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Introduction CLOSING
SWITCH CS
This Note is an overview of the sources and nature of various
transient overvoltages, and the problems that may result.
Energizing the Transformer Primary Unless a low-impedance discharge path is provided, this
When a transformer is energized at the peak of the supply burst of transient energy appears across the load. If this load
voltage, the coupling of this voltage step function to the stray is a semiconductor device or capacitor with limited voltage
capacitance and inductance of the secondary winding can capabilities, that component may fail. The transients
generate an oscillatory transient voltage with a peak amplitude produced by interrupting the magnetizing current are usually
up to twice the normal peak secondary voltage (Figure 1). quite severe. For example, the stored energy in the
magnetizing field of a 150kVA transformer can be 9J.
CLOSING SWITCH When the voltage at the contact rises, breakdown of the gap
is possible since the distance is still very small during the
+ - opening motion of the contact. The contact arc will clear at
the current zero of the oscillation but it will restrike as the
VP VS contact voltage rises again. As the contacts are moving
farther apart, each restrike must occur at a higher and higher
iM
L voltage until the contact succeeds in interrupting the current.
C
VCAP VLINE
LOAD
LINE
VOLTAGE VSUPPLY t SOLID-STATE
VP EQUIPMENT
MAGNETIZING
CURRENT iM
AND FLUX
FIGURE 4. VOLTAGE TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY SWITCH ARCING
SWITCH
OPENED
This restrike and escalation effect is particularly apparent in
VOLTAGE Figure 5, where a switch opens a relay coil of 1H, having
SECONDARY TRANSIENT
VOLTAGE VS about 0.001µF of distributed (stray) capacitance in the
winding. Starting with an initial DC current of a 100mA, the
circuit produces hundreds of restrikes (hence, the “white”
FIGURE 2. VOLTAGE TRANSIENT CAUSED BY band on the oscillogram) at high repetition rate, until the
INTERRUPTION OF TRANSFORMER circuit clears, but not before having reached a peak of 3kV in
MAGNETIZING CURRENT contrast to the initial 125V in the circuit.
+
Fault with Inductive Power Source 0
If a short develops on any power system, devices parallel to
the load may be destroyed as the fuse clears. -
10-111
Application Note 9769
0-
10,000
50ms/DIVISION
FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE TRANSIENT/YEAR
Random Transients
Frequently, transient problems arise from the power source 0.1
feeding the circuit. These transients create the most
consternation because it is difficult to define their amplitude, 0.01
duration and energy content. The transients are generally 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 kV
PEAK VALUE OF VOLTAGE TRANSIENT
caused by switching parallel loads on the same branch of a
distribution system, although they also can be caused by SERVICE ENTRANCE OF BANK BUILDING IN
BASEL, SWITZERLAND
lightning. Communication lines, such as alarm and telephone
SERVICE ENTRANCE, 16 FAMILY HOUSE,
systems, are also affected by lightning and power system faults. UNDERGROUND SYSTEM (HEAD STATION)
To deal with random transients, a statistical approach has FARMHOUSE SUPPLIED BY OVERHEAD (220V)
TRANSMISSION LINES
been taken to identify the nature of line overvoltages. While SERVICE
LANDIS AND GYR. PLANT, ZUG, OUTLET IN LAB
recordings of transients have been made, one cannot state
16 FAMILY HOUSE, UPSTAIRS LIVING ROOM
that on a specific system there is an “X” probability of OUTLET
encountering a transient voltage of “Y” amplitude. Therefore, LANDIS AND GYR., ZUG, OUTLET IN FURNACE
ROOM
one is limited to quoting an “average” situation, while being
(COURTESY OF L. REGEZ, LANDIS AND GYR.,
well aware that large deviations from this average can occur, ZUG, SWITZERLAND)
depending on the characteristics of the specific system. (120V)
U.S. COMPOSITE CURVE
SERVICE
In the following sections, the recorded experiences of three
FIGURE 7. FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF TRANSIENT
types of systems will be described. These are: 1) AC power
OVER-VOLTAGES IN 220V AND 120V SYSTEMS
lines (up to 1000V); 2) telecommunication systems; and
3) automotive systems.
10-112
Application Note 9769
For systems of higher voltages (220V, 240V, 480V), limited Duration, Waveform and Source Impedance
data is available for U.S. systems. However, the curves of There is a lack of definitive data on the duration, waveform
Figure 8 indicate the difference between the two classes, and source impedance of transient overvoltages in AC
120V and 220V systems, is smaller than the differences power circuits. These three parameters are important for
within each class [8]. One can conclude that the amplitude of estimating the energy that a transient can deliver to a
the transient depends more upon the amount of externally suppressor. It is desirable to have a means of simulating the
coupled energy and the system impedance than upon the environment through a model of the transient overvoltage
system voltage. pulse. Suggestions have been made to use standard
For internal switching transients in the power system, impulses initially developed for other applications. For
Figure 8 shows the relationship (computed and measured) instance, the classical 1.2 x 50µs unidirectional voltage
between system voltage and transient peaks [8]. Clearly, impulse specified in high voltage systems has been
there is no direct linear increase of the transient amplitude proposed [9]. Also the repetitive burst of 1.5MHz oscillations
as the system voltage is increased. (“SWC”) specified for low-voltage and control systems
exposed to transients induced by high-voltage disconnect
6
switches in utility switch yards is another suggestion [10].
TH ≅ 5µs TH ≅ 5µs
Working Groups of the IEEE and the International
5 Electrotechnical Commission have developed standard test
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE (kV)
10-113
Application Note 9769
10-114
Application Note 9769
Electrotechnical Commission Working Group on Low of-change of either the current or the voltage of the noise
Voltage Insulation Coordination has developed a table source. The low-frequency components of the induced
listing the minimum clearances in air for optimum and worst noise (which are hardest to filter out) are a result of the
case electric field conditions existing between electrodes amplitude of the original transient impulses.
[13]. Breakdown of the clearance between metal parts can
Frequently, the source of noise is the arcing of contacts
be viewed as a form of protection, limiting the overvoltage
breaking current through an inductor, such as a relay coil. A
on the rest of the circuit. However, this protection is
low-current, high-voltage arc creates a series of brief
dependent upon the likelihood of AC line current that may
discharges of a damped oscillatory nature, occurring at kHz
follow during the arc breakdown. Normally, power-follow
to MHz frequencies with amplitudes of from 300V to several
current should cause the system fuse or breaker to
thousand volts. These pulses and their reflections from loads
function. If the power-follow current heat is limited by circuit
and line discontinuities travel along the power wires, easily
impedance, then the system fusing may not operate. In that
inducing noise in adjacent wiring. This interference is best
case, sufficient heat could be generated to cause a fire.
eliminated by preventing it at the source (the inductance)
Experience with power wiring has shown that metal
with voltage-limiting devices such as varistors.
clearances can flashover harmlessly under transient
voltage conditions, and power-follow problems are rare, but Rate of Rise vs Amplitude
can occur. Interference coupled into electronic systems, as opposed
In liquid dielectrics, an impulse breakdown not followed by a to damage, is most often associated with the rate of rise of
high current is normally harmless. However, this type of the interfering signal rather than its peak amplitude.
breakdown is of limited interest in low-voltage systems, Consequently, low-amplitude fast-rise interference which is
where liquid insulation systems are seldom used, except in dealt only by the capacitance of a varistor until the
combination with some degree of solid insulation. clamping level is reached by the impinging interference
may still be a problem with the circuit if attempts are made
Breakdown of solid insulation generally results in local to suppress it with a retrofit varistor at the location of the
carbonization of an organic material. Inorganic insulation victim. A much more effective cure would be to install the
materials are generally mechanically and permanently appropriate varistor near the source of the offending surge,
damaged. When no power-follow current takes place, the so that the interference radiated or coupled by the surge
system can recover and continue operating. However, the would be confined to the immediate vicinity of the offending
degraded insulating characteristic of the material leads to source.
breakdown at progressively lower levels until a mild
overvoltage, even within AC line overvoltage tolerances, Transient Testing and Standards
brings about the ultimate permanent short circuit.
