures while raising the long-term capital for a company?
Capital market is the place where a company can raise the long-term requirement
of funds. Due to the liberalization measure and reforms taken in 1990’s, it became
easy to the companies to raise funds. The main changes that have taken place are:
Repeal of capital issues (Control) Act, 1947 and abolition of the Office of
Controller of Capital issues.
Enactment of the Securities & Exchange Board of India Act, 1992 and formation
of SEBI.
In order to protect the interests of the investors, SEBI has been
empowered to issue the directions from time to time. As such, at present, the only
regulatory framework applicable to the companies trying to raise the funds is by
issuing their securities in the market by following the guidelines of SEBI.
Public issue.
Rights issue.
Private placement of securities.
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The guidelines, which the company needs to follow, are:
A listed company cannot make the rights issue, if the aggregate value exceeds
Rs.50 Lakhs. It should file a letter of offer with SEBI, through an eligible
merchant banker, at least 21 days before it is filed with Regional Stock Exchange.
Pre-issue net worth of the company should not be less than Rs.1 crore in last 3 out
of last 5 years with minimum net worth to be met during immediately preceding 2
years and
Track record of distributable profits for at least three (3) out of immediately
preceding five (5) years and
The issue size (i.e. offer through offer document + firm allotment + promoters’
contribution through the offer document) shall not exceed five (5) times its pre-
issue net worth.
In case an unlisted company does not satisfy any of the above criterions, it can
come out with a public issue only through the Book-Building process. In the
Book Building process the company has to compulsorily allot at least sixty
percent (60%) of the issue size to the Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs),
failing which the full subscription monies shall be refunded.
Eligibility norms for a listed company for making the public issue?
A listed company is eligible to make a public issue if the issue size (i.e. offer
through offer document + firm allotment + promoters’ contribution through the
offer document) is less than five (5) times its pre-issue net worth.
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If the issue size is more than or equal to 5 times of pre-issue net worth, then the
listed company has to take the book building route and allot sixty percent (60%)
of the issue size to the Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs), failing which the
full subscription monies shall be refunded.
The companies can freely price their equity shares. However they have to give
justification of the price in the offer document / letter of offer
In case of an Initial Public Offer (IPO) i.e. public issue by unlisted company, the
promoters have to necessarily offer at least 20% of the post issue capital.
In case of public issues by listed companies, the promoters shall participate either
to the extent of 20% of the proposed issue or ensure post-issue share holding to
the extent of 20% of the post-issue capital.
In case of an IPO, if the promoters’ contribution in the proposed issue exceeds the
required minimum contribution, such excess contribution shall also be locked in
for a period of one year.
Beside the above, in case of IPO the entire pre-issue share capital i.e. paid up
share capital prior to IPO and shares issued on a firm allotment basis along with
issue shall be locked-in for a period of one year from the date of allotment in
public issue.
Basis of allotment:
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In case of over-subscription in a fixed price issue the allotment is done in
marketable lots, on a proportionate basis.
Allotment:
Companies are required to finalize the basis of allotment within 30 days from the
closure of the issue in case of a fixed price issue and within 15 days from the
closure of the issue in case of a book building issue or else they are liable to pay
interest @ 15% p.a.
Partly paid shares:
The company cannot make the issue of equity shares unless all the partly paid
shares have been fully paid.
Price: Where fully convertible debentures are to be issued, the issuer can freely
determine the interest rate.
Debenture trustee: The appointment and duties of the trustees are dealt with in
Section 117B of the Act. As per the section, a company, before issuing a
prospectus or letter of offer to the public for subscription of its debentures, is
required to fulfill the following conditions:
This is subject to the further condition that a person shall not be appointed as a
trustee if he:
Beneficially holds shares in the company;
If he is beneficially entitled to monies which are to be paid by the company; and
Has entered into any guarantee in respect of principal debts secured by the
debentures or interest thereon.
