Chemistry Review Packet: Semester 2

By Nora and Jimmy Crist

Mixtures
• Pure Substance: Similar molecules
• Mixtures: any assortment of 2 or more elements/compounds
• Solvent: majority of particles
• Solute: minority of particles
• Aliquot: sample of a mixture
• Homogenous: Aliquot represents whole mixture
o Solute is soluble in solvent
• Heterogeneous: Aliquot doesn’t represent whole mixture
o Solute is insoluble in solvent
• Solution: A homogeneous mixture, solute dissolved in solvent
• Types of Solutions
o Solutions
 Particles <lnm, homogeneous
o Colloids
 Particles between lnm and lµm, mostly homogeneous
 Optically active, leads to tyndall effect, able to observe Brownian
motion
o Suspension
 Particles >lµm, mixture w/o agitation
• Solutions and Colloids can’t be physically separated
• Electrolytes: improve electrical conductivity
o Said to be electrolytic or dielectric solutions
• Non-electrolytes: don’t improve electrical conductivity
o Solution is non-electrolytic or non-dielectric
• Strong electrolytes: nearly all molecules dissociate
• Weak electrolytes: less than 10% dissociate
• Ionization: salvation of ionic substances
• Dissociation: salvation of covalent substances
• Solvation (dissolution)
o Always endotropic and spontaneous
o ↑ surface area = ↑ rate
o ↑ agitation = ↑ rate
o ↑ or ↓ temperature depending on endo/exothermic
• Unsaturated
o Rate of salvation > rate of recrystalization
• Saturated
 o Rate of solvation = rate of recrystalization
• Supersaturated
o Rate of salvation < rate of recrystalization
o Caused by rapid cooling
o Extremely unstable
• Hydration Spheres
o Zones of influence of solvated ions
o Occur only in polar solvents (H2O)
• Miscible: solution occurs with liquid solute
• Immiscible: liquid solutes that don’t dissolve
• Henry’s law
o Solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
at the solvent’s surface
• Effervescence: process of reaching equilibrium when a gaseous solution is in a
system with reduced pressure: gives off gas
• Gasses are less soluble as T increases
• Molarity = mols of solute/ solution volume
• Molality = mols solute/ grams solvent
o Used to discuss colligative properties
• Molality (M) solution/ molarity (m) solution = density (ρ) of solution
• Double replacement
o Only time when observations are also reasons: form gas or precipitate
o Due to solubility of ions and compounds
• Colligative properties
o Shared by all solutions
o Depend only on molal concentration
o Don’t regard law of non-additivity
o Boiling point elevation
 ↑ linearly, ∆ t= Km
 boiling occurs when:
• Equilibrium Vapour Pressure = Ambient Pressure
 KbH20 = 0.51 Km-1
o Freezing Point depression
 ↓ linearly, ∆ t = Km
 KfH2O= -1.86 Km-1
o Osmotic pressure
 How the internal pressure of a pure solvent can be altered by the
addition of any solute to form a solution
• Vapour pressure
o Degree to which solute affects determines colligative properties
o ↑ solvent = ↓ vapour pressure
o ↑ temperature = ↑ vapour pressure
o Tendency for liquid molecules to kick up (evaporation)
 o Affected by presence of ions and molecules (# of ions)
o In real electrolytic solutions, the colligative affect is always less than
predicted due to reassociation of ions.

K.M.T.

• Kinetics: the study of reaction rates

• Kinetic molecular theory
• Atoms/molecules are point particles, mostly empty spaces
• Energy is conserved
• Continuous random motion
• No net forces of attraction or repulsion
• Temp = (mean velocity)2
• Accounts for all properties of gases
• Perfectly elastic fluid
• Van Der Waals interaction
• Causes non-ideal behavior at low Temperature and high Pressure
• Don’t follow KMT
• Pressure: P, measured in Pa (N/m2)
• The force of particle collisions per surface area
• Relative density of air to relative density of medium
• Boyles law: Temperature is constant
• Charles Law: Pressure is constant
• Gay-Lussac’s Law: Volume is constant
• Combined Gas Law: PV/T = K
• Dalton’s law of partial pressure: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3
• Amagat’s law: Vtotal = V1 +V2 + V3
• Ideal gas law:
• PV/Tn = R or PV = nRT
• R = Rankine constant/ universal gas constant
• R = 8.31447215 Jmol-1K-1
• Specific Heat capacity of ideal gas
• Gas properties
• Expansion
• Compressibility
• Fluidity
• Density
• Diffusion: process by which one gas mixes with another gas
• Effusion: process by which one gas expands into empty space through a
pin hole
 General Chemical Rates
• Rate = -∆ [reactant]/ ∆ t
• Differential rate law
• Rate = K [a]a[b]b[c]c of all reactants
• Used in method of graphical linearization
• Proposed rate law
• Only right if reaction obeys elementary reaction kinetics
• Molecularity
• Unimolecular = single step, elementary reaction
• Bimolecular = two steps…
• Integrated Rate Law
• Gives concentration at any time, or time at any concentration
• Half Lives
• Reaction doesn’t reach completion, but equilibrium
• Time until ½ reactant consumed
• Law of mass action
• Keq = [products]/[reactants]
• < 1 reactant favored, > 1 product favored
• Dimensionless
• Describes position of equilibrium
• Le Châtelier’s Principle
• Any system at equilibrium that is subjected to a chemical or physical
stress (such as changes of state) will accommodate that stress by moving the
position of the equilibrium in such a manner that the stress is relieved
• Dynamic equilibrium
• Pressure
• Affects only gasses
• ↑ pressure = ↓ product
• no change in Keq value
• Concentration
• ↑ [ ] = ↑ Rate = ↑ product
• no change in Keq value
• Temperature
• ↑ temp on endo, ↓ on exo = ↑ product
• Will change Keq value
• Catalysis/ Inhibitors
• Only increase/decrease rate of reaction
 Other Rate Influencing Factors
• Nature of reactants
• Surface area
• R α S.A. α 1/particle size
• Temperature: For every 10 degrees, rate doubles
• Common ion effect
• Shifting equilibrium by adding common ion
• Solubility product: Ksp
• Relates the solubility of insoluble substances to Keq
• Ksp = Keq for all solids
 Acids and Bases