It is desirable to have test criteria and definitions that
Breakdown along surfaces of insulation is the concern of provide a common engineering language beneficial to both
“creepage” specifications. The working group of IEC cited the user and manufacturer of surge protective devices.
above is also generating recommendations on creepage Regretfully, different terms have come into use through
distances. The behavior of the system where creepage is industry practice over the years. Testing standards have
concerned is less predictable than is breakdown of insulation tended to proliferate as the measurement objective defines
in the bulk because the environment (dust, humidity) will either the characteristics of the protective device or the
determine the withstand capability of the creepage surface. environment of the application.
10-115
Application Note 9769
References
For Littelfuse documents available on the internet, see web [10] “Guide for Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Test,”
site - http://www.littelfuse.com/ ANSl Standard C37.90a, 1974, IEEE Standard
472,1974.
[1] Martzloff, F.D., “The Development of a Guide on Surge [11] Martzloff, F.D. and F.A. Fisher, “Transient Control Level
Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits,” Report 81 Philosophy and Implementation The Reasoning Behind
CRD047, General Electric, Schenectady, New York 1981. the Philosophy,” 77CH1224-SEMC, Proceedings of the
2nd Symposium on EMC, Montreux, June 1977.
[2] Greenwood, Allan, “Electrical Transients in Power
Systems”, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1971. [12] Fisher, F.A., “A Way to Evaluate the Effects of Changing
Magnetic Fields on Shielded Conductors,” Report
[3] Bodle, D.W., A.J. Ghaze, M. Syed and R.L. Woodside, 77CRD158, General Electric, Schenectady, New York,
“Characterization of the Electrical Environment,” July 1977.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970.
[13] “Insulation Coordination Within Low-Voltage Systems,
[4] “Recommended Environmental Practices for Electronic including Clearances and Creepage Distances for
Equipment Design,” Publication SAEJ1211, Society of Equipment,” IEC Report 664,1980.
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pennsylvania.
[14] Allen, George W., “Design of Power-Line Monitoring
[5] Hahn, G.J. and F.D. Martzloff, “Surge Voltages in Equipment,” IEEE Trans. PAS-90, No. 6, Nov-Dec.
Residential and Industrial Power Circuits,” IEEE Trans. 1971, pp.2604-2609.
PAS-89, No. 6, July-Aug. 1970, pp. 1049-1056.
[15] Herzog, R., “How to Catch a Transient” Machine Design
[6] Bull, J.H., “Voltage Spikes in L. V. Distribution Systems Magazine, March 1973, pp. 170-175.
and Their Effects on the Use of Electronic Control
Equipment,” Report No. 5254, Electrical Research Assn., [16] “IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Gas Tube Surge-
Cleeve Rd., Leatherhead, Surrey, Great Britain, 1968. Protective Devices,” ANSI/IEEE C62.3 1-1981.
[7] EEE Surge Protective Devices Committee, “Bibliography [17] “IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Low-Voltage Air
on Surge Voltages in AC Power Circuits Rated 600 Volts Gap Surge-Protective Devices (Excluding Valve and
or Less,” IEEE Trans. PAS-89, No. 6, July-Aug. 1970, Expulsion Type Devices),” ANSI/IEEE C62.32- 1981.
pp. 1056-1061. [18] “IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Varistor Surge-
[8] Data contributed by L. Regez (Landis & Gyr. Co., Zug, Protective Devices,” ANSI/IEEE C62.33- 1982.
Switzerland), Swiss representative to IEC Working [19] “IEEE Standard Test Specifications for Avalanche
Group 28A on Low Voltage Insulation Coordination. Junction Semiconductor Surge-Protective Devices,”
[9] “Surge Arresters for Alternating Current Power Circuits,” IEEE C62.34-1984.
ANSI Standard C62.1, IEEE Standard 28,1974.
10-116
Application Note 9769
10 2
OF CREST kV OF ABSCISSA
10-117 † Condensed from a paper presented at the 1979 IEEE 14th Electrical/Electronics Insulation Conference,
Boston, October, 1979 Reprinted with permission of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
†† ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1980 Guide on Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits.
Application Note 9769
Low Exposure - Systems in geographical areas known for Waveshape of Representative Surge Voltages
low lightning activity, with little load switching activity.