The section also lays down that, subject to the provisions of the Act, the functions
of the trustee shall generally be to:
Protect the interests of the debenture-holders (including creation of securities
within the stipulated time); or
Redress the grievances of the debenture-holders.
In addition, the debenture-trustee may take any of the following steps, as he may
deem fit, to:
Ensure that the assets of the company issuing debentures and each of the
guarantors are sufficient to discharge the principal amount at all times;
Satisfy him that the prospectus or the letter of offer does not contain any matter
which is inconsistent with the terms of the debentures or with the trust deed;
Ensure that the company does not commit any breach of the covenants and
provisions of the trust deed;
Take such reasonable steps to remedy any breach of covenants of the trust deed or
the terms of issue of the debentures;
Take all steps to call a meeting of debenture-holders as and when such meeting is
required to be held.
If the trustee considers at any time that the assets of the company are insufficient
or likely to be insufficient to discharge the principal amount as and when it
becomes due, he may file a petition before the Company Law Board (CLB). The
CLB may, after hearing the company and any other person, by an order, impose
such restrictions on the incurring of any further liabilities as it thinks necessary in
the interest of the debenture-holders.
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Credit rating:
Security:
The company shall create the security within 6 months from the date of issue of
debentures.
Firms should first analyze a number of factors, and then establish a target capital
structure. This target may change over time as conditions change, but at any
given moment, management should have a specific capital structure in mind. If
the actual debt ratio is below the target level, expansion capital should generally
be raised by issuing debt, whereas if the debt ratio is above the target, equity
should generally be issued.
1. The business risk or the riskiness inherent in the firm’s operations if it used no
debt. The greater the firm’s business risk, the lower its optimal debt ratio.
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2. The firm’s tax position. A major reason for using debt is that interest is
deductible, which lowers the effective cost of debt. However, if most of a firm’s
income is already sheltered from taxes by depreciation tax shields, by interest on
currently outstanding debt, or by tax loss carry-forwards, its tax rate will be low,
so additional debt will not be as advantageous as it would be to a firm with a
higher effective tax rate.
1. Demand variability. The more stable the demand for a firm’s products, other
things held constant, the lower its business risk.
2. Sales price variability. Firms whose products are sold in highly volatile
markets are exposed to more business risk than similar firms whose output prices
are more stable.
3. Input cost variability. Firms whose input costs are highly uncertain are
exposed to a high degree of business risk.
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4. Ability to adjust output prices for changes in input costs. Some firms are
better able than others to raise their own output prices when input costs rise. The
greater the ability to adjust output prices to reflect cost conditions, the lower the
degree of business risk.
6. Foreign risk exposure. Firms that generate a high percentage of their earnings
overseas are subject to earnings declines due to exchange rate fluctuations. Also,
if a firm operates in a politically unstable area, it may be subject to political risks.
See Chapter 16 for a further discussion.
7. The extent to which costs are fixed: operating leverage. If a high percentage
of costs are fixed, hence do not decline when demand falls, then the firm is
exposed to a relatively high degree of business risk. This factor is called
operating leverage, and it is discussed at length in the next section. Each of these
factors is determined partly by the firm’s industry characteristics, but each of
them is also controllable to some extent by management. For example, most firms
can, through their marketing policies, take actions to stabilize both unit sales and
sales prices. However, this stabilization may require spending a great deal on
advertising and/or price concessions to get commitments from customers to
purchase fixed quantities at fixed prices in the future.
OPERATING LEVERAGE
Business risk depends in part on the extent to which a firm builds fixed costs into
its operations—if fixed costs which are high, even a small decline in sales can
lead to a large decline in ROE (return on equity). So, other things held constant,
the higher a firm’s fixed costs, the greater its business risk. Higher fixed costs are
generally associated with more highly automated, capital intensive firms and
industries. However, businesses that employ highly skilled workers who must be
retained and paid even during recessions also have relatively high fixed costs, as
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do firms with high product development costs, because the amortization of
development costs is an element of fixed costs.
If a high percentage of total costs are fixed, then the firm is said to have a high
degree of operating leverage. In physics, leverage implies the use of a lever to
raise a heavy object with a small force. In business terminology, a high degree of
operating leverage, other factors held constant, implies that a relatively small
change in sales results in a large change in ROE (return on equity)
The Optimal Capital Structure Is the one that minimizes the firm’s cost of
capital and maximizes firm value. The right proportion or the appropriate mix of
the debt and equity should increase the market value of share held by
shareholders
2. Sales Position: Sales position covers growth rate of future sales and sales
stability. The future growth of sales is a measure of the extent to which the
earnings per share (EPS) of the rum are likely to be magnified by leverage. The
greater the external financially that is usually required. This is so because the
likely volatility and uncertainty of future sales have important influences upon the
business risk the less equity that should be employed. Similarly, sales stability
and debt ratios are directly related, that is, the greater the stability in sales and
earnings the greater the debt that should be employed. It is because of this factor
that public utilities employ more debt than equity because they are assured of
their future sales and earnings.
4. Assets Structure: Composition and liquidity of assets may also influence the
capital structure decision of the firm. Firms with long lived fixed assets,
especially when demand for their output is relatively assured utilities for example
- use long-term debt extensively similarly greater the liquidity the more debt that
generally can be used all other factors remaining constant.
The less liquid the assets of firm the less flexible the firm can be in meeting its
fixed charged obligations.
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5. Cash flow ability of the company: When considering the appropriate capital
structure it is extremely important to analyze the cash flow ability of the firm to
serve fixed commitment charges. The fixed commitment charges include payment
of interest on debentures and other debts, preference dividend and principal
amount. Thus the fixed charged depend upon both the amount of senior securities
and the terms of payment. The amount of fixed charges will be high if the
company employs a large amount of debt or preference capital with short-term
maturity. It is therefore, prudent that for servicing fixed charges at proper time,
the management must ensure the availability .of cash because inability on the part
of management may result in financial insolvency. Therefore, cash flow analysis
is essential to consider while planning appropriate capital structure. Obviously,
the greater and more stable the expected future cash flows of the firm, the greater
the debt capacity and vice-versa. To be on a safe side the cash flow ability must
be determined in the period of depression very carefully.
9. Period of finance: The period of finance should be paid due attention in the
capital structure decision. When funds are required for permanent investment in a
company, equity share to capital is preferred. When funds are required to finance
modernization programs such as overhauling of machines and equipment and
aggressive advertising campaign, the company can issue preference share and or
debentures.
11. Asset structure. Firms whose assets are suitable as security for loans tend to
use debt rather heavily. General-purpose assets that can be used by many
businesses make good collateral, whereas special-purpose assets do not. Thus,
real estate companies are usually highly leveraged, whereas companies involved
in technological research are not.
12. Operating leverage. Other things the same, a firm with less operating
leverage is better able to employ financial leverage because it will have less
business risk.
13. Growth rate. Other things the same, faster-growing firms must rely more
heavily on external capital (see Chapter 4). Further, the flotation costs involved in
selling common stock exceed those incurred when selling debt, which encourages
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rapidly growing firms to rely more heavily on debt. At the same time, however,
these firms often face greater uncertainty, which tends to reduce their willingness
to use debt.
14. Profitability. One often observes that firms with very high rates of return on
investment use relatively little debt. Although there is no theoretical justification
for this fact, one practical explanation is that very profitable firms such as Intel,
Microsoft, and Coca-Cola simply do not need to do much debt financing. Their
high rates of return enable them to do most of their financing with internally
generated funds.
15. Taxes. Interest is a deductible expense, and deductions are most valuable to
firms with high tax rates. Therefore, the higher a firms tax rate, the greater the
advantage of debt.
16. Control. The effect of debt versus stock on a management’s control position
can influence capital structure. If management currently has voting control (over
50 percent of the stock) but is not in a position to buy any more stock, it may
choose debt for new financings. On the other hand, management may decide to
use equity if the firm’s financial situation is so weak that the use of debt might
subject it to serious risk of default, because if the firm goes into default, the
managers will almost surely lose their jobs. However, if too little debt is used,
management runs the risk of a takeover. Thus, control considerations could lead
to the use of either debt or equity, because the type of capital that best protects
management will vary from situation to situation. In any event, if management is
at all insecure, it will consider the control situation.
17. Market conditions. Conditions in the stock and bond markets undergo both
long- and short-run changes that can have an important bearing on a firm’s
optimal capital structure. For example, during a recent credit crunch, the junk
bond market dried up, and there was simply no market at a “reasonable” interest
rate for any new long-term bonds rated below triple B. Therefore, low-rated
companies in need of capital were forced to go to the stock market or to the short-
term debt market, regardless of their target capital structures. When conditions
eased, however, these companies sold bonds to get their capital structures back on
target.
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18. The firm’s internal condition. A firm’s own internal condition can also have
a bearing on its target capital structure. For example, suppose a firm has just
successfully completed an R&D program, and it forecasts higher earnings in the
immediate future. However, the new earnings are not yet anticipated by investors,
hence are not reflected in the stock price. This company would not want to issue
stock— it would prefer to finance with debt until the higher earnings materialize
and are reflected in the stock price. Then it could sell an issue of common stock,
retire the debt, and return to its target capital structure. This point was discussed
earlier in connection with asymmetric information and signaling.
The essence of the net income (NI) approach is that the firm can increase its value
or lower the Overall cost of capital by increasing the proportion of debt in the
capital structure. The crucial assumptions of this approach are:
the use of debt does not change the risk perception of investors
Ke and kd remain constant with changes in leverage. .
The corporate income taxes do not exist.
The first assumption implies that, if ke and kd are constant, increased use of debt,
by magnifying the shareholders' earnings, will result in higher value of the firm
via higher value of equity. Consequently, the overall, or the weighted average
cost of capital, ko, will decrease.
According to the net operating income (NOI) approach the market value of the
firm is not affected by the capital structure changes. The market value of the firm
is found out by capitalizing the net operating income at the overall, or the
weighted average cost of capital, ko which is a constant.
The critical assumptions of the NOI approach are:
the market capitalizes the value of the firm as a whole. Thus, the split between
debt and equity is not important.
the market uses an overall capital is at ion rate, ka to capitalize the net operating
Income. kO depends on the business risk. If the business risk is assumed to
remain Unchanged, kO is a constant.
The Use of less costly debt funds increases the risk of shareholders.
This causes the equity capitalization rate to increase. Thus, the advantage of debt
is offset exactly by the increase in the equity capitalization rate, ke.
the debt-capitalization rate kef is a constant.
the corporate income taxes do not exist.
TRADITIONAL APPROACH:
CRITICISMS
Firm’s market value depends upon NOI and risk
Total risk can be altered
Cost of equity remains unaffected by leverage up to a limit
1. The capital markets are perfect and complete information is available to all the
Investors free of cost. The implication of this assumption is that investors can
borrow and lend funds at the same rate and can move quickly from one security to
another without incurring any transaction cost.
3 Investors are rational and well informed about the risk-return of all the
securities.
4 All the investors have same probability distribution about the expected future
earnings.
MODIGLIANI-MILLER MODEL: PRESENCE OF TAXES
Proposition l:
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Kd = Capitalization rate of a pure equity stream of its class
Proposition II:
Defines Cost of equity
Ke = Sum of capitalization rate & premium for financial risk
ke = ko + (ko – kd)D/E
This approach advocates that the firm can increase its value or lower the overall
cost of capital by increasing the proportion of debt in the capital structure.
