Roof Water Harvesting

APPRAISAL OF ROOF WATER HARVESTING
AND ITS POTENTIAL FOR PRODUCTIVE
USES IN NORTHERN GHANA
1 Draft, IWMI and SARI

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACRONYMS AND
ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………1
CHAPTER ONE 4
INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. THE EXTENT OF WATER PROBLEMS WHERE RAINWATER‐HARVESTING SYSTEMS ARE USED .. 6
1.3 GLOBAL USE OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN SOLVING WATER PROBLEMS ............................... 7
CHAPTER TWO 10
REVIEW OF ROOF WATER HARVESTING……………………………….....10
2.1 ROOF WATER HARVESTING ............................................................................................................ 10

2.2 IMPORTANCE FOR DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES ........................................................................... 10
2.3 RAINWATER HARVESTING COMPONENTS ..................................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Catchment Subsystem ............................................................................................................ 11
2.3.2 Conveyance Subsystem .......................................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 Storage Subsystem .................................................................................................................. 13
2.3.4 Filtering Subsystem ................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.5 Distribution ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.4 WATER QUALITY OF ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS ......................................... 20
2.6 SITE AND RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM SELECTION ........................................................... 22
2.6.1 Rainfall..................................................................................................................................... 22
2.6.2 Hydrology and Water Resources .......................................................................................... 23
2.6.3 Socio‐Economic and Infrastructure Conditions................................................................. 23
2.6.4 Environmental and Ecological Impacts .............................................................................. 23
2.6.5 Costs ......................................................................................................................................... 24
2.7 Water Balance and System Sizing........................................................................................... 24
2.7.1 Supply Calculation ................................................................................................................. 25
2.7.2 Demand Calculation............................................................................................................... 25
2.7.3 Storage Capacity Calculation............................................................................................... 26
2.8 POTENTIAL EFFECTS AND IMPACTS – TAKING A LIVELIHOODS‐BASED APPROACH.................. 27
2.8.1 Reduction of Burdens of the Poor......................................................................................... 28
2.8.2 Health Impacts........................................................................................................................ 28
2.8.3 Economic Impacts................................................................................................................... 30
2.8.4 Poverty Alleviation ................................................................................................................ 30
2.8.5 Environmental Benefits.......................................................................................................... 31
2.8.6 Domestic and Industrial Benefits......................................................................................... 31
2.9 PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM .................................... 31
3. THE CASE OF NORTHERN GHANA……………………………………………………………….3

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………..33

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AEZ Agro Ecological Zone
ASA Arid and Semi‐arid
DRWH Domestic Rainwater Harvesting
DTU Development Technology Unit
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
IDRC International Development Research Centre
IWMI International Water Management Institute
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MLGLH Ministry of Local Government, Land and Housing, Botswana
PAF Agro‐Forestry Project
PRAs Principal Research Areas
RHAZ Rainwater harvesting Association of Zimbabwe
RWH Rainwater Harvesting
RWHS Roof Water Harvesting System
SARI Savanna Agricultural Research Institute
SSA Sub‐Saharan Africa
SIDS Small Island Developing Countries
SIWI Stockholm International Water Institute
UNICEF United Nation Children’s Fund
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNCESCR United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights
WH Water Harvesting
WHO World Health Organization

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Water is fundamental for life and health. The human right to water is
indispensable for leading a healthy life in human dignity. It is a pre‐requisite to
the realization of all other human rights (UNCESCR, 2002). In spite of this, a
large proportion of the world’s population does not have access to safe sources of
water. WHO/UNICEF has estimated that 1.1 billion people do not have access to
“improved drinking‐water sources” (WHO/UNICEF 2000).
Despite major efforts to deliver safe, piped, community water to the world’s
population, the reality is that water supplies delivering safe water will not be
available to all people in the near future. The Millennium Declaration by the
WHO established a goal of halving the proportion of the global population
without access to safe water by 2015. It is clear that all possible approaches must

be tried to mitigate the problem of drinking water, maximizing the control of
households with regard to their own water security.
In this context, rainwater harvesting is receiving increased attention worldwide
as an alternative source of drinking water. Rainwater harvesting has been a
popular technique in many part of the world, especially in arid and semi‐arid
regions (almost 30% of the earth’s surface). Rainwater harvesting was invented
independently in various parts of the world and on different continents
thousands of years ago. It was especially used and spread in semi‐arid areas
where rainfall occurs during some months and at different locations. The
application of appropriate rainwater harvesting system can make possible the
utilization of rainwater as a valuable and in many cases, necessary water
resources. Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4000 years,
and, in most developing countries, is becoming essential owing to the temporal
and spatial variability of rainfall. Rainwater harvesting is necessary in areas
having significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional, centralized
government supply system, and in areas where good quality fresh surface water
or groundwater is lacking

While rainwater may be harvested in a number of ways, this paper focuses only
on the collection and storage of rainwater from individual household roof
catchments. Traditionally this was the major option to people in water‐scarce
regions in rural areas of developing countries where people had to manage to
fulfil drinking water and household water needs by rainwater harvesting.
Governmental agencies across the world are now introducing policies to
promote increased use of rainwater.
In India, for example, several state governments have introduced legislation that
makes it obligatory to incorporate rooftop rainwater harvesting systems in newly
constructed buildings in urban areas. (Meera and Mansoor, 2006) Governments
are also providing subsidies to promote the use of rainwater harvesting systems.
The Ghana Science Association, GSA organized workshop on the theme:
“Rainwater Harvesting: A sustainable Solution to Water Shortage Problems in
Ghana” to create forum for cross fertilization of ideas among stakeholders on the
subject with a view to evaluating rainwater harvesting as a sustainable practical
solution to the perennial water shortage problems in the country. (Daily Graphic,
2006). In Ghana, rainwater harvesting is being practiced especially at Tema and
some places in the Northern sector for domestic purposes but the technology is
not fully developed for agricultural use. (Anane, 2000)
RWH technology is low cost and simple. RWH technologies have a high
potential of contributing towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
with a view of eradicating poverty and hunger, provision of safe drinking water

and sanitation, ensuring environmental sustainability, promoting gender equity
and women empowerment. It is one way of improving the living conditions of
millions of people, particularly those living in the dry areas. Water scarcity
especially for domestic and agricultural purposes compromises the role of
women in food production. Hence, provision of water by promoting rainwater
harvesting and management technologies reduces the burden for rural women
thus increasing their productivity. The provision of water at the point of
consumption from rainwater tanks provides a range of immediate positive social
impacts on health, family welfare and domestic productivity. This results when
time saved in water collection is utilized elsewhere. Some of the time saved
maybe used for productive activities such as agriculture with clearly tangible
and easily valued economic benefits. More time can also be spent on activities
such as child rearing when women have time freed up from the daily chore of
water collection. The value of such benefits to family livelihood and well‐being
are difficult to assess and are rarely appropriately costed.

The aim of this paper is to create awareness of successful methods or systems of
roof water that resource poor farming households have effectively used to
overcome the hardships of nature.

1.2. The Extent of Water Problems Where Rainwater‐Harvesting Systems Are
Used
Successful applications of this domestic rainwater harvesting are used in Amman
(Jordan), Edlib and Quneitra (Syria), West Bank highlands (Palestine) and
Lebanon, where annual rainfall varies between 300‐500 mm. The practice was
also historically used in drier climates in Yemen (Aden) and Syria (Rasafe). In
the semi‐arid zones of West Asia, about 65‐80% of the annual rainfall occurs
during an approximately four‐month period, with the remaining months having
little or no rainfall. Accordingly, rainwater harvesting from residential rooftops
represents a viable alternative under certain natural and demographic conditions
this will help solve the problem of inadequate domestic water during the dry
season and throughout the whole year. (UNEP, 2000b).
Katsukunye about 170 kilometre (km) away from Harare, Zimbabwe was well
known for perennial water shortage. As the functioning of the local school and
clinic also started getting adversely affected, the Ministry of Health and Child
Welfare was on the verge of closing down. However, the communityʹs
endeavour to harness rainwater and evolve rules for its sustainable management
is saving several lives, everyday. About 120 people in the clinic and 700 students

are its main beneficiaries. Earlier, absence of rainwater harvesting (RWH) system
and adverse hydro geological features like rocky terrain and saline groundwater
had intensified the crisis. Pregnant women were the most affected, as the potable
drinking water source was almost three km away. (Catch Water, GWP News,
2003)
Kooki County in Uganda has very difficult physical and climatic conditions for
drinking water supplies. A programme to introduce simple rainwater harvesting
techniques in selected households has successfully prompted replication
throughout the district on a self‐financing basis. (One World Africa, 2004)
1.3 Global use of Rainwater Harvesting in Solving Water Problems

Sri‐Lanka is one place that rainwater is harvested for domestic purpose. Sri‐
Lanka is classified as a country with little or no water scarcity. However, the
picture has been made clearer by another classification that divided that country
into absolute water scarce districts and economic water scarce districts
depending on seasonality. Absolute water scarcity in this instance has been
defined as when water abstraction is more than 50% of available water.
According to this classification almost all dry regions in Sri Lanka face year
round or absolute water scarce conditions. Economic scarcity has on the hand
been defined in terms of the magnitude of future development. The rainwater is
used for several domestic activities including flushing of toilet, washing, cooking
and drinking (occasionally) (Lanka Forum, 1999).

Mvuramanzi Trust, a member of Rainwater harvesting Association of Zimbabwe
(RHAZ) with community participation constructed a 192 square metres
catchment with 15 cubic metre storage tank using granite rocks near the school
on a smooth rock surface for the Katsukunye Community in 2001. The project
has provided significant economic and environmental gains. A marked
improvement has also been noted in the childrens school performance. Cases of
diarrhoea and unhygienic child delivery have reduced considerably. The women
now have more time to invest in productive ventures. Adequate gully control
measures have helped to control environmental degradation around the granite
rocks.
Rainwater harvesting is used extensively in Latin America and the Caribbean,
mainly for domestic water supply and, in some instances for agriculture and
livestock supplies on a small scale. In Brazil and Argentina, rainwater harvesting
is practiced in semi‐arid regions. In Central American countries like Honduras,

Costa Rica, Guatemala, and El Salvador, rainwater harvesting using rooftop is
employed extensively in rural areas.
Estimates show that about 100,000 people in rural Jamaica depend to a large
extent on rainwater harvesting (UNEP, 1997). Domestic rainwater harvesting
technology widely applied in areas of West Asia where the annual rainfall ranges
between 350‐500 mm, especially in the mountainous terrain of Syria, Lebanon,
Jordan, Palestine and Yemen has been very helpful. It has also been applied to a
certain extent in Saudi Arabia and the Sultanate of Oman. The eastern
Mediterranean hills, which receive a high rainfall quantity of 500‐1000 mm/year,
also resort to this technology due to the deep groundwater aquifer, the non‐
uniform spatial distribution of the rainfall due to the widespread karst structures,
and the high velocity of surface and subsurface water runoff. This results in the
high availability of water during the rain seasons and in water scarcity during
the dry seasons. Domestic rainwater harvesting has helped households obtain
water for most parts of the year. (UNEP, 2000b).
Rainwater collection systems are extensively used by most SIDS, (Small Island
Developing Countries) especially those low‐lying islands where rainwater
catchments constitute the major part of the water supply for the inhabitants. This
supply will often be supplemented by groundwater. Some of the Islands include
St. Lucia, the Turks and Calicos Islands. In some places government regulations
make it mandatory for developers to build rainwater storage tanks. Rooftop and
purpose‐built catchments also are commonplace in the Bahamas. One settlement
(Whale Cay) has a piped distribution system based on rooftop‐collected water.
On New Providence, most of the older houses collect rooftop rainwater and store
it in tanks averaging 70000 litres capacity. Industrial use of rooftop‐collected
rainwater is also practiced. The Islas de la Bahia, off the coast of Honduras, meets
a substantial proportion of their potable‐water needs from rooftop catchments.
Rainwater catchment systems are practically the sole water supply source for a
small group of islands north of Venezuela; these arid islands experience only 500
mm to 700 mm of rainfall per year, and have largely saline groundwater reserves
that cannot be used for potable purposes (UNEP, 2000c).
Ethiopia is also one country that roof water harvesting has been practiced for
some time due to the incidence of dry spells which results in undesirable
consequences such as famine and shortage of water for other domestic activities.
In high land areas where the terrain is rugged with scattered villages and
hamlets developing modern water supply systems is a problem. As a result roof
water harvesting has been considered as a viable development option. It is also a
means of water supply in areas where ground water is not feasible and perennial

streams/rivers do not exist. Roof water from schools, churches and individual
homes with corrugated roofs are under trial in several areas and the results so far
are very encouraging. Adequate water is therefore provided during the rainy
season, an occasion where the rural communities are busy with their farming.
More and more people are harvesting roof water, as more and more people own
houses with corrugated roofs (Alem, 1999).
Due to inadequate piped water supplies, the University of Dar es Salaam has
applied rainwater harvesting and utilisation technology to supplement the piped
water supply in some of the newly built staff housing. Similarly, rainwater is
collected from the hipped roof made with corrugated iron sheets and led into
two tanks, each with a 70‐litre capacity. The town and district councils under the
Ministry of Local Government, Land and Housing (MLGLH) have constructed
thousands of roof catchment and tank systems at a number of primary schools,
health clinics and government houses throughout Botswana. (UNEP, 2000)
Domestic roof water harvesting in the context of South Asia and East Africa were
initiated as a source of domestic water especially for drinking and cooking. This
was mainly due to the belief that quality of rainwater is better than the
commonly found ground water. However, stored water is used for various
activities other than drinking and cooking. This in fact was quite evident in the
Sri Lankan rainwater‐harvesting programme, especially in the wet zone, where
stored water are mainly used for non‐premium water use activities (washing
clothes, sanitary purposes, livestock and small‐scale home gardening). This gave
the users the added advantage of having a source of water within accessible
distance for household use. Experiments conducted in Sri Lanka and Rwanda
indicate that improving accessibility of water has increased the per capita
consumption of water and increased the rainwater contribution in the total use of
rural households. Studies conducted by the Anawan Trust in Tiruchendur Taluk
on roof water harvesting from community centers, among coastal fishing villages,
indicated that harvested rainwater has particularly benefited children, and 80 %
of the people in the area said that water shortage in summer has been overcome
by roof water harvesting. (Milestone Report D 5, 2001).

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW

2.1 Roof Water Harvesting

Roof water harvesting is the collecting of runoff during rains from impermeable
surfaces on houses or close to houses, its storage in waterproof vessels and its
subsequent use as the water supply of the inhabitants of the houses. The use may
be “temporary” (for example during the 24 hours following a rainstorm),
“seasonal” (throughout the rainy season) or “permanent” (throughout the year
except perhaps in years of exceptionally low rainfall. Rooftop rainwater
harvesting for household use will only ever represent a small part of the total
water balances. In areas with significant variations in the annual rainfall pattern,
matching water supply and demand may be difficult. However, in terms of
economic and human welfare it has a crucial role to play. Rainwater is in many
cases the easiest to access, most reliable, and least polluted source, in addition,
because it can be collected and controlled by the individual household or
community as it is not open to abuse by other users. Rainwater
pollution/contamination may result from air pollution and biological
contamination.

2.2 Importance for Domestic Water Supplies

Rainwater harvesting systems have a high potential in many countries and are
already being widely used not only in ASA environments. Rooftop rainwater
harvesting has a number of potential benefits including:
1. The water source is close to people, so it requires a minimum of energy to
collect it and therefore it is very convenient.
2. A reduction of the burden of collecting water over long distances;
particularly for women
3. Improved health due to cleaner water, improved sanitation, reduced
drudgery (previous point), and improved nutrition (through growing
vegetables)
4. Reduction in vulnerability to external shocks such as drought, and a
diversification of livelihoods due to productive and economically
beneficial uses of water

5. Poverty alleviation through productive use of water, but also through
capacity building, reduced isolation, and improved access to basic
services as part of the implementation process.
6. Control flood – thus greatly reducing urban runoff.
7. Stormwater drainage ‐ by reducing the size and scale of infrastructure
requirements;
8. Firefighting and disaster relief ‐ by providing independent household
reservoirs;
9. Water conservation ‐ as less water is required from other sources;
10. Reduced groundwater exploitation and subsidence ‐ as less groundwater
is required;
11. Financial savings ‐ where rainwater can be used in place of water
purchased from water vendors often charging up to 10‐50 times the
official water tariff.

2.3 Rainwater Harvesting Components

A rainwater harvesting system consists of the following subsystems: catchment
area (roof), conveyance system (guttering, downspouts, and piping), filtration,
storage (cistern), and distribution.

.
2.3.1 Catchment Subsystem
The catchment determines the quantity and to some extent the quality of water
that enters the tank. Most losses are through infiltration, although some water
will also bounce off the edge of the surface in heavy downpours and usually
some water will be lost in wetting the surface. The loss is usually represented by
a ʺrun‐off coefficientʺ CR which is a number between zero and one: (1‐ CR)
expresses the loss fraction averaged over a year. A good impermeable roof such
as corrugated iron will deliver to the guttering system almost all of the water that
lands on it. Ground catchments tend to have a lower runoff coefficient as
rainwater infiltrates into the ground and flows away as groundwater.
Runoff quality also varies by catchment type. Ground catchments are prone to
contamination from many sources including human and animal faecal matter,
rotting vegetation and the soil itself. Higher quality water for drinking must be
caught from a surface that is less easily contaminated. This usually comes in the
form of the roof of the building but can be a separate structure. GI sheet roofs

fare best due to their relative smoothness (Fujioka, 1993) and the sterilising effect
of the metal roof heating under the sun (Vasudevan, Tandon, Krishnan, &
Thomas, 2001).
Catchments include natural slopes or sealed catchments, rocks, roofs, roads and
flood water from seasonal rivers

Rooftop Catchments

In the most basic form of this technology, rainwater is collected in simple vessels
at the edge of the roof. Variations on this basic approach include collection of
rainwater in gutters that drain to the collection vessel through down‐pipes
constructed for this purpose, and/or the diversion of rainwater from the gutters
to containers for settling particulates before being conveyed to the storage
container for the domestic use. As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the
amount and quality of rainwater collected depends on the area and type of
roofing material. Reasonably pure rainwater can be collected from roofs
constructed with galvanized corrugated iron, aluminium or asbestos cement
sheets, tiles and slates, although thatched roofs tied with bamboo gutters and
laid in proper slopes can produce almost the same amount of runoff less
expensively (Gould, 1992). However, the bamboo roofs are least suitable because
of possible health hazards. Similarly, roofs with metallic paint or other coatings
are not recommended as they may impart tastes or colour to the collected water.
Roof catchments should also be cleaned regularly to remove dust, leaves and
bird droppings to maintain the quality of the product water.

2.3.2 Conveyance Subsystem

Conveyance systems are required to transfer the rainwater collected on the
rooftops to the storage tanks. This is usually accomplished by making
connections to one or more down‐pipes connected to the rooftop gutters. When
selecting a conveyance system, consideration should be given to the fact that,
when it first starts to rain, dirt and debris from the rooftop and gutters will be
washed into the down‐pipe. Thus, the relatively clean water will only be
available some time later in the storm. There are several possible choices to
selectively collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most common is the
down‐pipe flap. With this flap, it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow
through the down‐pipe, while later rainfall is diverted into a storage tank. When
it starts to rain, the flap is left in the closed position, directing water to the down‐
pipe, and, later, opened when relatively clean water can be collected. A great

disadvantage of using this type of conveyance control system is the necessity to
observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An alternative
approach would be to automate the opening of the flap as described below.
A funnel‐shaped insert is integrated into the down‐pipe system. Because the
upper edge of the funnel is not in direct contact with the sides of the down‐pipe,
and a small gap exists between the down‐pipe walls and the funnel, water is free
to flow both around the funnel and through the funnel. When it first starts to rain,
the volume of water passing down the pipe is small, and the *dirty* water runs
down the walls of the pipe, around the funnel and is discharged to the ground as
is normally the case with rainwater guttering. However, as the rainfall continues,
the volume of water increases and *clean* water fills the down‐pipe. At this
higher volume, the funnel collects the clean water and redirects it to a storage
tank. The pipes used for the collection of rainwater, wherever possible, should be
made of plastic, PVC or other inert substance, as the pH of rainwater can be low
(acidic) and could cause corrosion, and mobilization of metals, in metal pipes.
In order to safely fill a rainwater storage tank, it is necessary to make sure that
excess water can overflow, and that blockages in the pipes or dirt in the water
does not cause damage or contamination of the water supply. The design of the
funnel system, with the drain‐pipe being larger than the rainwater tank feed‐pipe,
helps to ensure that the water supply is protected by allowing excess water to
bypass the storage tank. A modification of this design has a simple
overflow/bypass system. In this system, it is possible to fill the tank from a
municipal drinking water source, so that even during a prolonged drought the
tank can be kept full. Care should be taken, however, to ensure that rainwater
does not enter the drinking water distribution system
2.3.4 Storage Subsystem
The storage tank (cistern) must be sized properly to ensure that the rainwater
potential is optimized. Cisterns can be located above or below ground. The best
materials for cisterns include concrete, steel, ferro‐cement, and fiberglass. When
ordering a cistern, specify whether the cistern will be placed above or below
ground and if the cistern will be used to store potable water. (Fiberglass cisterns
are constructed differently to meet the various criteria.) (Sourcebook, Harvested
Rainwater, 1994)
Cistern characteristics
1 A cistern should be durable and watertight.
2 A smooth clean interior surface is needed.

3 Joints must be sealed with non‐toxic waterproof material.
4 Manholes or risers should have a minimum opening of 24 inches and
should extend at least 8 inches above grade with buried cisterns.
5 Fittings and couplings that extend through the cistern wall should be cast‐
in‐place.
6 Dissipate the pressure from the incoming water to minimize the stirring of
any settled solids in the bottom of the cistern. This can be accomplished in
a concrete cistern by placing concrete blocks (cavities facing upward)
surrounding the base of the inlet pipe. The blocks can be 8ʺx 8ʺx16ʺ blocks
with the pipe exiting one inch above the bottom of the cistern. Baffles to
accomplish the same result can be made as part of fiberglass cisterns. This
is not a concern for cisterns that always have a large reserve.
7 The use of two or more cisterns permits servicing one of the units without
losing the operation of the system.
8 Have a fill pipe on the cistern for adding purchased water as a backup.
9 Have a cover to prevent mosquito breeding and algae growth from
contact with sunlight.
Commonly used storage subsystems are as follows:
Storage Tanks

Storage tanks for collecting rainwater harvested using guttering may be either
above or below the ground. Precautions required in the use of storage tanks
include provision of an adequate enclosure to minimize contamination from
human, animal or other environmental contaminants, and a tight cover to
prevent algal growth and the breeding of mosquitoes. Open containers are not
recommended for collecting water for drinking purposes. Various types of
rainwater storage facilities can be found in practice. Among them are cylindrical
Ferro cement tanks and mortar jars. The storage capacity needed should be
calculated to take into consideration the length of any dry spells, the amount of
rainfall, and the per capita water consumption rate. In most of the Asian
countries, the winter months are dry, sometimes for weeks on end, and the
annual average rainfall can occur within just a few days. In such circumstances,
the storage capacity should be large enough to cover the demands of two to three
weeks.

Rainfall Water Containers


As an alternative to storage tanks, battery tanks (i.e., interconnected tanks) made
of pottery, ferro‐cement, or polyethylene may be suitable. The polyethylene
tanks are compact but have a large storage capacity (ca. 1 000 to 2 000 l), are easy
to clean and have many openings which can be fitted with fittings for connecting
pipes. In Asia, jars made of earthen materials or ferrocement tanks are commonly
used. During the 1980s, the use of rainwater catchment technologies, especially
roof catchment systems, expanded rapidly in a number of regions, including
Thailand where more than ten million 2 m3 ferrocement rainwater jars were built
and many tens of thousands of larger ferrocement tanks were constructed
between 1991 and 1993. Early problems with the jar design were quickly
addressed by including a metal cover using readily available, standard brass
fixtures. The immense success of the jar programme springs from the fact that the
technology met a real need, was affordable, and invited community participation.
The programme also captured the imagination and support of not only the
citizens, but also of government at both local and national levels as well as
community based organizations, small‐scale enterprises and donor agencies. The
introduction and rapid promotion of Bamboo reinforced tanks, however, was
less successful because termites, bacteria and fungus attacked the bamboo. More
than 50 000 tanks were built between 1986 and 1993 (mainly in Thailand and
Indonesia) before a number started to fail, and, by the late 1980s, the bamboo
reinforced tank design, which had promised to provide an excellent low‐cost
alternative to ferrocement tanks, had to be abandoned.
Partially Below Ground Tank for Rainwater Storage
The partially below ground tank incorporates the merits of both above and
below ground in one simple design. There is no need for structural component
beneath it since it takes support from the ground. It has protection against
contamination from surface run‐off and damage by vehicles. These tanks are
used in Uganda using render linings. The reports from the field have been good
suggesting that the tanks are easy to construct. The advantages include the fact
that the above ground structure allows for easy inspection for cracks or leakages
and can be manufactured from a wide variety of materials, easy to construct
from traditional materials. On the other hand, it requires space, generally more
expensive, more easily damaged, and prone to attack from the weather and
could be dangerous when constructed on soils that are unstable. (DTU, 2000)

Single‐Skin, Externally Reinforced, Brick Tank
This has been designed to minimize material input. It has not got enough hoop
strength to withstand the stresses imposed by the internal water pressure so it is

externally reinforced with packaging strap. The packaging straps also reduce the
amount of bricks needed to construct the tank. The capacity of the tank is
approximately six cubic metres, with an internal diameter of 2.0m and a height of
2.0m. (DTU, 1999)

Tarpaulin’ Lined Tank
This is used in southern Uganda. This 6000‐litre tank is made by lining a 3m x 2m
x 1m deep hole with a standard UNHCR blue tarpaulin (5m x 4m rip‐stop plastic
with eyelets near the edge). The tarpaulin is held up with string from nails down
to these eyelets. A simple wall (wattle and mud, 600mm high) is built around the
tank and roofed with slightly sloping corrugated iron sheets. The wall is lined
with plastic sacking to prevent mud falling into the water. The wall‐roof joint is
sealed with mud. Water enters via a hole in the roof sheeting (covered by a filter
cloth and fed by a sloping metal down pipe). Water is extracted by dipping with
a modified (cut‐away) 10‐litre jerry can via a small wooden door in one wall ‐
water is always within armʹs reach. Some work has been done on developing a
low‐cost hand pump to extract water. There is normally no overflow and the
householder is expected to move aside the down pipe feeding the store when the
water level approaches the top of the tarpaulin lining

The Ferro‐Cement Jar
This jar has been built in areas like Kyera in Uganda. It consists of a brick plinth,
a ferro‐cement shell and a filter basin. This technology has been very successful
in Thailand. The ferrocement tank consists of a lightly reinforced concrete base
on which is erected a circular vertical cylinder with a 10 mm steel base. This
cylinder is further wrapped in two layers of light wire mesh to form the frame of
the tank. This tank has the potential for small/large scale production by artisans,
very low maintenance; repairs can easily be carried out, low cost, suitable for
many ground conditions and has good protection against mosquitoes. It
however requires a certain high level of skill. This has also been practiced in
Kyenjojo in Uganda. (DTU, 2000).


Brick Jars
The jar consists of a brick outer section; a waterproof internal render and a thin
mortar cover with a filter basin. It has low manufacture time, low maintenance,
repairs easily carried out and conducive for many ground conditions. However,
the cost per litre storage is higher than the Plastic Tube Tank.
In his work in Western Uganda, Thomas (1995) observed that iron roof is the
most common in this area due to the high rainfall.

The Thai jar
The Thai jar programme is very much in practice at present. There are two types
of Thai rainwater harvesting systems. The individual household jars and more
community oriented tanks. Both are surface structures with jars varying in its
capacity from 1.2 to 2.0 m3 and tanks from 7.5m3 to 10m3. Both these structures
are widely seen in most rural areas in N‐E Thailand, though jars are more
commonly used. Ferro‐cement jars are also in use at a few urban households.
Private enterprises are into the manufacture of rainwater collection jars. Almost
all people who collect rainwater use it exclusively for drinking and cooking.
People prefer rainwater to other water due to its taste. As stated earlier Thai
people in this part of the country has been using rainwater traditionally for

domestic use including drinking. As such, quality of collected water is not a
concern for these people. However, judging by the status of collection systems,
nothing good is say about the quality of water. Water quality tests conducted
during the early part of the programme under IDRC assistance, indicate
bacteriological contamination of rain jars. However, the research also shows that
contaminations from other sources of water are far greater than rainwater jars.
For instance, traditional earthen jars and shallow ground water have indicated
higher concentration of contamination than roof run off. (Ariyabandu, 2001).
2.3.4 Filtering Subsystem
Dirt, debris, and other materials from the roof surface may contaminate the
rainwater. The best strategy is to filter and screen out the contaminants before
they enter the cistern. A leaf screen over the gutter and at the top of the
downspout is helpful. A primary strategy is to reject the first wash of water over
the roof. The first rainfall will clean away any contaminants and is achieved by
using a ʺroof washer.ʺ The main function of the roof washer is to isolate and
reject the first water that has fallen on the roof after rain has begun and then
direct the rest of the water to the cistern. Ten gallons of rainfall per thousand
square feet of roof area is considered an acceptable amount for washing. Roof
washers are commercially available and afford reliability, durability, and
minimal maintenance to this function. Roof washing is not needed for water
used for irrigation purposes. However, pre filtering to keep out debris will
reduce sediment buildup. A sand filter can also be used. (Sourcebook Harvested
Rainwater, 1994)
2.3.5 Distribution
Removing the water from the cistern can be achieved through gravity, if the
cistern is sufficiently high enough, or by pumping. Most cases will require
pumping the water into a pressure vessel similar to the method used to
withdraw and pressurize water from a well (except a smaller pump can be used
to pump from a cistern). A screened 1.25 inch foot valve inside the tank
connected to an 1.25 inch outlet from the cistern approximately one foot above
the bottom (to avoid any settled particles) will help maintain the prime on the
pump. A float switch should be used to turn off the pump if the water level is too
low. Another alternative is the use of a floating filter inside the cistern connected
to a flexible water line. This approach withdraws the water from approximately
one foot below the surface which is considered to be the most clear water in any
body of water. The water that will be used for potable purposes can pass through

an inline purification system or point of use water purification system. Other
uses for the water do not need additional purification. (Sourcebook Harvested
Rainwater, 1994)
Rainwater systems can further be classified by their reliability, which gives four
types of user regimes:
• Occasional ‐ water is stored for only a few days in a small container.
Suitable when there is a uniform rainfall pattern with very few days
without rain and there is a reliable alternative water source nearby.
• Intermittent ‐ in situations with one long rainy season when all water
demands are met by rainwater; however, during the dry season water is
collected from non‐rainwater sources.
• Partial ‐ rainwater is used throughout the year but the ʹharvestʹ is not
sufficient for all domestic demands. For instance, rainwater is used for
drinking and cooking, while for other domestic uses (e.g. bathing and
laundry) water from other sources is used.
• Full ‐ for the whole year, all water for all domestic purposes is rainwater.
In such cases, there is usually no alternative water source other than
rainwater, and the available water should be well managed, with enough
storage to bridge the dry period.
The type of user regimes to be followed depends on many variables including
rainfall quantity, rainfall pattern (length of the rainy periods, the intensity of the
rains), available surface area, available or affordable storage capacity, daily
consumption rate, number of users, cost and affordability, presence of alternative
water sources and the water management strategy.

2.4 Water Quality of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems

The raindrop as it falls from the cloud is soft, and is among the cleanest of water
sources. Use of captured rainwater offers several advantages. Rainwater is
sodium free, a benefit for persons on restricted sodium diets. Irrigation with
captured rainwater promotes healthy plant growth. Also, being soft water,
rainwater extends the life of appliances as it does not form scale or mineral
deposits.

The environment, the catchment surface, and the storage tanks affect the quality
of harvested rainwater. The falling raindrop acquires slight acidity as it dissolves

carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Contaminants captured by the rain from the
catchment are of concern for those intending to use rainwater as their potable
water source. The catchment area may have dust, dirt, fecal matter from birds
and small animals, and plant debris such as leaves and twigs.

Water quality of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems is an issue of increased
interest particularly in developing countries where the collected water is used as
a source of drinking water. Studies reported from different parts of the world
reveal that the water quality is often suspected, especially in terms of its
microbiological quality. Among various factors that affect the water quality of
roof runoff, roof material, rainfall intensity, dry period preceding a rainfall event
and proximity to pollution sources seem to determine the physicochemical
quality of the collected rainwater. As for microbiological quality, roof material
and any dry period could play a significant role in determining the quality. A
few studies, however, show that well‐kept rainwater is a good quality source,
usually within the WHO “low risk” category (Ariyananda & Mawatha 1999;
Coombes et al. 2000; Vasudevan et al. 2001). Poor collection and maintenance
practices will reduce the quality considerably.
This indicates the need for proper design and maintenance strategies to minimise
the contamination of potable roof‐collected rainwater supplies. All studies
suggest that some form of treatment of the harvested rainwater is necessary
before it can be used as a source of drinking water.
More studies are needed to assess the microbial risk associated with the
consumption of water from domestic rainwater harvesting systems. A few
studies reported in the literature indicate that consumption of untreated
rainwater is a definite risk to the health of consumers (Crabtree et al. 1996;
Simmons et al. 1999, 2001; Lye 2002). Diseases attributed to the consumption of
untreated rainwater include bacterial diarrhea, bacterial pneumonia, botulism,
protozoal diarrhea, and diarrheas from Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Most of
the studies reported on this aspect are from developed countries. There is a need
to assess the health implications of the use of rooftop rainwater harvesting
systems in developing countries, where the use of rainwater as a source of
drinking water is becoming more widespread. There is also a need to develop
some simple and rapid field‐testing methods for use in developing countries to
indicate microbial contamination of drinking water. The H2S strip test based on
the production of H2S by sulfate reducing bacteria appears to be promising in
this regard (Vasudevan et al. 2001). A good correlation was observed between
the results of conventional indicators of microbial pollution and the H2S strip test.
However, more studies are needed to standardise the procedure. Further, more
research is needed on how to improve the quality of rainwater collected from

roof catchments through improvements in design features and maintenance
practices. The HACCP (hazard analysis and critical control point) approach,
introduced by the WHO in its latest edition of Drinking‐Water Quality
Guidelines (WHO 2003) is suitable for design, construction, management and
operation of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems (Heijnen 2001). HACCP also
allows an assessment of risks related to the use of different roof surfaces and
fittings would help the public health authorities to develop their own strategies
to improve the collected rainwater quality.

With minimal treatment and adequate care of the system, however, rainfall can
be used as potable water as well as for irrigation. The cleanliness of the roof in a
rainwater harvesting system most directly affects the quality of the captured
water. The cleaner the roof, the less strain is placed on the treatment equipment.
It is advisable that overhanging branches be cut away both to avoid tree litter
and to deny access to the roof by rodents and lizards.

2.6 Site and Rainwater Harvesting System Selection

It is important when choosing a rainwater harvesting system to consider not only
the physical aspects of the project but the socio and economic requirements of
the community it is to serve. These may include the initial costs, the quality of
the water, operation and maintenance requirements of the technique.

The most important parameters to consider in identifying areas suitable for
rainwater harvesting are as follows:

2.6.1 Rainfall

The knowledge of rainfall characteristics (intensity and distribution) for a given
area is one of the pre‐requisites for designing a rainwater harvesting system. The
availability of rainfall data series in space and time and rainfall distribution is
important for determination of amount of rainwater that can be harvested.
Useful rainfall factors for the design of a rain‐ or floodwater harvesting system
include:

1. Number of days in which the rain exceeds the threshold rainfall of the
catchment, on a weekly or monthly basis,
2. Probability and occurrence (in years) for the mean monthly rainfall,

3. Probability and reoccurrence for the minimum and maximum monthly
rainfall,
4. Frequency distribution of storms of different specific intensities

2.6.2 Hydrology and Water Resources

The hydrological processes relevant to rainwater harvesting practices are those
involved in the production, flow and storage of runoff from rainfall within a
particular project area. The rain falling on a particular catchment area can be
effective (as direct runoff) or ineffective (as evaporation, deep percolation). The
quantity of rainfall that produces runoff is a good indicator of the suitability of
the area for rainwater harvesting.
The other sources of water must be considered in designing of rainwater
harvesting system. For instance, ground water source may need rainwater to
recharge the aquifers and therefore harnessing all available runoff will affect it.

2.6.3 Socio‐Economic and Infrastructure Conditions

The socio‐economic conditions of a region being considered for any rainwater
harvesting scheme are very important for planning, designing and
implementation. The chances for success are much greater if resource users and
community groups are involved from early planning stage onwards. The
financial capabilities of the average farmer, the cultural behaviour together with
religious belief of the people, attitude of people towards the introduction of new
technology, and the role of women and minorities in the communities are crucial
issues.
This is particularly important in the arid and semi‐arid regions of Africa and may
help to explain the failure of so many projects that did not take into account the
people’s priorities. For example in a West African study on water harvesting
(Tauer & Humborg 1992), the distance between the suitable areas and the
villages was regarded as an important criterion. It was assumed that farmers
were willing to walk not more than 6 km from their homes if the proposed water
harvesting system is acceptable to them. The existing or planned infrastructure
as well as regional development plans has to be duly taken into account when
planning a rainwater harvesting scheme (Siegert 1994).

2.6.4 Environmental and Ecological Impacts

Dry area ecosystems are generally fragile and have a limited capacity to adjust to
change (Oweis et al. 1999). If the use of natural resources (land and water), is
suddenly changed by water harvesting, the environmental consequences are
often far greater than foreseen. Consideration should be given to the possible
effect on natural wetlands as on other water users, both in terms of water quality
and quantity. New water harvesting systems may intercept runoff at the
upstream part of the catchment, thus depriving potential down stream users of
their share of the resources. Water harvesting technology should be seen as one
component of a regional water management improvement project. Components
of such integrated plans should be the improvement of agronomic practices,
including the use of good plant material, plant protection measures and soil
fertility management (Oweis et al. 1999).

2.6.5 Costs

The quantities of earth/stonework involved in construction directly affect the cost
of a scheme.

2.7 Water Balance and System Sizing

The basic rule for sizing any rainwater harvesting system is that the volume of
water that can captured and stored (the supply) must equal or exceed the volume
of water used (demand). The variables of rainfall and water demand determine
the relationship between required catchment area and storage capacity. In some
cases, it may be necessary to increase catchment surface area by addition of a
barn or outbuilding to capture enough rainwater to meet demand. Cistern
capacity must be sufficient to store enough water to see the system and its users
through the longest expected interval without rain.
Usually the main calculation when designing a DRWH system will be to size the
water tank correctly to give adequate storage capacity. The storage requirement
will be determined by a number of interrelated factors which include;
• Local rainfall and weather pattern
• Roof or other collection area
• Runoff coefficient (this varies between 0.5 and 0.9 depending on roof
material and slope)
• User number and consumption rates


Rainfall data is required, preferably for a period of at least 10 years. The more
reliable and specific the data is for the location the better the design will be. A
figure for the average rainfall in a given area can be found at offices of the
Department of Meteorological Services, Department of Agriculture or Water
Resources, at airports and in the national atlas used in schools.
Domestic water consumption and demand varies substantially by country. Socio‐
economic conditions and different uses of domestic water are among the
influencing factors. Where water is very scarce, people may use as little as a few
litres per day. 20 lcd is a commonly accepted minimum. An estimate of the
amount of water required for economic and productive uses should be added. In
general, roof rainwater harvesting is only able to provide sufficient water for a
small vegetable plot.

The style of rainwater will also play a part in determining the system
components and their sizes. There are a number of different methods for sizing
system components. These methods vary in complexity and sophistication. The
choice of method used to design system components will depend largely on the
following;
1. The size and sophistication of it’s components
2. The availability of the tools required for using a particular method (e.g.
Computers)
3. The skills and education levels of the practitioner or designer
As the cost of domestic rainwater harvesting system depends mainly on the size
of the tank, it is important to design the tank to ensure optimum performance at
tolerable cost.

2.7.1 Supply Calculation

The volume of water (V) that can be harvested over a roof area (supply) is
proportional to the amount of rain(R) falling over the roof area (A) is given by
the formula:

V (I) = R (mm) x A (m2) x CR whereby CR is the runoff coefficient.
The runoff coefficient CR for corrugated metal sheet is 0.7 – 0.9 and for tiles is 0.8
– 0.9.

2.7.2 Demand Calculation

The first decision in rainwater harvesting system design is the intended use of
the water. If rainwater is intended to supply water during the then dry spells,

then the demand is calculated for the dry spells period. If the rainwater is
intended to be the sole source of water for all indoor and outdoor domestic end
uses, then annual consumptive demand is calculated. Water demands depend on
the consumption rates and occupancy of the building.

Dry Spells Demand = Consumption per capita per day, C x Number of people
per household, n x Longest average dry period, t

Annual Consumption Demand, D = Consumption per capita per day, C x
Number of people per household, n x 365

2.7.3 Storage Capacity Calculation

Rainfall occurs seasonally, requiring a storage capacity sufficient to store water
collected during rainy times to last through the dry spells.
Below outline three different methods for sizing RWH system components.
Method 1‐ demand side approach
A very simple method is to calculate the largest storage requirement based on
the consumption rates and occupancy of the building.
Typical data needed to estimate the tank size are;
• Consumption per capita per day, C
• Number of people per household, n
• Longest average dry period, t
Annual consumption, D = C x n x 365 = A litres
Storage requirement, T = (Annual consumption, D x dry period, t) / 365 = B litres
This simple method assumes sufficient rainfall and catchment area that is
adequate, and is therefore only applicable in areas where this is the situation. It is
a method for acquiring rough estimates of tank size.
Another simple method of roughly estimating storage capacity popular among
professional installers is to size the storage capacity to meet quarterly demand.
The system is sized to meet estimated demand for a three –month period without

rain. Annual demand is divided by four to yield necessary storage capacity using
this approach.
Method 2‐supply side approach
Rainwater supply depends on the annual rainfall, the roof surface area and the
runoff coefficient.
Supply = Annual Rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x Runoff coefficient
To ensure a year‐round water supply, the catchment area and the storage
capacity must be sized to meet water demand through the longest expected
interval without rain. In this approach, the storage capacity is determined based
on the water that can be harvested.

Method 3 – computer model

Special software for tank sizing called SIM‐TANKA has been developed (www.
geocities.com/Rainforest/canopy/4805). It requires at least 15 years of monthly
rainfall records for the place of which the rainfall harvesting system is located. If
that is not available then that of the nearest place that has the same pattern of
rainfall can be used. The included utility rain recorder is used for entering the
rainfall data. Daily consumption per person is also entered and then the software
will calculate optimum storage size or catchment size depending on the
requirement of the user.

2.8 Potential Effects and Impacts – Taking a Livelihoods‐Based Approach

The impacts of rooftop rainwater harvesting will be greatest where it is
implemented as part of wider strategies that take as a starting point people’s
overall livelihood strategies. In this context, water should be seen as a key
productive as well as domestic resource, with different uses being made of it by
men and women. The flexibility of rainwater harvesting gives room for
innovation. For example, there can arise an interrelation of variety of both
economic and social activities that can improve living standards. The main idea
starts from intercepting rainwater as a hydrological cycle component and
diverting it to food/feed production including processing, marketing and
compost sourcing/recycling. This is a holistic approach of interactions of many
profitable activities originating from a controlled water source. From one

rainwater harvesting storage structure can arise a myriad of interrelated
activities including kitchen gardens, poultry keeping, zero grazing, biogas
digester installations, manure harvesting, drip irrigation for horticultural crops
production and fish farming among other economic activities. All these activities
have a projection on increased income generation, improved nutrition status,
improved sanitation and personal hygiene, creation of on‐farm employment
leading to poverty reduction and conservation of the environment. (Gould, 1999)
The impacts of roof water harvesting taking a livelihood approach would be as
follows;

2.8.1 Reduction of Burdens of the Poor

Women and female children spend more than 200 million hours each day to
collect water from distant, often‐polluted sources. The most important impact in
terms of women and the poor is the reduction in time spent collecting water,
which can be as much as several hours per day. This time then becomes available
for other purposes, both productive and ‘social’; more time to spend with
children, friends, etc.

2.8.2 Health Impacts

Rainwater is often used for drinking and cooking and so it is vital that the
highest possible standards are met. Rainwater, unfortunately, often does not
meet the World Health Organisation (WHO) water quality guidelines. This does
not mean that the water is unsafe to drink. Gould and Nissen‐Peterson (1999), in
their recent book, point out that the Australian government have given the all
clear for the consumption of rainwater ‘provided the rainwater is clear, has little
taste or smell, and is from a well‐maintained system’. It has been found that a
favourable user perception of rainwater quality (not necessarily perfect water
quality) makes an enormous difference to the acceptance of RWH as a water
supply option.
Generally, the chemical quality of rainwater will fall within the WHO guidelines
and rarely presents problems. There are two main issues when looking at the
quality and health aspects of DRWH:
Firstly, there is the issue of bacteriological water quality. Rainwater can become
contaminated by faeces entering the tank from the catchment area. It is advised
that the catchment surface always be kept clean. Rainwater tanks should be
designed to protect the water from contamination by leaves, dust, insects, vermin,
and other industrial or agricultural pollutants. Tanks should be sited away from

trees, with good fitting lids and kept in good condition. Incoming water should
be filtered or screened, or allowed to settle to take out foreign matter. Water that
is relatively clean on entry to the tank will usually improve in quality if allowed
to sit for some time inside the tank. Bacteria entering the tank will die off rapidly
if the water is relatively clean. Algae will grow inside a tank if sufficient sunlight
is available for photosynthesis. Keeping a tank dark and sited in a shady spot
will prevent algae growth and also keep the water cool. The dirty first flush
water must always be diverted away from the storage tank. The area
surrounding a RWH should be kept in good sanitary condition, fenced off to
prevent animals fouling the area or children playing around the tank. Any pools
of water gathering around the tank should be drained and filled. Gould points
out that in a study carried out in northeast Thailand 90 per cent of in‐house
storage jars were contaminated whilst only 40% of the RWH jars were
contaminated. This suggests secondary contamination (through poor hygiene) is
a major cause of concern.
Secondly, there is a need to prevent insect vectors from breeding inside the tank.
In areas where malaria is present, providing water tanks without any care for
preventing insect breeding, can cause more problems than it solves. All tanks
should be sealed to prevent insects from entering. Mosquito proof screens should
be fitted to all openings. Some practitioners recommend the use of 1 to 2
teaspoons of household kerosene in a tank of water which provides a film to
prevent mosquitoes settling on the water.
There are several simple methods of treatment for water before drinking.
1. Boiling water will kill any harmful bacteria which may be present
2. Adding chlorine in the right quantity (35ml of sodium hypochlorite per
1000 litres of water) will disinfect the water
3. Slow sand filtration will remove any harmful organisms when carried out
properly
4. A recently developed technique called SODIS (SOlar DISinfection) utilises
plastic bottles which are filled with water and placed in the sun for one
full day. The back of the bottle is painted black
However, rainwater is usually a considerable improvement over unprotected
traditional sources and stored rainwater maintains a good water quality
provided the tank is well maintained.
Direct and indirect health impacts include:
1. Water‐related illnesses are reduced because of the use of cleaner and safer
rainwater (although household‐based treatment is recommended),
particularly compared to water from surface sources. This results in less
sick days, increased economic activities, and savings in medical expenses.

2. Malnutrition may reduce as rainwater used for vegetable and other crop
growing contributes to an improved diet.
3. Improved sanitation and hygiene resulting from increased availability of
water can also add to improved health.
4. Reduced transportation of heavy loads over long distances from an early
age leads to reduced back problems and growth reduction
5. Increased income streams from productive uses of additional water can in
turn lead improved nutritional status and a reduction in communicable
diseases due to improved home environmental conditions (better housing,
ventilation etc.)

2.8.3 Economic Impacts

Direct economic impacts will come almost entirely from the use of water for
economic activities. Apart from the environmental gains, there is an economic
advantage to the harvesting and use of rainwater, most notably in the
commercial sector as the service providers continue to increase charges. Farms,
horticultural establishments, public buildings such as schools and visitor centres,
public housing, petrol stations (using water for vehicle washing) could all gain
an economic advantage by using harvested rainwater and stop using treated
water for non drinkable uses.
This may lead to significant poverty alleviation leading to improved living
conditions as many RWH initiatives have shown.
1. Productive use of rainwater for vegetable gardening (small scale
irrigation),
2. Productive use of rainwater for home‐based economic activities such as
beer brewing, brick making, oil making etc and
3. Income generating activities may also be the result of the utilization of
time saved in collection of domestic water.

2.8.4 Poverty Alleviation

Direct and indirect capacity building, (skill development, knowledge building,
access to information), reduction of vulnerability, strengthening of social and
physical infrastructure, all help to alleviate poverty. During mobilization (e.g. in
PRAs etc.) issues such as injustice, isolation from existing institutions and
supplies are analyzed and can be specifically addressed.
Children and particularly young girls may be deprived of education due to the
need to assist their mothers in collecting water from far‐away sources. The time

saving in collection from the close to home source will allow them to attend
school.

2.8.5 Environmental Benefits

Rainwater harvesting promotes independence and self‐sufficiency and also help
to develop an appreciation for this precious and finite resource. This activity
conserves water and also energy input to treat and pump water over a vast
service area for a centralised water system. Aside from conserving water use, it
also minimises local erosion and flooding due to runoff from impervious areas
such as pavement and roofs and decreases storm water run‐off which picks‐up
contaminants and degrades drains, streams, rivers and seas. Since 58% of rainfall
in Malaysia ends up as surface runoff, there is a strong case to employ systems
such as RWHS to put an end to such wasted resources.

2.8.6 Domestic and Industrial Benefits

The exceptional quality of rainwater has made it a viable water resource
supplement. Rainwater quality often exceeds that of ground or surface water, as
it does not come into contact with soil, dissolving salts and minerals in the
process. It is not subject to pollutants found in rivers. Rainwater has hardness
approaching zero thereby reducing significantly the quantity of detergents and
soaps needed for cleaning, as compared to typical piped water. There is virtually
no soap scum and hardness deposits thus eliminate the need for a water softener,
which is expensive for well water systems. Water heaters and pipes will be free
of deposits caused by hard water and this can prolong their service lifetime.

2.9 Planning and Management of Rainwater Harvesting System

Domestic rainwater harvesting needs to be seen as only part of a system to meet
the overall water requirements of a household or community. Project planning
must take a people‐centred approach taking socio‐economic, cultural,
institutional, and gender issues into account, as well as peopleʹs perceptions,
preferences and abilities. Factors for success in DRWH are:
1. project starts small and grows slowly to allow for testing and modification
of design and implementation strategy;

2. demand for water is clearly expressed;
3. full involvement of both sexes in all project stages; and
4. substantial contributions from the people in ideas, funds and labour.
In a number of countries (e.g. Kenya, Fiji) womenʹs groups have been very
successful in financing and building their own RWH tanks.
Management by individual households is most successful. This is because the
user (often a woman) operates and controls the system, is responsible for its
maintenance, manages the use of water (minimum misuse), and appreciates the
convenience of water next to her home.
Rainwater is managed in a number of ways. The main management strategies are
listed below.

Maximum Security
The water from the tank is not utilized until all the possible water sources are
completely depleted. In this case, in the rainy season after the tank has been filled,
it is locked up. This has a disadvantage of not maximizing the water from the
roofs, thus the tank is left to overflow.

Maximum Capture
The tank is used as a water source throughout the rainy season. It keeps filling as
the stored water is being utilized. However, there is a tendency of reducing the
daily consumption as the dry season sets in.


CHAPTER THREE
CASE STUDY OF GHANA

General Background
Ghana lies in the center of the West African coast, shares borders with the three
French‐speaking nations of Côte dʹIvoire to the west, Togo to the east, and
Burkina Faso (Burkina, formerly Upper Volta) to the north. To the south are the
Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. With a total area of 238,533 square
kilometers, Ghana is about the size of Britain. Its southernmost coast at Cape
Three Points is 4° 30ʹ north of the equator. From here, the country extends inland
for some 670 kilometers to about 11° north. The distance across the widest part,
between longitude 1° 12ʹ east and longitude 3° 15ʹ west, measures about 560
kilometers. The Greenwich Meridian, which passes through London, also
traverses the eastern part of Ghana at Tema

The climate of Ghana is tropical, but temperatures vary with season and
elevation. Except in the north two rainy seasons occur, from April to July and
from September to November. In the north, the rainy season begins in April and
lasts until September. Annual rainfall ranges from about 1,100 mm (about 43 in)
in the north to about 2,100 mm (about 83 in) in the southeast. The harmattan, a
dry desert wind, blows from the northeast from December to March, lowering
the humidity and creating hot days and cool nights in the north. In the south the
effects of the harmattan are felt in January. In most areas the highest
temperatures occur in March, the lowest in August. Ghana is a lowland country,
except for a range of hills on the eastern border. The sandy coastline is backed by
a coastal plain that is crossed by several rivers and streams, generally navigable
only by canoe. In the west, heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers
break the terrain. To the north lies an undulating savanna country that is drained
by the Black and White Volta rivers, which join to form the Volta, which then
flows south to the sea through a narrow gap in the hills. Much of the natural
vegetation of Ghana has been destroyed by land clearing for agriculture, but
such trees as the giant silk cotton, African mahogany, and cedar are still
prevalent in the tropical forest zone of the south. The northern two‐thirds of the
country is covered by savanna‐a grassland with scattered trees. Animal life has
also been depleted, especially in the south, but it remains relatively diverse and
includes leopard, hyena, buffalo, elephant, wildhog, antelope, and monkey.
Many species of reptiles are found, including the cobra, python, puff adder, and
horned adder. Agriculture is Ghanaʹs most important economic sector,

employing more than half the population on a formal and informal basis and
accounting for almost half of GDP and export earnings. The country produces a
variety of crops in various climatic zones which range from dry savanna to wet
forest and which run in eastwest bands across the country. Agricultural crops,
including yams, grains, cocoa, oil palms, kola nuts, and timber, form the base of
Ghanaʹs economy.

Background on Northern Region
Location and size
The Northern Region, which occupies an area of about 70,383 square kilometres,
is the largest region in Ghana in terms of land area. It shares boundaries with the
Upper East and the Upper West Regions to the north, the Brong Ahafo and the
Volta Regions to the south, and two neighbouring countries, the Republic of
Togo to the east, and La Cote d’ Ivoire to the west. The region is divided into
eighteen (18) districts. These are Bole, Bunkpurugu‐Yungoo, Central Gonja, East
Gonja, East Mamprusi, Gushiegu, Nanumba North, Nanumba South, Saboba/
Chereponi, Saveugu/ Nanton, Sawla‐Tuna‐Kalba, Temale Metropolitan,
Tolon/Gumbungu, West Gonja, West Mamprusi, Yendi and Zabzugu.
The land is mostly low lying except in the north‐eastern corner with the
Gambaga escarpment and along the western corridor. The region is drained by
the Black and white Volta and their tributaries, Rivers Nasia, Daka, etc.
Climate and vegetation
The climate of the region is relatively dry, with a single rainy season that begins
in May and ends in October. The amount of rainfall recorded annually varies
between 750 mm and 1050 mm. The dry season starts in November and ends in
March/April with maximum temperatures occurring towards the end of the dry
season (March‐April) and minimum temperatures in December and January. The
harmattan winds, which occur during the months of December to early February,
have considerable effect on the temperatures in the region, which may vary
between 14°C at night and 40°C during the day. Humidity, however, which is
very low, mitigates the effect of the daytime heat. The rather harsh climatic
condition makes the cerebrospinal meningitis thrive, almost too endemic
proportions, and adversely affects economic activity in the region. The region
also falls in the onchocerciasis zone, but even though the disease is currently
under control, the vast area is still under populated and under cultivated.

The main vegetation is classified as vast areas of grassland, interspersed with the
guinea savannah woodland, characterised by drought‐resistant trees such as the
acacia, baobab, shea nut, dawadawa, mango, neem.
Demographic characteristics
The population of the region is 1,820,806, representing 9.6 per cent of the
country’s population. This translates into a growth rate of 2.8 per cent over the
1984 population of 1,162,645. This rate of growth is much lower than that of 3.4
per cent recorded between 1970 and 1984.
Economic activities
Agriculture, hunting, and forestry are the main economic activities in the region.
Together, they account for the employment of 71.2 per cent of the economically
active population, aged 15 years and older. Less than a tenth (7.0%) of the
economically active people in the region are unemployed.
Main source of drinking water
The commonest sources of drinking water in the region are the rain, spring, river
and stream (27.2%). About a fifth of households (19.6%) use dugouts for the
collection of rainwater, followed by pipe borne water in the form of a standpipe,
either inside or outside the house (22.4%) and borehole (17.0%). Other sources,
constituting mainly tanker supply, represent only about 1.0 per cent of
household water sources. This means that only 39.4 per cent of households have
access to potable water (pipe‐borne plus borehole); this has implications for
water borne diseases for the region. At the district level, the proportion of
households with piped water varies from 0.9 per cent in East Mamprusi District,
to 78.9 per cent in Tamale municipality. In most of the districts, the main sources
of water are wells, dugouts or rainwater/rain/river/stream. The dependence on
these sources of water has major implications for the health of the population.
Contaminations during the process of collection may aggravate the incidence of
diarrhoea and other water borne diseases. The use of the tanker supply, an
important source of household water, is only prevalent in Tamale where it
accounts for about 4.0 per cent of the water supply of households.
1. Background on East Gonja District (Northern Region)

The East Gonja District is the second largest district in the Northern region. It
shares borders with the Yendi and Tamale Districts to the north, West Gonja
District to the West, Nanumba district of Brong‐Ahafo and Volta Regions
respectively to the south. It occupies an area of about 10, 787 square kilometers.
Topology and Drainage:
The topography of the district is typical of the Northern Region, generally flat
with few undulating surfaces. Nowhere does the land rise up to 200 metres. The
district is underlain by the Voltarian sedimentary formation with low potential
for mineral formations and poor water retention.
The area receives annual precipitation averaging 1,050mm, considered enough

for single farming season. Temperatures are usually high, averaging 300C. The
main drainage system in the district is made up of the Volta and some of its
major tributaries including the White Volta, the Daker and Oti Rivers. There is a
good flow of water which is collected and stored in the Volta Lake. Potential
exists for irrigation and small dam sites. The natural vegetation in the district is
Guinea Savannah Woodland, which consists of trees that are drought resistant.
Most of these trees are of economic value. Notable amongst them are the shea
and dawadawa trees. Compared to the rest of the Northern Region, the tree
cover is dense although intense harvesting for fuel wood is fast reducing the
natural flora.
At the extreme south‐east, the vegetation is dense and semi‐deciduous trees such
as oil palm trees, raffia palms and others can be found. There are three major
groups of soils in the district: Alluvial Soils, Ground water Laterites and
Savannah Ochrosols.
Economic Activities
East Gonja district’s economy is purely rural, dominated by agriculture, which,
include fishing and forestry, accounts for 76% of total employment. Agriculture
in the East Gonja District is dominated by crop farming, which provides the main
farm income. The district is a major producer of maize, rice cassava, yam and
sorghum.
Livestock (cattle, goats, sheep and pigs) are kept but not as part of mixed farming
system. Inland fishing is a major source of activity in the district particularly

along the Volta Lake and its tributaries. Manufacturing accounts for about 6.5%
of the labour force.
Pito brewing dominates in the area of food and beverage processing; and textile
manufacturing, involving small‐scale informal sector artisans is the other major
manufacturing activity. Commerce employs about 15% of the total labour force,
mostly in the area of retail trading. There are 14 markets located in the district,
where, in the main agricultural produce is sold.
Background on West Mamprusi District (Northern Region)
The West Mamprusi District is one of 45 new districts created in 1988 under the
Government of Ghana’s decentralization and local government reform policy.
Carved out of the old Gambaga District in the Northern Region. The district
capital is Walewale, which lies on the Tamale‐Bolgatanga trunk road,
approximately 68 miles away from Tamale. The district is bordered to the north
by Builsa, Kassena‐Nankana and Bolgatanga districts, in the Upper East Region;
to the south west by Gonja, Tolon‐Kumbungu and Savelugu district in the
Northern Region; to the west by the Sissala and Wa districts; and to the east by
East Mamprusi and Gushiegu‐Karaga Districts.
Location and Size

The West Mamprusi District has an area of about 5,013 square kilometers.
Topology and Drainage

Major rivers that drain the district are the Kulpawn, White Volta and Nasia.

Climate and Vegetation

The area lies in the Guinea Savannah zone. Consequently, the vegetation
comprises short tress, grasses and shrubs.

Economic Activities

Agriculture is the major economic activity in the district. Crops produced in the
district are maize, rice, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, beans, yams, cotton and
soyabean. Livestock production is another activity in the district with a lot of
economic potential. The fairly flat land coupled with the availability of grasses in
most parts of the district provides an ideal environment for livestock and poultry
rearing. Animals reared include cattle, sheep‐goats, pig and birds. Importantly,
there is little or no incidence of tsetsefly in most areas of the district, a further
advantage for livestock farmers.
The presence of large water bodies also creates a lot of potential for irrigation in
the district in the dry season for production of crops. Tomatoes, pepper, soya
beans, onions, vegetables and tobacco among others are cultivated along the
banks of the main river draining the district, the White Volta. The development
of irrigation further from the rivers would greatly enhance agricultural
productivity for large scale farmers.
3. Background on Nanumba District (Northern Region)
Nanumba North District is located at the eastern part of the Northern Region of
Ghana. The district shares boundaries with East Gonja District to the west and
south‐west, and Yendi District to the north. To the east, it shares boundaries with
Zabzugu/Tatali District and the Republic of Togo, and to the south east with the
Volta Region. The district capital is Bimbilla.
Location and Size
The district has area of about 3,220 square kilometers.

The main drainage features of the district are River Oti and Dakar. The Oti River
has about 85km of its stretch meandering from north to south through the
district, while the Dakar River spans 145km of the western boundary with East
Gonja District. Other drainage features include Kumbo and Kumar streams,
dams and dug‐outs, and Jual Gorge designated as a hydroelectric site on the Oti
River.
The district lies in the Tropical Continental Climate Zone with the mid‐day sun
always overhead. As a result, temperatures are fairly high ranging from 29

degrees celsius to 41 degress celsius. Its vegetation type is the Guinea Savannah
with tall grass interspersed with drought and fire‐resistant trees. Tree species
found are the dawadawa, sheanut, baobab and other fire‐ resistant trees.
Geology and Soil
Soil types are the Savannah Ochrosols. Savannah Ochrosols are of alluvial‐
colluvial origin found mainly along major rivers and drainage courses and are
located mid‐south through to the north. They are medium textured material,
moderately well drained soils suited for a wide range of crops such as cereals,
roots and tubers, and legumes.
The savannah Ochrosols are well drained soils with the surface having loamy
sand or sand‐textured material with good water retention. In the district, these
soils are located to the east of the Oti River and the south‐west through to the
north. Ground water laterites are shallow sandy or loamy soils composed of rock
fragments found on the summits of upland areas. They are suitable for forestry
and conservation programmes. The district soils are characteristically heavy and
dark coloured.
Economic Activities
Agriculture is the major economic activity in the district. The soils are suitable for
the cultivation of cereals such as rice, sorghum, millet and maize. They are also
well suited for legumes, such as cowpea, soyabeans, groundnuts, and bambara
beans.
The women are involved in the production of oils from groundnut, soya and
shea nuts.
4. Background on Yendi District (Northern Region)
The Yendi District cut through by the Greenwich Meridian, which passes
through a number of settlements in the district. The district shares boundaries
with seven other district; to the east, with Saboba/Chereponi and Zabzugu/Tatale,
to the south, with Nanumba and East Gonja, to the west, with Tamale and
Savelugu and to the north, with Gushiegu/karaga districts. It has an area of about
5,350 square kilometres
Economic Activities

Majority of the people are employed in the Agricultural sector. The major crops
grown in the district are maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava, yam, groundnut
and beans, all of which are outstandingly productive in the area Instructively, the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture estimates that the yields per hectare for these
crops in Yendi District are all higher than the averages for the whole of the
Northern Region.
Background on Upper East Region
Physical features
Upper East is located in the north‐eastern corner of the country between
longitude 00 and 10 West and latitudes 100 30”N and 110N. It is bordered to the
north by Burkina Faso, the east by the Republic of Togo, the west by Sissala in
Upper West and the south by West Mamprusi in Northern Region. The land is
relatively flat with a few hills to the East and southeast. The total land area is
about 8,842 sq km, which translates into 2.7 per cent of the total land area of the
country.
Upper East region has eight districts namely: Bawku Municipal, Bawku West,
Bolgatanga Municipal, Bongo, Builsa, Garu‐Tempane, Kassena/Nankana and
Nabdam.
Soil and Drainage
The region’s soil is “upland soil” mainly developed from granite rocks. It is
shallow and low in soil fertility, weak with low organic matter content, and
predominantly coarse textured. Erosion is a problem. Valley areas have soils
ranging from sandy candy loams to salty clays. They have higher natural fertility
but are more difficult to till and are prone to seasonal waterlogging and floods.
Drainage is mainly by the White and Red Volta and Sissili Rivers (Regional
Coordinating Unit, 2003).
The climate is characterized by one rainy season from May/June to
September/October. The mean annual rainfall during this period is between 800
mm and 1.100 mm. The rainfall is erratic spatially and in duration. There is a
long spell of dry season from November to mid February, characterized by cold,
dry and dusty harmattan winds. Temperatures during this period can be as low

as 14 degrees centigrade at night, but can go to more than 35 degrees centigrade
during the daytime.
Humidity however, very low making the daytime high temperature less
uncomfortable. The region is entirely within the “Meningitis Belt” of Africa. It is
also within the onchocerciasis zone, but with the control of the disease, large
areas of previously abandoned farmlands have been declared suitable for
settlement and farming.
The natural vegetation is that of the savannah woodland characterised by short
scattered drought‐resistant trees and grass that gets burnt by bushfire or
scorched by the sun during the long dry season. Human interference with
ecology is significant, resulting in near semi‐arid conditions. The most common
economic trees are the sheanut, dawadawa, boabab and acacia.
Water Supply
About 51 per cent of the region’s population have access to potable drinking
water. Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) supplies pipe‐born water to
Bolgatanga, Chuchuliga, Zebilla, Bawku, Sandema, Navrongo, Bongo and Paga.
Almost two thousand (1,627) hand pumps (boreholes) and a number of hand‐
dug wells serve a majority of the rural populations. While water treated for
consumption in Bolgatanga is from the Vea Dam, the pipe‐born water systems in
the other townships
Housing
The majority of the people live in huts built of mud and roofed with straw or
zinc. The main features of the predominantly traditional architecture are round
huts with flat roofs and small windows with poor ventilation.
Economic Activities
Agriculture, hunting and forestry are the main economic activities in the region.
About eighty per cent of the economically active population engages in

agriculture. The main produces are millet, guinea‐corn, maize, groundnut, beans,
sorghum and dry season tomatoes and onions.
Livestock and poultry production are also important. There are two main
irrigation projects, the Vea Project in Bolgatanga covering 850 hectares and the
Tono Project in Navrongo covering 2,490 hectares. Altogether, they provide
employment to about 6,000 small‐scale farmers. Other water‐retaining structures
(dams and dugouts) provide water for both domestic and agricultural purposes.
The region is also known for its handicrafts and a locally brewed beer known as
Pito.
1. Background on Bawku Municipal/ East District (Upper East Region)
The Bawku Municipal shares boundaries with the Republic of Burkina Faso to
the north, Togo to the north‐east, East Mamprusi District of the Northern Region
to the south and Bawku West District to the west.
Location and size
The district has an area of about 2067 square kilometres

Topology and Drainage:
Generally, the district has a low topography with the popular Zawse/Yarigungu
Agol and Kugri Hills range rising between 1000 and 2000 feet. The White Volta
River and its tributaries run into the district from Burkina Faso and Togo.

The climate is tropical and the vegetation is savannah, characterized with short
trees, mostly nim, shea and mahogany.

Geology and Soil
The soils are sandy clay loams and alluvial sandy loms with interspersed gravel
and rocks which are commonly used for building homes and construction work
on roads.
Economic Activities

Agriculture is the major economic activity in the district. The staple foodstuffs of
the Bawku East District include millet, rice, red and white sorghum, groundnut,

ginea corn, maize and Bambara Beans. About 90% of the food produced at
subsistence level is consumed locally while onions and malts are transported
down south for sale. Cotton, sheanuts and sweet potatoes are the cash crops
produced in the District. Livestock production is also on the increase.

The Bawku East District is noted for the production of high quality smocks, shea
butter, groundnut oil, earthweare products and dawadawa. Women are the main
producers of these items and they are financed through loans from the
Employment and Income Generation Fund of the Dsitrict Assembly, the Bawku
East Women Development Association, ACTION AID, (a British NGO),
Agricultural Development Bank and the Bawku East Small Scale Farmers
Association Rural Banks.

Others are engaged in the pottery business. Clay pits, which, for ages, have been
the source of material for earthenware production, are sited in several places
around the district, as well as special colour pits of soil; red, black and white
products, at Goobok near Zabgu.

2. Background on Kasenna Nankana District (Upper East Region)

Kassena Nankana District, one of the eight districts in the Upper East Region is
located in the northern part of Ghana. It is bordered by the Republic of Burkina
Faso, and the Bolgatanga, Bonga, Builsa, Sissala and Mamprusi West Districts. It
stretches for 55 kilometres from north to south and 53 kilometres from east to
west. The district capital is Navrongo. It has an area of about 1,674 square
kilometres.


The topography is low‐lying with an average height of 100 metres above sea
level. The terrain is undulating with isolated hills dotting the landscape.

The vegetation of the district is of the Sudan and savannah type with grassland
separating deciduous trees.
Geology and Soil

The geology of the district comprises granite and shale, althouth the rock
formations are actually of a diverse nature.


Economic Activities
Agriculture is the main economic activity in the district, employing nearly 68% of
the population. The main occupations include farming on subsistence levels in
crop production, livestock rearing and fishing. Other areas which offer
employment opportunities to the populace include public service, retail /
wholesale trade, food processing, textile and leather works, in that order of
importance.
The main crops grown through irrigation are rice, maize, tomatoes, and millet,
sorghum and soya beans.


Appraisal of village water systems and household water use

We assessed the water needs of households, existing rainwater harvesting and
storage systems, and potential for income generation using stored rainwater in
300 households in six Districts. Households in two communities in each of six
Districts were surveyed for information on existing water resources, and water
use patterns.

Water resources
The results indicate that source of water for domestic needs vary significantly
between Districts in the two regions surveyed. In general, boreholes supply
approximately 47 % of water for a household’s needs in Northern Ghana. Wells
provide a 25 % of the surveyed group whilst dugouts and dams provided for
almost the same proportion of the surveyed sample (Table 3). The data indicate
that a larger proportion of households in the Upper East Region rely on
boreholes. The average distance from a household to the most reliable
community water source vary from 0.3 km in the East Mamprusi District to 8.0
km in the East Gonja District.

Type of reservoirs
In communities where water resources appear adequate, households spend time
and energy to fetch water because of inadequate containers/reservoirs in the
house. The survey revealed that the predominant water storage reservoir in the
households is clay pots. Only 12 out of 300 households indicated they do not use
clay pots. These households use large (200 litres) metal drums and aluminium
pots. The metal drums were found in Nanumba, Yendi and Mamprusi districts.


Table: Sources of domestic water for households in six Districts in Northern
Ghana. Percentages in parenthesis.

District Region Bore Dam Dugout Stream Well Total
hole
Bawku Upper 36 (72.0) 3 (6.0) 4 (8.0) 1 (2.0) 6 (12.0) 50
East East
Kassena‐ Upper 50 0 0 0 0 50
Nankana East (100.0)
East Gonja Northern 0 1 (2.0) 39 0 10 50
(78.0) (20.0)
West 5 (10.0) 0 0 0 45 50
Mamprusi Northern (90.0)
Nanumba Northern 35 (70.0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 15 50
(30.0)
Yendi Northern 15 (30.0) 35 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 50
(70.0)
Total ‐ 141 39(13.0) 43 1 (0.3) 76 300 (100)
(47.0) (14.3) (25.3)

Capacity of water reservoirs and household water use

Responses were obtained from 243 households on capacity of their reservoirs.
Approximately 57 % of the households indicated they could store up to 250 litres
at a time (table 4). A further 27% can store between 250 and 500 litres. Ten
percent of the respondents indicated they have reservoirs to store water between
500 and 1000 litres. The data did not indicate any tendency towards large
households having higher storage capacity. Most households, according to the
ranges in figure 3, have capacities below 400 litres. The average storage capacity
per household was estimated at about 360 litres.


Table: Volume of household water reservoirs in six Districts in Northern
Ghana
Volume (ranges) of reservoirs (litres) No. of households % of households
1 – 250 139 57.20
251‐500 65 26.75
501 ‐ 750 14 5.76
751‐1000 10 4.12
1001‐1250 1 0.41
1251‐1500 3 1.23
1501 ‐1750 5 2.06
1751‐2000 1 0.41
2001‐2250 0 0
2251‐2500 1 0.41
2501‐2750 1 0.41
2751‐3000 2 0.82
3001‐3250 1 0.41
Total 243 100

60
Storage capacity per capita (litres)
50
40
capita(l)
30
20
10
0
1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 56-60 66-70 90-93
Number of household members
Fig 3. Estimated storage capacity per capita in households of different sizes

The size of households varies from 4.3 to 93, and the majority of households (64
%) comprise 6‐15 members. Water usage per day per head is 30 litres, although
with very large households (60‐90 members) per capita usage is much lower.

This decrease in water use per head for larger households is associated with a
disproportionately larger number of children in larger households. In general
usage per household during the wet season was found to be similar as in the dry
season.

Periods of household water shortage
Responses from the survey indicate that most households experience severe
water shortage for domestic and livestock needs from March to May (Fig. 4). Few
of the respondents mentioned July and August, which are in the middle of the
rainy season. Only few people also indicated January, which is a month during
which the harmattan is severe. A small number of respondents (5.7 %) indicated
that they do not experience any water problems.
30
25
20
% of respondents
15
10
0
January February March April May June July August
Month of severest water stress

Fig 4. Period of severe water shortage in households as indicated
by households in six districts in Northern Ghana
The ability of a household to mitigate water shortages during the dry season depend
mainly on the volume of reservoirs available for water storage, and the number of
household members available to fetch water from a water source. The data from the
survey showed that the households with reservoir volumes less than 251 litres are
those who form the bulk of those who indicated earlier and longer periods of severe
water shortage (Table 5). Households in this category comprise 46.6%, 71.6%, 61.9%
40.5% and 48.1% of the total number of households experiencing severe water
shortage for the months of February, March, April, May and June, respectively.


Table. Water storage reservoir capacity of households in relation to months of
severe water shortage in Northern Ghana.

Household Jan Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun July Aug Nil Tota
storage il y e l
capacity (litres)
Up to 250 0 7 53 39 15 13 1 1 5 139
250 to 500 1 5 15 11 16 10 0 0 5 65
500 to 7500 1 2 2 3 1 2 0 0 2 14
750 to 1000 0 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 10
1000 to 1250 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1250 to 1500 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 3
1500 to 1750 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 5
1750 to 2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2000 to 2250 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
2250 to 2500 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
2500 ‐ 2750 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
2750 to 3000 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2
3000 to 3250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
2 15 74 63 37 27 1 1 14 243

1.1.1 3.2.1.5. Household acquisition of water

In Northern Ghana, the burden of water acquisition for a household rests on the
women and children. The number of men who fetch water from village reservoirs
for (domestic use) is 0.7 (or 1 man) per household , ranging from zero to a maximum
of seven (Table 9). On the average, four women undertake this activity, but
depending on the size of the household it ranges from 1 to 36. Men are most active
in this respect in the Districts in the Upper East Region (Kassena‐Nankana and
Bawku East) and least active in the Northern Region.

In 207 of the households surveyed (representing 69%) men are not involved in
fetching water during the wet season. The corresponding figure for the dry season is
45.6% (Table 10). Only 2 households (0.7%) indicated that women are not involved
in fetching water during the dry season.


Table. Percent of household members in six Districts in Northern Ghana that
undertake trips to fetch water for a household
Males (n=299) Females (n=294)
District Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum
Bawku East 0.7 0 7 4.1 1 15
East Gonja 0.3 0 7 3.4 1 11
Kassena‐Nankana 1.4 0 7 2.9 1 10
West Mamprusi 1.0 0 6 5.5 1 36
Nanumba 0.1 0 4 4.1 1 24
Yendi 0.4 0 4 3.5 1 10
Total 0.7 0 7 3.9 1 36
n represents number of households surveyed

Table 10. Percentage of household members involved in water acquisition
by season, gender and household size
Wet season Dry season
Number of household Male Female Male Female
members who fetch water
Percent of respondents
0 69.23 0 45.64 0.67
1‐5 29.43 83.11 50.17 82.83
6‐10 1.34 15.54 4.18 15.15
11‐15 0 0.68 0 0.34
21‐25 0 0.34 0 0.34
36‐40 0 0.34 0 0.34
46‐50 0 0 0 0.34

Surprisingly, the number of times in a week that a household member involved in
water acquisition undertakes a trip for water does not change significantly between
the dry and the wet seasons. Members normally undertake a trip or two in the
morning and again in the afternoon. Table 11 shows that respondents from East

Gonja and Bawku East Districts undertake the most number of trips for water,
whilst those in Kassena‐Nankana District undertake the least.

Table. Number of times per week that household members fetch water for
domestic use
Wet season (n=294) Dry season (n=293)
District Mean Min Max Mean Min Max.
Bawku East 19.1 3 140 19.9 2 149
East Gonja 35.1 2 175 34.1 3 185
Kassena‐Nankana 5.1 3 15 13.8 5 14
West Mamprusi 11.5 2 49 12.2 0 49
Nanumba 29.5 3 63 29.4 6 63
Yendi 24.6 2 42 34.1 16 126
n refers to number of households surveyed

Rainwater harvesting from household roofs
The data from the household survey revealed that a high percentage of inhabitants
in Northern Ghana do not collect and store rainwater. On the average, only 37.7%
(113) of the 300 households indicated they harvest rainwater for domestic use.
Except in the Kassena‐Nankana District that 74 % indicated that they harvest and
use roof rainwater, the average number of households harvesting rainwater from
five other Districts is 30.4 %. Among those households not harvesting rainwater,
66.8% have only thatch roofs. Thus 20.6 % of households surveyed who have
aluminium roofed houses do not practice rainwater harvesting. We observed that
for households that harvest rainwater, the water is channelled through gutters made
of aluminium, and typically not exceeding 1 m in length, or the water is collected
from the eaves of the roofs without special spouts constructed.

Use of stored water for income generating activities
A large proportion of households in Northern Ghana rely on stored water for
income generating ventures. Of the households who responded to the survey, 88.4 %
in five Districts rely on stored water for a significant proportion of the household’s
income. The exception was encountered in the East Gonja District where only 30 %
of households indicated that water is used in their income generation. Among the
economic activities in which water was employed are crop processing (shea nut, rice,
groundnuts, Parkia), food vending (preparing rice, maize porridge, kenkey, tubani
for sale), watering of livestock, gardening, brewing, composting, charcoal
production, and building of houses and kraals. The major uses recorded were crop

processing, watering of livestock gardening and food vending (Fig 5). A number of
households were engaged in combinations of these activities, but we encountered
one household engaged in all four major activities. Crop processing and preparation
of food for sale is undertaken by women, whereas gardening and livestock watering
is the preserve of men.
Gardening
(men)
Food
Crop
preparation
processing
for sale
(women)
(women)
Livestock
watering
(men)
Fig 5. Proportion of households in six districts of

northern Ghana engaged in various income
generating activities
that employ stored water

Perceptions on soil fertility, and soil fertility management
Approximately 98 % of the respondents indicated that fertility of their farmlands is
in decline. Assigning a crop to a particular farmland depends on its importance to a
household, with millet, sorghum and maize being placed on the best soils.
Groundnut and cowpea were mentioned as secondary crops. Rice, soybeans, sweet
potato and cotton are considered minor crops.
Inorganic fertiliser only
Animal manure only
Plant residue only
Inorganic fertiliser +
animal manure
plant residues
Animal manure + plant

residues
Fig 6. Proportion of households indicating animal manure + plant
use of various soil amendments
residues


To increase the yield of their crops, 96 % of the respondents indicated that they
apply one form of fertiliser or another. Most households apply inorganic fertilizer,
but only in combination with other organic materials (Fig 6). The least popular
appear to be plant residue (plant parts in various stages of decomposition) or animal
manure applied alone. These soil amendments are applied to millet, sorghum and
maize, mainly.

We realised from the survey that composting is popular among farmers. Up to
80.5 % of respondents indicated that they practice composting. For those not
producing compost, the reasons provided include the scarcity of materials, lack of
know‐how, scarcity of water, lack of transport to cart compost and busy schedule.
The materials used in composting, as indicated by the respondents were mainly crop
residues, animal manure and wood ash. There were others that received mention by
very few farmers. These include neem leaves, grass and topsoil. The crop residues
were mainly groundnut vines, and cereal stalks. The farmers mentioned that animal
manure was the most limiting raw material. In general, of the households actively
producing and using compost 45.2 % indicated that adequacy of raw materials was
an important limitation to compost production. Availability of water for composting
was the second most important constraint for those producing compost (Figure 7).
Inadequate raw materials only
Inadequate raw materials + water
Adequate Water + materials
Inadequate water only
Fig 7. Percent of households indicating

constraints of availability of water and
raw materials for composting in selected
Districts in Northern Ghana

The respondents indicated various reasons for producing and using compost on
their farmlands. These include doubling grain yield as compared with yield from the
same area of unfertilised land, faster growth rate of crops, and drought tolerance.


Provision of domestic rainwater harvesting and storage systems

Responses from the survey reinforced our belief that adequate water for domestic
needs is a key determinant of the labour available for a household to engage in
income generation. To proof this concept that harvesting and storing rainwater will
free women and children from the drudgery of long daily trips for water, and offer
opportunities for income generation, we have designed and introduced a ferro‐
cement reservoir in 44 households in 8 Districts across Northern Ghana. In each
community each of three households were provided with 4 partially‐buried ferro‐
cement reservoirs, each designed to hold 5,000 litres of water together with a
collecting system. In the next post‐rainy season this is expected to make available to
the household 20,000 litres of water. This is expected to provide an average
household with fixed usage of 150 litres/day with more than 130 days supply of
water.
Plate 7: An example of the water harvesting

reservoirs

The steps involved an initial removal of earth is removed from the demarcated area
such that the excavate area has dimensions of 2 m diameter at the top (soil surface)
and 0.8 m diameter at the bottom (Plate 8a). Mortar obtained from a blend of river
sand and cement is then used to plaster the excavation, providing the base of the pot.
Typically each 5,000 litre reservoir requires six 50 kg bags of cement and 2,000 cm3 of
river sand. When the plastering is completed the paper bags from which the cement
were poured are used to line the base of the pot, and then filled with earth, in the
typical mould of a traditional clay pot, to a height of approximately 1.8 m from the
base of the pot. The earth is then plastered with mortar and left for at least 12 hours.
The earth is later removed together with the paper lining, and the inner surface of
the pot is smoothened with mortar using a hand trowel.

Reference
Development Technology Unit (DTU)(2000). Technical Release series. TR‐RWH
01. Partially below ground (PBG) tank for rainwater storage. Instructions for
manufacture. Warwick University. Technical release.16pp

Development Technology Unit (DTU)(1999). Single –skin, externally reinforced
brick. Instructions for manufacturers. Warwick University. Technical release. 9pp

Development Technology Unit (DTU)(1999). Low‐cost, thin‐shell, 2m diameter
ferrocement tank cover. Instructions for manufacturer’s. Warwick University.
Technical release.12p

Development Technology Unit (DTU)(2000). DTU Technical Release Series ‐ TR‐
RWH05. Warwick University. Technical release.

Development Technology Unit (DTU)(2000). Ferro‐Cement Jar. Instructions for
manufacturer. Warwick University. Technical release.14pp.

Development Technology Unit (DTU)(2000). Brick jars. Instructions for
manufacturers. Technical release.14pp

Bishop‐Sambrook and Akther,S.(2001).Social and Gender Analysis. Findings
from the inception stage. Presentation at the meeting of the inaugural
programme. Hambatota, Sri‐ Lanka.18pp.

55
Rajindra De S Ariyabandu (2001). Rain water Jar programme in Northern East
Thailand
Lanka Rain Water Harvesting Forum. RWH research Note 3 DTU.
Domestic Roof water Harvesting in the Humid Tropics. Concept of Water
Security Entailing Roof Water Harvesting.Lanka Rain Water Harvesting System.
Sri‐Lanka.
Alem, G (1999) Water harvesting : A water security strategy for mitigating the
impact of drought in Ethiopia. Living with drought. Water security in the 21st
century. 5p
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)(1997). Source Book of
Alternative Technologies for Fresh Water Augmentation in Latin America and
the Caribbean. Washington, D.C.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)(2000b). Source Book of
Alternative Technologies for Fresh Water Augmentation in West Asia. Newsletter
and technical Publications
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)(2000). Rain Water Harvesting
and Utilisation. An Environmentally Sound Approach for Sustainable.Urban
Water Management: An Introductory Guide for Decision‐Makers. Newsletter and
technical Publications

Abdi, A. M. 1986, Water harvesting systems in the Northwestern region of
Somalia. Paper presented to the World Bank Workshop on Water Harvesting in
Sub‐Saharan Africa, Baringo, Kenya, 13‐17. Oct 1986. Baringo, Kenya.

Achouri, M. 1994, Small Scale Water Harvesting in Tunisia. In: FAO, Water
Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo,
Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 87‐ 97, FAO, Rome.