Waveshapes in Actual Occurrences
Medium Exposure - Systems in geographical areas known
Indoor - Measurements in the field, measurements in the
for high lightning activity, with frequent and severe switching
laboratory, and theoretical calculations indicate that most surge
transients.
voltages in indoor low-voltage systems have oscillatory
High Exposure - Rare but real systems supplied by long waveshapes, unlike the well-known and generally accepted
overhead lines and subject to reflections at line ends, where unidirectional waves specified in high-voltage insulation
the characteristics of the installation produce high sparkover standards. A surge impinging on the system excites the natural
levels of the clearances. resonant frequencies of the conductor system. As a result, not
only are the surges typically oscillatory, but surges may have
The two lower lines of Figure 1 have been drawn at the same
different amplitudes and waveshapes at different places in the
slope, since the data base shows reasonable agreement
system. These oscillatory frequencies of surges range from
among several sources on that slope. All lines may be
5kHz to more than 500kHz. A 30kHz to 100kHz frequency is a
truncated by sparkover of the clearances at levels depending
realistic measure of a “typical” surge for most residential and
on the withstand voltage of these clearances. The “high-
light industrial AC line networks.
exposure” line needs to be recognized, but it should not be
applied indiscriminately to all systems. Such application would Outdoor and Service Entrance - Surges encountered in
penalize the majority of installations, where the exposure is outdoor locations have also been recorded, some oscillatory,
lower. other unidirectional. The “classical lightning surge” has been
established as 1.2/50ms for a voltage wave and 8/20ms for a
From the relative values of Figure 1, two typical levels can be
current wave, but these waveshapes should not be construed
cited for practical applications. First, the expectation 3kV
as typical waves for low-voltage circuits. Lightning discharges
transient occurrence on a 120V circuit ranges from 0.01 to
induce oscillations, reflections, and disturbances that ultimately
10 per year at a given location a number sufficiently high to
appear as decaying oscillations in low-voltage systems.
justify the recommendation of a minimum 3kV withstand
capability. Second, the sparkover of wiring devices indicates Because the prime concern here is the energy associated with
that a 6kV withstand capability may be sufficient to ensure these surges, the waveshape to be selected must involve
device survival indoors, but a withstand capability of 10kV, or greater energy than that associated with the indoor
greater, may be required outdoors. environment. Secondary surge arresters have a long history of
successful performance, meeting the ANSI C62.1 specification,
The voltage and current amplitudes presented in the Guide
as detailed below; consequently, these specifications can be
attempt to provide for the vast majority of lightning strikes but
adopted as a realistic representation of outdoor waveshapes.
should not be considered as “worst case,” since this concept
cannot be determined realistically. One should think in terms of Selection of Representative Waveshapes
the statistical distribution of strikes, accepting a reasonable The definition of a waveshape to be used as representative
upper limit for most cases. Where the consequences of a failure of the environment is important for the design of candidate
are not catastrophic but merely represent an annoying protective devices, since unrealistic requirements, such as
economic loss, it is appropriate to make a trade-off of the cost excessive duration of the voltage or very low source
of protection against the likelihood of failure caused by a high impedance, place a high energy requirement on the
but rare surge. For instance, a manufacturer may be concerned suppressor, with a resulting cost penalty to the end user. The
with nationwide failure rates, those at the upper limits of the two requirements defined below reflect this trade-off.
distribution curve, while the user of a specific system may be
concerned with a single failure occurring at a specific location Indoor - Based on measurements conducted by several
under “worst-case conditions.” Rates can be estimated for independent organizations in 120V and 240V systems, the
average systems, however, and even if imprecise, they provide wave- shape shown in Figure 2 is reasonably representative
manufacturers and users with guidance. Of equal importance is of surge voltages in these power circuits. Under the
the observation that surges in the range of 1kV to 2kV are fairly proposed description of a “0.5µs - 100kHz ring wave,” this
common in residential circuits. waveshape rises in 0.5µs, then decays while oscillating at
100kHz, each peak being about 60% of the preceding peak.
Surges occur at random times with respect to the power
frequency, and the failure mode of equipment may be affected Outdoor - In the outdoor and service entrance environment,
by the power frequency follow current. Furthermore, the timing as well as in locations close to the service entrance,
of the surge with respect to the power frequency may affect the substantial energy, or current, is still available, in contrast to
level at which failure occurs. Consequently, when the failure the indoor environment, where attenuation has taken place.
mode is likely to be affected, surge testing should be done with For these locations, the unidirectional impulses long
the line voltage applied to the test piece. established for secondary arresters are more appropriate
than the oscillatory wave.