• Acids: O.A.
• Task sour and sharp
• React with metals, often release gas
• Charged color
• Or vegetable pigments
• Bases (alkalis): R.A.
• Taste bitter
• Soapy feel, work as detergent
• React with metals, often release gas
• Change color of vegetable pigments
• Arrhenius definition
• Acids: have hydrogen cation, aqueous
• Bases: Hydroxide ion, aqueous
• Brönsted-Lowry
• Observed acid-base in gas phase
• Acid: can donate a proton
• Base: can accept a proton
• Lewis definition
• Acids accept electrons
• Bases donate electrons
• Acid-Base Strength
• Ka = [products]/ [reactants] = Kb
• Strong electrolyte = strong acid/base
• Conjugate Concept
• Products of dissociation are another acid/base
• Weak acid = strong conjugate acid
• Ampoteric
• Acid or base

• Auto ionization
• 2H2O H3O+1 + OH-1
• Ion product of water
• Kw = KaH2O = [H3O][OH] = 10-14
• pH = -log10[H3O] = 14 + log10[OH]
ACID NEUTRAL BASE

Phase Chemistry

• Phases of matter
• Function of the states of matter
• Temp. and pressure
• Determined by distribution of kinetic energy within particles and strength of bond
between molecules: intermediate forces
• Solid
• Vibrational
• IMF dominates
• Definite shape and volume
• Liquid
• Vibrational and rotational
• K.E. approaching threshold
• Definite volume, indefinite shape
• Gas
• Vibration, rotational, translational
• KE is dominant
• Most common universal phase
• Indefinite volume and shape
• Potential well: shows force vs. energy
• Phase diagram: Graphical method of analyzing the various phases which substances
are in, according to their states
• Isobar: constant pressure
• Isotherm: constant temperature
• Rare phases
• B.E.C.
• Bose–Einstein condensate
• ↓ pressure, ↓ temperature
• Vapour
• S.C.F.
• Super critical fluid
• Can no longer tell difference between liquid and gas
• Plasma
 Symbols and Equations
Temp: T K

Heat: Q J

Internal Energy: U J

Work: w J

Kinetic energy: KE J

Enthalpy: H J

Entropy: S JK-1

Heat of:

Formation ∆ Hf° Jmol-1

Combustion ∆ Hc° Jmol-1

Solution ∆ Hs° Jmol-1

Reaction ∆ Hrxn° J

Free energy: G J

Activation energy: Ea J

Heat Capacity: C JK-1

Specific Heat: c JK-1g-1

E.M.F.: V Jc-1
Charge: q C

Ampere: Cs-1

Planck’s Constant: h 6.626 ∗ 10-34Js-1

Wave Length: λ m

Amplitude: a

Frequency: V Hz

Speed of Light: c

Pressure: P Pa

Density: ρ mass/volume

Equilibrium Vapour Pressure: Pv Pa

Molal Freezing Point: KfH2O Km-1

Molal Boiling Point: KbH2O Km-1

Equilibrium Constant: Keq

Solubility product: Ksp

Ion Product: Kw

Thermodynamic Probability: W

∆ Qα ∆ T

∆ U=∆ Q–w

∆ H=∆ U+w

∆ H=∆ Q at constant pressure

S = k ln W

∆ G = ∆ H- T∆ S
∆ Q = mc∆ T

Ecoh = Eanode - Ecathode

Planck’s Quantum Theory

E = hν

C=νλ

Louis De Broglie

λ = h/mν

Boyle: Temperature Constant

Charles: Pressure Constant

Gay-Lussac: Volume Constant

Ideal gas law: PV/T = K

Dalton’s law of partial pressure: Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3…

Amagat’s law: Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3…

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT