Derivation of Constitutive Relations for Elastic-Plastic Materials

(Infinitesimal strain derivation based on Drucker's Postulate)

1. Study of tension test for metal bar



Observations:



OP : Linear elastic response, σ = Eε .

PY : Non-linear elastic response, σ = f (ε ) .










 
Y , the bar returns to original length.

Y : "Yield limit". Loading beyond Y causes permanent or "plastic" strain ε P .


C , ε = ε E + ε P .

εP is the strain that would remain if bar were completely un

 
C .
If we unload to D and then load again, a small hysteresis loop occurs. P ′
may be different from C .



We idealize this observed behavior by the following assumptions.






 


 



 





CD and DP′ coincide).


  OP ) = Slope( CD ) (i.e., elastic response is independent of plastic strain).


 


!





#  




Our idealized tension test σ-ε diagram appears as



Another phenomenon usually observed if the bar is cycled through ten 



  


$%
 
$




 



 



  

We also neglect this effect and assume YC = YT .

"
Definition

The material is said to be stable (work hardening or perfectly plas



 
 









Drucker's Postulate of Stability and Results



Let the stress be some value σ at a point A of the tension test. Suppose the
*

external loads are changed and cause the stress to in



σ , the yield limit,
then to σ + ∆σ causing a plastic strain increment ∆ε
P
. Then let the load
decrease so that stress returns to σ at point A ′ .
*

'
WL be the work done by the applied loads,

∆W L = areashaded








∆WL = (σ − σ * )∆ε P ≥ 0 (equality iff ∆ε P = 0 ).

&


If σ * = σ , (i.e. if σ * is at elastic limit) when loads are increased, then

1









∆ω L = ∆σ∆ε P ≥ 0 for stable material.

2
∴ If material is stable, the work done by loads in a cycle of adding and removing
stress is non-negative and vice versa.





stability ⇔ (σ − σ * )∆ε p ≥ 0 σ < 0


(1)

∆σ∆ε ≥ 0, σ =σ *




If ∆σ causes ∆ε
P
in time ∆t , then in the limit



∆ε P ∆σ




ε = lim ,σ = lim
P


,

∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t


( 1 ) is equivalent to



(σ − σ * )ε P ≥ 0 




. (1′)

σε P ≥ 0 


ε P is plastic strain rate σ is stress rate.

Note : Even through we have assumed the process is rate-independent, it is
convenient to use time as a parameter and work with rates. The con

)
 

*
   








 









 


*


( 1′ ) from a compression or torsion test. This leads
us to generalize these concepts to general 3-dimensional stress states.





2. Generalization of tension test concepts to 3-D state of stress



Assumption 1. At any time t, ε ij (x,t ) consists of an elastic part ε ijE and a plastic
part ε ijP so that






ε ij = ε ijE + ε ijP ,

(


,




σ ij = Cijklε klE

or















ε ij = K ijklσ kl

E


with




K ijkl = K klij = K jikl

and




K ijkl do not depend on ε ijP or t.



Note : Such a strain decomposition would not be entirely satisfactory for finite
deformation but it is O.K. for infinitesimal theory.



From the observation of the yield point and the subsequent curve in 1-D, we are
lead to the concept of a

Yield surface and loading function.

σ ij can be represented by a point in a 9
For fixed x (position or particle),
dimensional vector space. Take σ 11 ,σ 12 ," as the coordinates of the point σ
referred to a rectangular Cartesian set of axes. Suppose at t = 0, the material is in
the stress free (reference) state. Assume that there is a simply connected
neighborhood of the origin in stress space at t = 0 that contains only elastic states.
That is, for σ ij in this neighborhood, a small change ∆σ ij will cause only an

elastic change in strain, ∆ε ij , so

E

+
that ∆ε ij = 0 . The boundary of this region (in stress space) we call the initial yield
P

surface and assume it is represented by

f 0 (σ ij ) = 0 or f 0 (σ 11 ,σ 12 ,"σ 33 ,") = 0 ,



,
f 0 < 0 is inside and f 0 > 0 is outside the surface.



At any later time t > 0, assume that we have again a yield surface (enclosing a
simply connected region) such that stress points inside represent elastic state and
stress points on the surface represent plastic state, i.e., stress state for which
∆ε ijP ≠ 0 are possible for arbitrarily small ∆σ ij .

'

*
 
*





.
/








0
/


1





loading surface and it generally depends on the manner in
which body has been deformed, i.e., it depends not only on the values of εijP at t

but also on all values taken between 0 and t.

 



,



2

* 
,
3






 
x in the
body.)









 


 

σ ij for which ∆ε ijP = 0 ) do
not alter f. We can now summarize in

-
Assumption 2. There exists a loading function f such that at time t if σ ij is such
that


5
/
6

∆σ ij if small enough, causes only ∆ε ijE , "elastic state",


.
/
6
∆σ ij can cause ∆ε ijP (for arbitrarily small ∆σ ij ) "plastic state",


0
/
6
 



*






Assumption 3. The material is stable, i.e., the work done by an exter













 
 ,







 !





We now derive the consequence of Assumption 3 for general stress states.
Consider a unit cube of material in a homogeneous state σ ij* , ε ij* at time t * .
(Assume each element of cube has same deformation history.) An external agency
changes stress to σ ij (t ) during t * ≤ t ≤ t 3 with


σ ij = σ ij at t = t3

*




The loading cycle is


t * ≤ t ≤ t1" elastic deformation (loading),


t1 ≤ t ≤ t2" plastic states (loading),


t2 ≤ t ≤ t3" elastic unloading.



#
σ -space, the loading cycle can be represented as in Fig.

The work done by the agency (on the unit cube) is

4
 t3
W = ∫ * (σ ij − σ ij* )εij dt
t






t3
= ∫ * (σ ij − σ *
ε +ε
ij )( ij
E P
ij )dt.
t

But

∫ ∫ ∫
t3 t3 t3
(σ ij − σ ε ij ) ij dt
* E
= σ ε
ij ij dt
E
−σ *
ij εijE dt



t *
t *
t *

= I1 − I 2 .


( noteσ ij = Cijkl ε ij )

E

∫ σ ε
t3
I1 = *
E
ij ij dt
t

d 1 E E
∫
t3



=  Cijkl ε kl ε ij dt

t* dt  2 
=0
σ ij(3) = σ ij* so ε ij E (3) = ε ijE .

*


Since


And εij ≠ 0 only for t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 .

P
'2,
I 2 = 0 .

∫ (σ
t2





∴ W= ij −σ ij* )εijP dt ≥ 0 , (by assumption 3)

t1

for all possible cycles.

'
t2 − t1 = δt > 0 be small and use Taylor series to expand W (t2 ) about t = t 1.

[
W (t 2 ) = (σ ij − σ ij* )εijP ]
t =t1
(δt ) +
1
2
[
σ ij εijP + (σ ij − σ ij* )εijP ]
t =t1
(δt ) 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅

The necessary and sufficient conditions for W( t 2 ) ≥ 0 are

(σ ij − σ ij* )εijP ≥ 0 

σ ij ≠ σ ij

*

σ ij εijP ≥ 0 












σ ij = σ ij*

,
σ
*
ij is any stress state inside or on the yield surface at time t.



The second condition, σ ij εij ≥ 0 , is often called the "uniqueness" equation. It
P

is analogous to positive definite strain energy in an elastic body when

proving uniqueness.


7





Corollary 1.




 

At the point σ ij on the yield surface in 9-D stress space draw a vector paralleled to
εijP . For any σ ij* inside the yield surface, assumption (3), or equation (2) says the
vector (σ ij − σ ij ) makes an angle ≤ 90D with the vector εij . Draw the hyperplane
* P

perpendicular to εij through σ ij . All σ ij* satisfying eq. (2) lie on or to one side of
P

it.

So the yield surface lies on or to one side of the hyperplane perpen


εij
P

for all σ ij on the surface. Hence the surface is convex.

Stress remains on yield surface while εij ≠ 0 (Consistency).

P
Corollary 2.

(2) gives σ ijεij ≥ 0 for σ ij* on yield surface. Therefore σ ij makes an an ≤ 90D
P

with εij . If angle exceeds 90D , stress point moves inside yield surface and
P

εijP = 0 .

8
Corollary 3.





ε ijP is normal to the yield surface at a regular point of the yield sur















∂f






εij
P
= λ whereλ = λ (x,t ) > 0. (3)

∂σ ij

Loading, Neutral loading, Unloading from plastic state are character



σ ij as follows

∂f

f = 0, σ > 0 , : loading from a plastic state, εijP ≠ 0 ,

∂σ ij ij


 ∂f

f = 0, σ = 0: : neutral loading from a plalstic state,

∂σ ij ij
∂f
σ ij < 0 . : unloading from a plastic state, εij = 0 .
P

f = 0,
∂σ ij

3. Associated flow rule

Since stress point must remain on yield surface during loading, we must have f = 0 .
Assumng
f = f (σ ij ,ε ijP ) = 0 ,



We




∂f ∂f

f = 0 = σ ij + P εijP

∂σ ij ∂ε ij
or, by eq. (3), we get



∂f ∂ f ∂f

σ ij + λ = 0 .

∂σ ij ∂σ ij ∂ε ijP


For a work hardening material (as opposed to a perfectly plastic material),



∂f P

ε ≠ 0



εijP ≠ 0

∂ε ij
P ij

or equivalently by (3), we get


∂f ∂ f
≠0 if
εij ≠ 0

P
∂ε ijP ∂σ ij


 


∂f
σ ij
∂σ





λ = − ≥0 .

ij
∂ f ∂f
∂σ ij ∂ε ijP

So equation (3) becomes, for loading at a regular point of work harden 

 



∂f
σ
∂f ∂σ pq pq ∂f
εijP = λ = −




∂σ ij ∂f ∂f ∂σ ij
∂σ kl ∂ε klP


together with

∂f

f = 0, σ > 0 .

∂σ ij ij


For neutral loading, σ ij lies in tangential plane



∂f

f = 0, σ = 0

∂σ ij ij
and (4) gives

εijP = 0 .



Note : For a perfectly plastic material, we cannot show λ explicitly, because



∂f ∂f

= 0, σ = 0 .

∂ε ij
P
∂σ ij ij




Vertices and Edges on Loading Surface

(a common occurrence, e.g. Tresca yield surface)



Consider two regular surfaces intersecting in a line given by




f1 (σ ij ) = 0, f 2 (σ ij ) = 0 ,



 
f1 , f2 depend on the history of the deformation. From stability considerations
εijP lies in the plane defined by and between the two normals to f1 and f2 . So


 ∂f 1 ∂f 
εijP = λ1 + λ2 2 
∂σ ij ∂σ ij 







λ1 ≥ 0, λ2 ≥ 0  .



σ ij εijP ≥ 0 



For unloading, σ ij points inside both yield surface,




εijP = 0 ,

∂f 1 ∂f 2

σ ij < 0, σ < 0 .
∂σ ij ∂σ ij ij


For neutral loading, σ ij points along f1 = 0 or f2 = 0 , or both. εij = 0 , one of
P

∂f1 ∂f 2
σ ij , σ is zero and the other is zero or negative.

∂σ ij ∂σ ij ij





loading, there are two possibilities (with εij ≠ 0 ).

P




 














 



f1 = 0 , f2 < 0 . So

∂f 1 ∂f

σ ij + 1P εijP = 0 ( f1 = 0) ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ij
∂f 2 ∂f

σ ij + 2P εijP < 0 ( f2 < 0) ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ij

σ ij εijP ≥ 0, λ1 ≥ 0, λ2 ≥ 0 .









  
  
ε ijP , but the indeterminancy is only in

  

 



 

 
   


ε ijP .