10-118
Application Note 9769
Accordingly, the recommended waveshape is 1.2/50µs for conventional Thevenin's description, the open-circuit voltage
the open-circuit voltage or voltage applied to a high- (at the terminals of the network or test generator) and the
impedance device, and 8/20µs for the discharge current or source impedance (of the surge source or test generator) are
current in a low-impedance device. The numbers used to sufficient to calculate the short-circuit current, as well as any
describe the impulse, 1.2/50 and 8/20, are those defined in current for a specified suppressor impedance.
IEEE Standard 28 - ANSI Standard C62.1; Figure 3 presents The measurements from which Figure 1 was derived were of
the waveshape and a graphic description of the numbers. voltage only. Little was known about the impedance of the
VPEAK circuits upon which the measurements were made. Since
09VPEAK then, measurements have been reported on the impedance
of power systems. Attempts were made to combine the
T = 10µs (f = 100kHz) observed 6kV open-circuit voltage with the assumption of a
parallel 50Ω/50µH impedance.
0.1VPEAK V
0.5µs VPEAK
0.9VPEAK
60% OF VPEAK
0.5VPEAK
0.3VPEAK
FIGURE 2. THE PROPOSED 0.5µs - 100kHz RING WAVE
(OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE)
T1
Energy and Source Impedance 50µs
T1 x 1.67 = 1.2µs
General FIGURE 3A. VOLTAGE ESCALATION DURING RESTRIKES
The energy involved in the interaction of a power system with a
surge source and a surge suppressor will divide between the
I PEAK
source and the suppressor in accordance with the 0.9IPEAK
characteristics of the two impedances. In a gap-type
suppressor, the low impedance of the arc after sparkover forces
0.5IPEAK
most of the energy to be dissipated elsewhere: for instance, in a
resistor added in series with the gap for limiting the power-
follow current. In an energy-absorber suppressor, by its very 0.1IPEAK
nature, a substantial share of the surge energy is dissipated in T2
the suppressor, but its clamping action does not involve the 20µs
T2 x 1.25 = 8µs
power-follow energy resulting from the short-circuit action of a
gap. It is therefore essential to the effective use of suppression FIGURE 3B. DISCHARGE CURRENT WAVEFORM
devices that a realistic assumption be made about the source
FIGURE 3. UNIDIRECTIONAL ANSI STANDARD C62.1)
impedance of the surge whose effects are to be duplicated. WAVESHAPES
The voltage wave shown in Figure 2 is intended to represent
the waveshape a surge source would produce across an open This combination resulted in low energy deposition capability,
circuit. The waveshape will be different when the source is which was contradicted by field experience of suppressor
connected to a load having a lower impedance, and the degree performance. The problem led to the proposed definition of
to which it is lower is a function of the impedance of the source. oscillatory waves as well as high-energy unidirectional waves,
To prevent misunderstanding, a distinction between source in order to produce both the effects of an oscillatory wave and
impedance and surge impedance needs to be made. Surge the high-energy deposition capability.
impedance, also called characteristic impedance, is a The degree to which source impedance is important depends
concept relating the parameters of a line to the propagation largely on the type of surge suppressors that are used. The
of traveling waves. For the wiring practices of the AC power surge suppressors must be able to withstand the current
circuits discussed here, this characteristic impedance would passed through them by the surge source. A test generator of
be in the range of 150Ω to 300Ω, but because the durations too high an impedance may not subject the device under test to
of the waves being discussed (50µs to 2µs) are much longer sufficient stresses, while a generator of too low an impedance
than the travel times in the wiring systems being considered, may subject protective devices to unrealistically severe
traveling wave analyses are not useful here. stresses. A test voltage wave specified without reference to
Source impedance, defined as “the impedance presented by source impedance could imply zero source impedance one
a source energy to the input terminals of a device, or network” capable of producing that voltage across any impedance, even
(IEEE Standard 100), is a more useful concept here. In the
10-119
Application Note 9769
a short circuit. That would imply an infinite surge current, clearly Location Category C is likely to be exposed to substantially
an unrealistic situation. higher voltages than location Category B because the limiting
Because of the wide range of possible source impedances effect of sparkover is not available. The “medium exposure”
and the difficulty of selecting a specific value, three broad rates of Figure 1 could apply, with voltage in excess of 10kV
categories of building locations are proposed to represent and discharge currents of 10kA, or more. Installing unprotected
the vast majority of locations, from those near the service load equipment in location Category C is not recommended;
entrance to those remote from it. The source impedance of the installation of secondary arresters, however, can provide
the surge increases from the outside to locations well within the necessary protection. Secondary arresters having 10kA
the building. Open-circuit voltages, on the other hand, show ratings have been applied successfully for many years in
little variation within a building because the wiring provides location Category C (ANSI Standards C62.1 and C62.2).
