Evolution of Distribution System Load Flow Methods – a

Bibliographic Review
S Mishra, Non-member
D Das, Non-member
Load flow methods for power distribution systems are quite different in comparison to transmission systems
owing to some special topological features. Over years various load flow methods known as Distribution
System Load Flow (DSLF) methods have been proposed to exploit the special topological properties as well
as to overcome the difficulties arising out of the ill conditioned nature of the distribution systems. In this
paper, an extensive chronological survey of the development of various DSLF methods available in the
literature is presented. Uncertainties in input parameters, application of object oriented approaches and
three phase four wire distribution load flow methods are some of other features of distribution load flow
which have also been reviewed in this paper. The emergence of distributed generators and use of FACTS
devices have made the distribution system and hence the DSLF methods far more complex than its earlier
versions. The evolution of the present day three phase unbalanced DSLF methods with multiple feeding
sources, embedded FACTS devices, advance software approaches etc., has been traced in this paper.
Keywords : Distribution system; Load flow; Distributed generators; Forward and backward sweep

INTRODUCTION Radial distribution systems are inherently unbalanced,

Load flow calculation studies started with the Ward and
Hale method1 in 1956 is a very basic and important tool in
the field of power system engineering. Since the invention,
many methods for solving the load flow problem have been
developed 2. Most of the methods have ‘grown up’ around
transmission systems and, over the years, variations of the
Newton method such as the fast decoupled method3, have
become the most widely used. Distribution networks are
characterized by radial structure and high R/X ratio feeders.
Conventional power flow methods show convergence
problem in solving such networks. Special power flow
methods have therefore come out over years, which exploit
the special characteristics of distribution networks, namely
radiality and the presence of only one voltage controlled
bus. These alternate algorithms show better efficiency and
simplicity for radially configured networks than the traditional
Gauss Siedel and Newton-Raphson (NR) methods4-6 and
are classified as distribution system load flow (DSLF)
methods. However, the emergence of distributed generators
and use of FACTS devices have made the distribution
system and hence the DSLF methods far more complex
than its earlier versions. Thus, the evolution of the present
day three phase unbalanced DSLF with multiple feeding
sources, embedded FACTS devices, advanced software
approaches etc., has been traced in this paper through an
extensive bibliographic survey.
LITERATURE REVIEW OF DSLF METHODS
Sivkumar Mishra is with Department of Electrical Engineering,
Ghanashyam Hemalata Institute of Technology and Management,
Puri-752002, Orissa and Debapriya Das is with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal.
This paper (modified) was received on August 03, 2010. Written
discussion on the paper will be entertained till November 30, 2010.
owing to factors such as the occurrence of asymmetrical
line spacing, the combinations of single, double and three
phase line sections and the imbalance of customer loads;
hence, solution methods based on the assumption of
balanced loading are not applicable. Yet, in literature many
DSLF methods have been proposed that solve only the
line- to -neutral equivalent of a balanced system. Thus,
important information such as the effect of mutual coupling
on voltage drop and unbalance is lost7. Various DSLF
methods8-21 are available in literature, which effectively
exploit the radial nature and overcome the ill-conditioned
nature due to high R/X ratio of the distribution networks but
are suitable for single phase analysis of radial distribution
networks (RDN), assuming balanced operation. The load
flow methods proposed for distribution systems considering
the unbalance operation can be grouped into two basic
categories22-24. The first category is Forward Backward
Sweep (FBS) / Ladder Network based methods, Loop
Impedance Method and Implicit Zbus Gauss method or
modified versions. The other class is composed of methods
which require information on the derivatives of the network
equations. Newton like methods involving formation of
Jacobians and computation of power mismatches at the
end of the feeder and laterals and other fast-decoupled
methods, tailored specially for distribution systems, come
under this second category.
Ladder Network / Forward Backward Sweep based
Methods
Literature survey reveals that most of the methods for radial
distribution load flow have been predominantly based on
Forward and Backward Sweeping (FBS)/ Ladder Network
based approach .The obvious reason for the above is that
this method is simple, fast and robust. The general algorithm
consists of two basic steps: forward sweep and backward

