Qualities Of Timber

The best timber is obtained from mature trees, the fibers of which have
become compact and firm, both by the drying up of the sap and by the
compressive action of the bark. There is a great difference both in
appearance and strength between the heart-wood, or duramen, and the sap-
wood, or alburnum; in the former, the fibers are firm and dense, and possess
a deep color; in the latter, they are open, porous, and filled with sap, and are
usually of a pale color. The heartwood is much stronger, and less liable to
decay and to the attacks of insects, than sap-wood.

The medullary rays consist of vertical layers or sheets, radiating from the
center, and connecting the pith with the bark, as shown at i and j, Fig. 1. They
are not, however, continuous, but are broken by the interweaving of the fibers.
Those rays extending from the pith to the bark are called primary rays; those
extending through only a portion of the stem are called secondary rays. The
medullary rays are prominent in oak, beech, and sycamore, but are not so
well defined in birch, chestnut, and maple. It is the presence of these
medullary rays, sometimes called silver grain, that gives so much beauty to
quartered oak.

Selecting The Stock

In good lumber for building purposes, the heart-wood should be sound and
mature, the sap-wood, or layers next the bark, being entirely removed. The
wood should appear uniform in texture, straight in fiber, be free from large or
loose knots, flaws, shakes, or any kind of blemish. When the rings are close
and narrow, they denote a slowness of growth, and are usually signs of
strength. When freshly cut, the wood should smell sweet; a disagreeable
smell is a sign of decay. The surface, when sawed, should not appear woolly,
but be firm and bright, and it should not be clammy and choke the saw. When
planed, the wood should have a silky appearance; the shavings should come
off like ribbons and stand twisting around the fingers. When the wood appears
dull and chalky, and the shavings are brittle and friable, it is not first-class
stock. Good lumber should be uniform in color; when blotchy or discolored it
signifies a diseased condition.

Imperfections
There are various defects in timber which may be caused either by the nature
of the soil in which it grew or by accidents due to storms, etc.

Heart-shakes are cracks or partings of the fibers, radiating from the center of
the tree. They are common in nearly all classes of timber, and are caused by
the shrinkage of the inner layers incidental to loss of vitality; the cracks are
wider towards the heart.

Star-shakes are cracks radiating from the center, but differ from heart-shakes
in that they are wider towards the bark; they are caused by the rapid drying of
young timber while it is full of sap.

Cup-shakes are curved splits which separate the layers, and are caused by
severe wind storms.

Rind-galls are curved swellings, caused generally by resinous layers forming

over a wound where a branch has been broken off.

Foxiness is a yellow or red coloring, signifying the early stages of decay.

Dry-rot is a fungus growth, and can be discovered by a black-and-blue tinge;

the end wood is crumbly and crisp. Timber thus affected is of no permanent
value, as the rot continues until the fiber becomes powder.

Seasoning of timber,

seasoning is the controlled reduction of excessive moisture in newly

converted timbers.

Methods of seasoning timbers are:

1. By open air seasoning or natural seasoning.- this is the process or
method of seasoning timbers in an open air by making a shelters or
shade.
2. By kiln seasoning or artificial method of seasoning.- this is the process
or method used for seasoning timbers by means of an electrical
machine.

Uses of Commercial wood:

Plywood: Plywood is used in many applications that need high-quality, high-

strength sheet material. Quality in this context means resistance to cracking,
breaking, shrinkage, twisting and warping.

Typical end uses of spruce plywood are:

 • Floors, walls and roofs in house constructions
• Wind bracing panels
• Vehicle internal body work
• Packages and boxes
• Hoarding
• Fencing

Particle board: Particle (MDF) board is used for making doors, partition &
some furniture like shelves.

Plywood production

1.3.1 Log sorting, conditioning and barking

1.3.2 Peeling, reeling and clipping
1.3.3 Veneer drying
1.3.4 Assembly
1.3.5 Pressing
1.3.6 Finishing

GLASS

Strictly speaking, a glass is defined as an inorganic product of fusion which

has been cooled through its glass transition to the solid state without
crystallising.[2][3][4][5][6] Many glasses contain silica as their main component and
glass former.[7] The term "glass" is, however, often extended to all amorphous
solids (and melts that easily form amorphous solids), including plastics,
resins, or other silica-free amorphous solids. In addition, besides traditional
melting techniques, any other means of preparation are considered, such as
ion implantation, and the sol-gel method.[7] Commonly, glass science and
physics deal only with inorganic amorphous solids, while plastics and similar
organics are covered by polymer science, biology and further scientific
disciplines.