little attenuation. Figure 4 illustrates the application of the
three categories to the wiring of a building. A B C
For the two most common location categories, Table 1
shows the representative surge voltages and currents, with
the waveforms and amplitudes of the surges, and high- or
low-impedance specimen. For the discharge current shown,
the last two columns show the energy that would be
deposited in a suppressor clamping at 500V and 1000V,
typical of 120V or 240V applications, respectively. For higher
system voltages (assuming the same current values), the
energy would increase in proportion to the clamping voltage
of a suppressor suitable for that system voltage.
The values shown in Table 1 represent the maximum range
and correspond to the “medium exposure” situation of
Figure 1. For less exposed systems, or when the prospect of NOTES:
a failure is not highly objectionable, one could specify lower A Outlets and Long Branch Circuits: All outlets at more than 10m
values of open-circuit voltages with corresponding (30 feet) from Category B with wires #14-10; All outlets at more than
reductions in the discharge currents. 20m (60 feet) from Category C with wires #14-10.
The 6kV open-circuit voltage derives from two facts: the limiting B. Major Feeders and Short Branch Circuits: Distribution panel
devices; Bus and feeder systems in industrial plants; Heavy
action of wiring device sparkover and the unattenuated
appliance outlets with “short” connections to the service
propagation of voltages in unloaded systems. The 3kA entrance; Lighting systems in commercial.
discharge current in Category B derives from experimental C. Outside and Service Entrance: Service drop from pole to
results: field experience in suppressor performance and building entrance; Run between meter and distribution panel;
simulated lightning tests. The two levels of discharge currents Overhead line to detached buildings; Underground lines to well
from the 0.5µs - 100kHz wave derive from the increasing pumps.
impedance expected in moving from Category B to Category A. FIGURE 4. LOCATION CATEGORIES
TABLE 1. SURGE VOLTAGES AND CURRENT DEEMED TO REPRESENT THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT AND SUGGESTED FOR
CONSIDERATION IN DESIGNING PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
ENERGY (JOULES) DEPOSITED IN
A SUPPRESSOR (NOTE 6) WITH
IMPULSE CLAMPING VOLTAGE OF
COMPARABLE MEDIUM
LOCATION TO IEC 664 EXPOSURE TYPE OF SPECIMEN 500V 1000V
CATEGORY CATEGORY WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE OR LOAD CIRCUIT (120V SYSTEM) (240V SYSTEM)
A. Long branch II 0.5ms - 100kHz 6kV High Impedance (Note 4) - -
circuits and outlets 200A Low Impedance (Note 5) 0.8 1.6
B. Major feeders short III 1.2/50µs 6kV High Impedance (Note 4) - -
branch circuits, and 8/20µs 3kA Low Impedance (Note 5) 40 80
load center
0.5ms - 100kHz 6kV Low Impedance (Note 4) - -
500A High Impedance (Note 5) 2 4
NOTES:
4. For high-impedance test specimens or load circuits, the voltage shown represents the surge voltage. In making simulation tests, use that value
for the open-circuit voltage of the test generator.
5. For low-impedance test specimens or load circuits, the current shown represents the discharge current of the surge (not the short-circuit current
of the power system). In making simulation tests, use that current for the short-circuit current of the test generator.
6. Other suppressors which have different clamping voltages would receive different energy levels.
10-120