2) Stress point stays on both loading surfaces. Then λ 1 , λ 2 are re
 



∂f 1 ∂f

σ ij + 1P εijP = 0 ( f1 = 0) ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ij
∂f 2 ∂f

σ ij + 2P εijP = 0 ( f2 = 0) ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ij







σ ij εijP ≥ 0, λ1 ≥ 0, λ2 ≥ 0 .

From the equation of εij at the vertex,

P

∂f1  ∂f 2

εij = λ1 + λ2
P

.

∂σ ij ∂σ ij





∂f1 ∂f  ∂f ∂f 

σ ij + 1P  λ1 1 + λ2 2  = 0 ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ij  ∂σ ij ∂σ ij 
∂f 2 ∂f  ∂f ∂f 

σ ij + 2P  λ1 1 + λ2 2  = 0

∂σ ij ∂ε ij  ∂σ ij ∂σ ij 
or

∂f 1 ∂f 1  ∂ f 1 ∂f 2  ∂ f1 
− λ − λ = σ
∂ε ijP ∂σ ij
1
∂ε ijP ∂σ ij
2
∂σ ij  ij

. (5)

∂f ∂f ∂ f ∂f ∂f
− 2P 1 λ1 − 2P 2 λ2 = 2 σ ij 
∂ε ij ∂σ ij ∂ε ij ∂σ ij ∂σ ij 


(5) are solved for λ1 and λ2 which must also satisfy




λ1 ≥ 0, λ2 ≥ 0, σ ij εijP ≥ 0 .















 


 

σ ij , which
determine the range of directions for which stress point remains at the vertex. It
may happen that (5) reduce to one equation in which case we can show that

∂f1 ∂f 2 ∂f1 ∂f 2


! 



, on the plane containing , are
∂ε ij ∂ε ij
P P
∂σ ij ∂σ ij
parallel and

∂f1 ∂f 2





σ ij are such that the projections on the plane of ,

∂σ ij ∂ε ijP
have the same direction.





    

ε ij if this situation prevails for a finite time.

P

Summary of developments thus far



Assumption 1




ε ij = ε ijE + ε ijP ,


ε ijE = K ijklσ kl ,


K ijkl = K klij = K jikl .





Assumption 2 Yield surface (loading function), yield conditions f ( σ ij ) = 0
depends on history of deformation.




f < 0" , elastic state

f = 0 . . . plstic state

f > 0" inadmissible


when f < 0 , εij = 0 and while εij ≠ 0 , then f = 0.

P P

Assumption 3 Material is stable




(σ ij − σ ij* )εijP ≥ 0, σ ij εijP ≥ 0 ,


 
σ ij lies inside or on the current yield surface.

*



#
$
% %






Unloading
σ ij moves stress point inside f = 0, εijP = 0 .

∂f



&
 
 
σ < 0 .

∂σ ij ij
∂f ∂f 2



&
 







1 σ ij < 0, σ < 0 .

∂σ ij ∂σ ij ij



Neutral Loading
σ ij moves stress point along current yield surface. For
work hardening materials, εij = 0 and
P
f = 0.

∂f



At regular point,
σ = 0 .

∂σ ij ij
∂f ∂f 2



&
 

 



1 σ ij , σ vanishes.

∂σ ij ∂σ ij ij



Loading σ ij moves outside current yield surface but yield surface changes so
that f = 0 is satisfied, εij ≠ 0 .

P

∂f


At regular point,

σ > 0 ,

∂σ ij ij
∂f
σ rs
∂ f ∂σ




εijP = λ , λ = − rs
≥ 0 .

∂σ ij ∂f ∂f
∂σ kl ∂ε klP
∂f ∂f 2


&
 

 



1 σ ij , σ > 0

∂σ ij ∂σ ij ij


εijP lies in a fan formed by adjacent normals



∂f1  ∂f 2


εij = λ1 + λ2
P




.

∂σ ij ∂σ ij


λ1 , λ2 are restricted by λ1 ≥ 0, λ2 > 0, σ ij εijP ≥ 0 and by both or one of
f1 = 0, f2 = 0 , depending on weather or not the stress point remains at the corner.

"