TYPES OF GLASS & ITS USES

1. SODA GLASS :
it is the cheapest & most common glass. it is prepared by fusing soda ash,
sand , limestone. it is also called soft glass. it fuses at comparatively low
temperatures. the major disadvantage of using this glass is that it is brittle &
breaks easily. it cracks when subjected to sudden changes of temperature .
soda glass is used for the manufacture of window glass, mirrors, common
glassware etc. it is easily attacked by chemcials.

2. HARD GLASS :
it is obtained by fusing potassium carbonate & limestone . it is used for
making hard glass apparatus. it is more resistant to the action of acids.

3. LEAD CRYSTAL GLASS :

it is made from potassium carbonate, lead oxide & sand. lead glass has high
refractive index. it, therefore, sparkles & is used for making expensive glass
ware. the surface of lead glass objects is often cut into decorative patterns to
reflect light. cut glass show extraordinary sparkle.

4. PYREX GLASS :
it is made by fusing a mixture od sand, lime, borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) & alkali
carbonates. it has good chemical laboratory apparatus, ampoules,
pharmaceutical containers, et. in home, it is familiar with oven ware.

5. OPTICAL GLASS :
it is specially made so as to be free of strains & defects. it is used for making
lenses for spectacles, microscopes, cameras, telescopes & other optical
instruments.

6. PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS :
it is a special variety of glass that temporarily darkens when exposed to bright
light. it is, therefore, very useful as a sun-shield. this automatic darking
property of photochromatic glass is because of the presence of silver
bromide.

7. SAFETY GLASS :
it is prepared by placing a layer of transparent plastic between the two layers
of glass by means of suitable adhesive. the 3 layers are joined together by the
action of heat & pressure. the glass does not break easily under ordinary
impact, & that is why is is known as safety glass. it is used in making wind
screens of aeroplanes, automobiles, bulletproof glass etc.

8. GLASS FIBRES :
it is form of fibres, has varied applications in most of the industries . glass
wool is a bundle of loose glass fibres, which is an excellant heat insulator. it is
used as insulating material in refrigerators, ovens etc.another important class
of glass fibre is optical fibres which are extensively used in
telecommunication, surgical operation etc. great progress has been made in
making optical fibres, which can guide light, & thus transmit images round
corners. the fibres are used in endoscopy to examine the internal human
organs. they are also made in telecommunications & are much more efficient
than copper cables.

CEMENT

Introduction

The types of cement in India have increased over the years with the
advancement in research, development, and technology. The Indian cement
industry is witnessing a boom as a result of which the production of different
kinds of cement in India has also increased.
By a fair estimate, there are around 11 different types of cement that are
being produced in India. The production of all these cement varieties is
according to the specifications of the BIS.

Some of the various types of cement produced in India are:

• Clinker Cement
• Ordinary Portland Cement
• Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
• Portland Pozzolana Cement
• Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
• Oil Well Cement
• White Cement
• Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

Uses: Early uses

It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of hydrated

non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also:
Pozzolanic reaction), but concrete made from such mixtures was first used on
a large scale by Roman engineers.[1] They used both natural pozzolans (trass
or pumice) and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these
concretes. Many excellent examples of structures made from these concretes
are still standing, notably the huge monolithic dome of the Pantheon in Rome
and the massive Baths of Caracalla.[2] The vast system of Roman aqueducts
also made extensive use of hydraulic cement.[3] The use of structural concrete
disappeared in medieval Europe, although weak pozzolanic concretes
continued to be used as a core fill in stone walls and columns.

[edit] Modern cement

Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the

Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:

• Hydraulic renders for finishing brick buildings in wet climates

• Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works etc., in
contact with sea water.
• Development of strong concretes.

Various Lab Test On Cement

Checking of materials is an essential part of civil engineering as the life of

structure is dependent on the quality of material used.Following are the tests
to be conducted to judge the quality of cement.

1. Fineness
2. Soundness
3. Consistency
4. Initial And Final Setting Time Of Cement