Volume 91, September 2010 1

sweep. The forward sweep is mainly a voltage drop
calculation from the sending end to the far end of a feeder
or a lateral, and the backward sweep is primarily a current,
power or admittance summation based on the voltage
updates from the far end of the feeder to the sending end
.Many methods25-34 have been proposed in literature which
are classified as FBS based DSLF methods .Some
distribution feeders serving densely loaded areas operated
with weakly meshed loops by closing the normally open tie
switches. Shirmohammadi, et al 35 have proposed a
compensation method for distribution systems with weakly
meshed structures. Several methods36-42 which are based
on the compensation technique and follow the FBS based
DSLF methods suitable for weakly meshed distribution
systems have been reported.
Implicit Zbus Gauss and Loop Impedance Matrix
Methods
Gauss Implicit43,44 method has been proposed which uses
a bi-factorised complex Y admittance matrix based on
equivalent current injection (ECI) but requires the
factorization of the full Y-bus matrix, adversely affecting the
performance in terms of speed. Teng45 proposed a modified
Gauss-Siedel method, by blending the Implicit Z-bus
method43-44 and the Gauss-Siedel method to improve the
computational efficiency. Goswami and Basu 46 have
formulated a load flow algorithm by writing simple loop
equation and representing loads as complex impedances.
A topological approach47 has been proposed where two
matrices are developed, namely, the bus injection to branch
current (BIBC) matrix and branch current to bus voltage
(BCBV) matrix. The load flow solution is obtained by using
simple matrix multiplication of these two matrices. Chen
and Yang 48 have proposed an unbalanced DSLF based
on branch frame of reference.
Newton Like Methods and Modified Fast Decoupled
Methods
Various attempts have been made to modify the Newton’s
method to make it applicable to distribution systems. In the
modified NR technique49, the network radial structure is
explored to express the Jacobian matrix as a product of
UDUT, where U is constant upper triangular matrix and D
is a diagonal matrix, the elements of which are updated at
every iteration. An attempt has been made50 to extend the
standard three phase decoupled theory51 with certain
modifications to obtain a fast decoupled three phase DSLF.
A fast decoupled DSLF has been proposed52, which orders
the ‘laterals’ instead of ‘buses’ into ‘layers’, thus reduces
the problem size to the no. of laterals. A Phase Decoupled
load flow method53 has been proposed based on ECI
method. Methods54-65 are some other variations of NR
based DSLF method or various decoupled methods. .
MODELING ASPECTS IN DSLF
Distribution systems are inherently unbalanced due to
reasons stated before. To avoid significant error arising from
2 IE(I) Journal–EL
inherent system imbalance, rigorous distribution analysis
using detailed component models is required.
Feeder Modelling
In Dilek, et al42 and Chen and Dilon66 and Vempati, et al67,
a detailed discussion of feeder models for both coupled
and uncoupled feeders has been given. Starting with a
modified version of Carson's equations, Kersting and
Philips68 and Kersting69 have developed distribution feeder
models that can be used in unbalanced DSLF. In this work,
modeling of both distribution overhead and underground
line segments has been carried out, which accurately
computes the phase impedance and admittance matrices
taking into account the actual phasing of the line and spacing
between conductors.
Transformer Modelling
The modeling of three phase transformers is a vital step in
distribution system analysis. Due to unbalanced system
operations, a complete and accurate three-phase model is
desirable for distribution and inline transformers of various
core and winding configurations. A three-phase transformer
model has been discussed in Dilon and Chen 70 and
Kersting, et al71. Chen, et al43,72 have proposed a two block
three phase transformer model and a similar model has
been proposed in Baran and Staton 73 .Gorman and
Grainger74,75 have discussed the conversion of nodal
admittance matrix from primitive admittance matrix in detail.
Kersting and Philips76 have developed the models for an
unsymmetrical three phase transformer bank and Kersting
et al71 have presented an exact model of three phase
ungrounded Wye-Delta transformer for. Various other
aspects of transformer modeling for DSLF have been
presented77-82.
Load Modelling
Most of the electrical loads of a power system are connected
to the low voltage distribution systems. The electrical loads
of a system comprise residential, commercial, industrial
and municipal loads. The active and reactive load powers
of a distribution system are not independent of system
voltage and frequency deviations. Also, the active and
reactive power characteristics of various types of load differ
from each other. In static analysis, like load flow analysis, it
is considered that the frequency deviation is insignificant
and thus only the effects of voltage deviation on the active
and reactive load powers is considered to get better and
accurate results. Various approaches of load modeling for
DSLF have been proposed in the papers27, 83-87.
Test Feeders for Unbalanced Distribution System
Load Flow Analysis
With many computer programs available for the analysis
of radial distribution feeders and because of the wide
variation of the assumptions made in the development of
the programs, there is a need for benchmark systems for
comparison and testing of the various programs. Kersting
and Willis88 have presented the complete data for three
four wire Wye and one three wire delta radial distribution
feeders. In89, an updated version of the same test feeders
along with a simple system that can be used to test three
phase transformer models, is presented. The complete data