Corporate tax laws favor debt financing over equity financing. With corporate
taxes, the benefits of financial leverage exceed the risks: More EBIT goes to
investors and less to taxes when leverage is used.
MM shows that: VL = VU + TD.
VL= Value of Levered firm
VU=Value of Unlevered firm
TD= Tax deducted
If T=40%, then every dollar of debt adds 40 cents of extra value to firm.
The following assumptions are made in the propositions with taxes:
· Corporations are taxed at the rate TC on earnings after interest,
· No transaction cost exist, and individuals and corporations borrow at the same
rate The MM model argues that if two firms are alike in all respect except that
they differ in respect of their financing pattern and their market value, then the
investors will develop a tendency to sell the shares of the overvalued firm
(creating a selling pressure) and to buy the shares of the undervalued firm
(creating a demand pressure). These buying and selling pressures will continue
till the two firms have same market values.
The Arbitrage Process:
Firms which are identical in all respects except for their capital structure must
have the same value
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FACTORS INFLUENCING CAPITAL STRUCTURE
Financial Leverage
Cash Flow ability
Control
Flexibility
Market conditions
Floatation costs
Legal framework
Nature of business
Cost of financing
Period and purpose of financing
In the real world taking decisions on capital structure is not as easy as it is made
out till now. In deciding the capital structure of a company, the following points
need to be considered:
Corporate Strategy
Corporate strategy is the main factor determining the financial structure of a
company. The market growth rates form a basis for defining the Organization
structure, Investment in Assets and Overall Capital Intensity (Debt/Equity
Financing). The fact that the company has to source funds from the markets,
makes it imperative to factor in the market responsiveness to the company's call
for funds. Capability to service the funds, both debt and equity and the growth
phase of the business have to be considered in tandem. Other strategic decisions
like management control level, risk averseness or risk taking nature of the
management, etc. have also to be considered.
Capital Intensity: Capital structure should factor in the type of the assets being
financed. Capital intensive firms rely mostly on long term debt and equity.
Generally speaking, long term assets should be financed by a balance between
term debt and equity and short term assets should be financed less by long term
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sources (like term debt and equity) and more by short term debt. The terms
current (short term) and fixed (long term) assets are determined by the nature of
the industry and the business itself. For example, a rapidly growing non-seasonal
and non-cyclical business may regard part of its investments in short term assets
like inventories and accounts receivable, as permanent investments and fund it by
long term sources. If on the other hand, the business is seasonal in nature, the
seasonal peaks fund requirements may have to be funded by short term debt.
Product or business life cycle: During the initial phase of the growth curve of a
business/product the risk is high. Debt is hard to come by due to the riskiness of
the venture and funding has to be through the venture capital equity. Financial
leverage is low, which could be increased as the product/business establishes
itself. As the business matures, increased cash flows may reduce the need for debt
funds.
Current and Past capital Structure
Current capital structure of a company is determined largely by past decisions.
Investment decisions of the past, acquisitions, take-over, financing policy,
dividends etc. go into forming the current capital structure which is difficult to
change overnight. Altering current capital structure can be done by raising capital,
retiring debts, buying back shares, taking on debt, altering dividend payout
policies, alteration in earning capacity, etc. Also, as past decisions decide current
capital structure, current changes in the capital structure decide the future capital
structure. Hence, utmost care has to be exercised in decision and implementation
of changes in the capital structure.
Capital gearing: The relative proportion between different securities and the
ratio of each security to the total capitalization is known as capital gearing.
Equity is traded upon:
Trading on equity
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Capital gearing
Financial leverage
Break-Even Analysis
The accounting break-even point is the level of sales at which profits are zero or,
equivalently, at which total revenues equal total costs. As we have seen, some
costs are fixed regardless of the level of output. Other costs vary with the level of
output.
Break-even level of revenues = fixed costs including depreciation
Additional profit from each additional Rs of sales
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Required quantities to avoid loss.
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Figure 1: < Caption of the Figure>
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