and solutions for all the test feeders can be downloaded at
http:// ewh.ieee.org/soc/pes/dsacom/testfeeders.html. With
the increase in the application in distributed generation
technologies such as wind turbines and various combined
heat and power applications that employ induction
generators, Dugan and Kersting 90 have presented a more
extensive model which consists of IEEE 34 node test feeder
with two large induction machines.
RECENT TRENDS IN DSLF
Uncertainties in Input Parameters
All the distribution load flow methods so far discussed have
been carried out assuming the input quantities (loads at
different buses and feeder parameters) are known and
fixed. However, in real life situations, the values of these
input quantities may contain a significant amount of
uncertainties. These uncertainties might occur due to- error
in the calculation or measurement of the feeder parameters;
and error in the metered, calculated or forecasted values
of the demand in the system load buses. Hence,
researchers have tackled these in various ways. Das et
al91 have presented a fuzzy model for radial distribution
system, where uncertainties in loads are modelled as fuzzy
numbers. Various approaches have been proposed to
handle uncertainties in input parameters in DSLF92-95.
Multiple Feeding Sources (Distributed Generation)
Recent technology improvements in micro turbines, fuel
cells and energy storage devices have provided the
opportunity for dispersed generation (DG) at the distribution
level. With the penetration of distributed generation in
distribution systems now DSLFs are required to be modified
keeping in view the multiple feeding sources. Together, this
requires that the load flow algorithm be more robust and
faster than that required for static studies. Compensation
based DSLF34 has been extended to a DG distribution
system with PV node compensation35. Various methods of
DSLF with distributed generation have been proposed in
the papers96-106.
Application of FACTS Devices
The major objectives of FACTS devices installed on a
distribution feeder are to improve voltage profiles, correct
power factor and reduce line losses. Modifications and
extensions to standard distribution load flow algorithms with
FACTS devices are reported in literature107-109. Tripathy
et al110 have proposed a load flow technique which handles
multiple sources and looping of the distribution networks
with optimally placed D-STATCOM. Mori111 and Mehdi, et
al112 have modelled the D-STATCOM for DSLF analysis.
Volume 91, September 2010
Similarly, Hosseni, et al113 have modeled unified power
quality conditioner (UPQC) for distribution system load flow.
Object Oriented (OO) Methods
The Object Oriented (OO) methods are particularly
appealing, because OO modeling and programming allow
to fully exploit the advantages of the new architectures and
guarantees flexibility, expansibility and easiness of
maintenance of Distribution Management Systems (DMS)
functions and software packages. Losi and Russo114 have
proposed the application of OO approach to distribution
load flow problem using NR method and is then extended
to weakly meshed topology of distribution systems115. The
effects of various load models on the distribution load flow
solution and on the convergence characteristics of the OO
algorithm are presented116. OO distribution load flow
modeling is extended to include DGs 117. Selvan and
Swarup118-121 have proposed various Object Oriented FBS
based DSLF methods.
Three Phase Four Wire Distribution Load Flow
Three phase four wire distribution networks are widely
adopted in modern power distribution system. A multi
grounded three phase four wire service has higher
sensitivity for fault protection than a three phase three wire
service. The return current is due to both the unbalanced
load and nonlinear characteristics of electrical equipments
through the distribution feeder. However, the neutral wire
in most of power flow software is usually merged into phase
wires using Kron's reduction. Since the neutral wire and
ground wire are not explicitly represented, neutral wire
currents and voltages remain unknown. In some
applications, like power quality and safety analysis, loss
analysis, etc. knowledge of the neutral wire and ground
currents and voltages could be of special interest. Ciric, et
al122,123 have proposed a general power flow algorithm for
three phase four wire radial distribution networks
considering neutral grounding, based on forward backward
sweep method. Similarly, various related methods124-126
can be found.
CONCLUSION
Distribution system load flow analysis has come a long way,
starting from simple analysis of radial networks to its present
form with many complexities as discussed. Load flow
calculation methods for distribution system analysis vary
from adaptations of networked transmission system
analysis methods to a wide variety of ladder/ forward
Backward Sweep methods that take advantage of the radial
structure of most distribution systems. Ladder/ forward
Backward sweep techniques have superior performance
compared to the coupled matrix methods for radial circuits
as the solution sweeps fit naturally with the operation of
voltage regulator controls and other controls on the
distribution equipment, thus simplifying control algorithm
implementation127. However, Araujo, et al128 have shown
that for very large circuits, modern sparse techniques have
3
overcome the speed advantage of the sweep method. This
is an important issue because distribution load flows are
now being performed routinely on systems larger than
15000 three phase buses. The increasing penetration of
distributed generators into the distribution system and the
use of FACTS devices are the two factors that will affect
the future trend of development of Distribution load flow
techniques.
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