Al‐Labadi, M. 1994, Water Harvesting in Jordan‐Existing and Potential Systems.
In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert
Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 221‐231, FAO, Rome. Alternative
Treatments of Water Harvesting in Highland Balochistan, Pakistan. J. of
Annual report 2000.

Antinori, P. and Vallerani, V. 1994, Experiments in Water Harvesting Technology
with the Dolphin and Train Ploughs. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved
Agricultural
56
Bamatraf, A. 1994, Water Harvesting and Conservation Systems in Yemen. In:
FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert
Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 169‐189, FAO, Rome.

Ben‐Asher, J. 1988, A Review of Water Harvesting in Israel. World Bank Working
Paper 2. World Bank Sub‐Saharan Water Harvesting Study, p. 47‐69.

Boers, T. M. and Ben‐Asher, J. 1982, A review of rainwater harvesting. Agric.
Water Management 5: 145‐158

Bruins, H. J.; Evenari M. and Nessler. U. 1986, Rainwater‐harvesting for Food
Production in Arid Zones. Applied Geography 6, 13‐32,

Catch Water, 2003, Global Water Partnership News, Vol. 5, No. 2, April – May
2003.

Critchley, W R S and Reij, C. 1989. Water harvesting for plant production: Part 2.
Case studies and conclusions from sub0Sahara

Critchley, W. and Siegert, K. 1991, A manual for the design and construction of
water harvesting schemes for plant production, with contributions from:
Chapman, C. and Finkel, M., FAO, Rome.

Critchley, W.; Reij, C. and Seznec, A. 1992a, Water Harvesting for Plant
Production. Vol 2. Case Studies and Conclusions from Sub‐Saharan Africa.
World Bank Techn. Paper 157.
Critchley, W.; Reij, C. and Turner, S. D. 1992b, Soil and Water Conservation in
Sub‐Saharan Africa: towards sustainable production by the rural poor. IFAD,
Rome and CDCS, Amsterdam.

Critchley, Will and Klaus Siegert. A Manual for the Design and Construction of
Water Harvesting Schemes for Plant Production. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 1991


57




Esser, K. 1999, Water Harvesting in Dryland Farming, Agricultural Univ., of
Norway, Noragric, Centre for Environment and Development Sudies, Noragric
Brief, No.:99/7.

Evenari, M.; Shanan, L. and Tadmor, N. 1971, The Negev: The Challenge of a
Desert. Harvard Univ., Press Cambridge, MA., U.S.A.

Finkel and Z. Naveh, Semi‐arid Soil and Water Conservation. CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton, Florida: USA, p.93‐101.

Finkel, H. J. and Finkel, M. 1986, Engineering Measures: Water Harvesting. In:
Finkel H.J, M.

Frasier, G. W. 1994, Water Harvesting/Runoff Farming Systems for Agricultural
Production. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production.
Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 57‐73, FAO, Rome.

French, N. and Hussain, J. 1964, Water Spreading Manual. Range Management
Re. 1, Pakistan Range Impr. Scheme. Lahore, Pakistan.

Gibberd, V. (1993). Final report EMI dryland farming and dryland applied
Gilbertson, D. D. 1986, Runoff (floodwater) farming and rural water supply in
arid lands. In: Appl. Geogr. 6:5‐11.

Gould, J.; Lane, J.; Lambert, A.O.; Turton, P.; Dickinson, M.A. and G. Preston, G.
2000, Assessment of Water Supply Options, Final Draft: May 2000, Options
Assessment IV.3, Prepared for the WCD by:D.C. Sutherland and C.R. Fenn (WS
58
Atkins Consultants Ltd), With contributions from:World Commission on Dams
Secretariat,
Harvesting. The World Commission on Dams, Cape Town, South Africa, Report:
Dams and Development.
(http://www.damsreport.org/docs/kbase/thematic/drafts/tr43_finaldraft.pdf)

Ibrahim, H. 1994, Rainwater Harvesting in Dier‐Atye (Syria). In: FAO, Water

Kolarkar, A. S.; Murthy, K. N. K. and Singh, N. 1980, Water Harvesting and
Runoff Farming in Arid Rajasthan, Indian Journal of Soil Conservation. 8 (2),
(http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia/national/2000/india‐eng.pdf).

Kutsch, H. 1982, Principle Features of a Form of Water‐concentrating Culture on
Small‐Holdings With Special Reference to the Anti‐Atlas. Trierer Geogr. Studien
5. Trier.

Laing, I. A. F. 1981, Rainfall Collection in Australia. In: Dutt, G.R. et al. (eds.),
Rainfall Collection for Agriculture in Arid and Semiarid Regions, p. 61‐66.
Commonwealth Agric. Bureaux, Slough, UK.

Lalljee, B. and Facknath, S. 1999, Water Harvesting and Alternate Sources of
Water forAgriculture, PROSI Magazine – September 1999 – N 368 – Agriculture.
Lee, M.D. and J.T. Visscher 1990. Water harvesting in Five African Countries. IRC

Occasional Paper No. 14, 108 p.
Lövenstein, H. 1994, From Water Harvesting to Crop Harvesting‐Opportunities

for the Efficient Use of Runoff Water by Crops. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For
Improved AgriculturalProduction. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov.
1993, p. 301‐315, FAO, Rome. Mittal S.P. and Aggarwal R. K. 2001, Rainwater
Harvesting Need of the Hour, The Tribune, Agriculture Tribune, Monday, April
16, 2001, Chandigarh, India,
Managem. 5:145‐158.
(http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010416/agro.htm).

Nasr, M. 1999, Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle
East and NorthAfrica:Number 10, Policy Implications ZEF – Discussion Papers
59
on Development Policy,Bonn, ZEF Bonn, Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung,
Center for Development Research,Universität Bonn.

Oweis, T. and Prinz, D. 1994, Identification of Potential Water Harvesting Areas
and Methods for the Arid Regions of West Asia and North Africa: Proposal for a
Regional Research Project. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural
Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 401‐412, FAO,
Rome.

Oweis, T. and Taimeh, A. 1994, Overall Evaluation of On‐Farm Water Harvesting
Systems in the Arid Regions, In: Lacirignola, C. and A. Hamdy (eds).
Proceedings, CIHEAM Conference “Land and Water Resources Management in
the Mediterranean Region” 04. – 08. September, 1994, Valencano (Bari), Vol. III, p.
763‐781.

Oweis, T.; Hachum, A. and Kijne, J. 1999, Water harvesting and supplementary
irrigation, for improved water use efficiency in dry areas. SWIM Paper 7,
Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.

Oweis, T.; Prinz, D. and Hachum, A. 2001, Water Harvesting, Indigenous
Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.

Pacey A. and Cullis A. 1986, Rainwater Harvesting. The collection of rainfall and
runoff in rural areas. Intermediate Technology Publ., London.

Pacey, A and Cullis, A. 1986. Rainwater harvesting; The Collection of rainfall and
runoff in rural areas. IT Publication, London.

Pacey, A. and Cullis, A. 1991, Rainwater Harvesting. The collection of rainfall
and runoff in rural areas. Intermediate Technology Publ., London.
Patencheru, India.

Prinz, D. 1994, Water Harvesting and Sustainable Agriculture in Arid and Semi‐
arid Regions. In: Lacirignola, C. and A. Hamdy (eds). Proceedings, CIHEAM
Conference “Land and Water Resources Management in the Mediterranean
Region” 04. – 08. September, 1994, Valencano (Bari), Vol. III, p. 745‐762.

Prinz, D. 1996, Water Harvesting: Past and Future. In: Pereira, L. S. (ed.),
Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture. Proceedings, NATO Advanced Research
Workshop, Vimeiro, 21‐ 26.03.1994, Balkema, Rotterdam, 135‐144
60

Prinz, D. 2002, The Role of Water Harvesting in Alleviating Water Scarcity in
Arid Areas. Keynote Lecture, Proceedings, International Conference on Water
Resources Management in Arid Regions. 23‐27 March, 2002, Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, Kuwait, (Vol. III, 107‐122).

Prinz, D. and Singh A. K. 2000, Technological Potential for Improvements of
Water

Prinz, D.; Tauer, W. and Vögtle, Th. 1994, Application of Remote Sensing and
Geographic Information Systems for Determining Potential Sites for Water
Harvesting. Proceedings, Expert Consultation on Water Harvesting for Improved
Agricultural Production. Cairo, 21 – 25 Nov. 1993. FAO, Rome, 135‐144.

Prinz, D.; Tauer, W. and Vögtle, Th. 1994, The Application of Geographic
Information Systems to Identify Areas Suitable for Water Harvesting/Runoff
Irrigation. Proceedings, XII CIGR World Congress, Milano 29.08 – 01.09.1994, Vol.
I, p. 79 – 87.Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p.
113‐132, FAO, Rome.

Reij, C.; Mulder, P. and L. Begemann 1988, Water Harvesting for Plant
Production. World Bank Techn. Paper. Washington DC.
Research project, 1998‐1993.

Rosegrant, M.W.; Cai, X.; Cline, S. and Nakagawa, N. 2002, The Role of Rainfed
Agriculture in the Future of Global Food Production, EPTD DISCUSSION
PAPER NO. 90, Environment and Production Technology Division, International
Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006
U.S.A. runoff harvesting on maize yield in semi‐arid Eastern Kenya. KARI‐
Katumani

Ryan, J. G.; Sarin, R and Pereia, M. 1980, Assessment of Prospective Soil‐Water‐
and Crop Management Technologies for the Semi‐arid Tropics of Peninsular
India. ICRISAT,

Siegert, K. 1994, Introduction to Water Harvesting. Some Basic Principles for
Planning, Design and Monitoring. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved
Agricultural Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 9‐
23, FAO, Rome.
Sustainable Agriculture 3: 305‐315.
61

Tauer, W. and Humborg, G. 1992, Runoff Irrigation in the Sahel Zone: Remote
Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Determining Potential Sites.
Markgraf, Weikersheim.

Thompson, D.; Quashie‐Sam, J. and McGregor, D. 2001, Testing the Feasibility of
Water Harvesting as a Supplement to Clean Water Supply in Peri‐Urban Kumasi,
Series Editors: Duncan McGregor and James Quashie‐Sam, CEDAR/IRNR
Kumasi Paper 8,
(http://glacier.gg.rhbnc.ac.uk/kumasi/Project_Related_Papers/Cedar_IRNR/Paper
_8/paper_8.html).

Tobbi, B. 1994, Water Harvesting: Historic, Existing and Potentials in Tunisia. In:

UNEP 1983, Rain and Stormwater Harvesting in Rural Areas. Tycooly, Dublin.

Van Dijk, J. and Reij C. 1994, Indigenous Water Harvesting Techniques in Sub‐
Saharan Africa: Examples from Sudan and the West African Sahel. In: FAO,
Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert Consultation,
Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 101‐112, FAO, Rome.

Vijayalakshmi, K.; Vittal, K. P. R. and Singh, L. R. P. 1982, Water Harvesting and
Re‐use. In: ICAR. A Decade of Dryland Agricultural Research in India 1971‐1980,
p. 103‐119. New Delhi, India.

Zaunderer, J and Hutchinson, C F. 1988. A review of water harvesting techniques
of the Arid Southwestern US and North Mexico. Working paper for the World
Bank’s Sub‐Sahara Water Harvesting Study.
62
Abdi, A. M. 1986, Water harvesting systems in the Northwestern region of
Somalia. Paper presented to the World Bank Workshop on Water Harvesting in
Sub‐Saharan Africa, Baringo, Kenya, 13‐17. Oct 1986. Baringo, Kenya.

A Sourcebook for Green and Sustainable Building, Harvested Rainwater, 1994,
www.greenbuilder.com

Achouri, M. 1994, Small Scale Water Harvesting in Tunisia. In: FAO, Water

Al‐Labadi, M. 1994, Water Harvesting in Jordan‐Existing and Potential Systems.
In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert
Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 221‐231, FAO, Rome. Alternative
Treatments of Water Harvesting in Highland Balochistan, Pakistan. J. of
Annual report 2000.

Antinori, P. and Vallerani, V. 1994, Experiments in Water Harvesting Technology
with the Dolphin and Train Ploughs. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved
Agricultural
Bamatraf, A. 1994, Water Harvesting and Conservation Systems in Yemen. In:

Ben‐Asher, J. 1988, A Review of Water Harvesting in Israel. World Bank Working
Paper 2. World Bank Sub‐Saharan Water Harvesting Study, p. 47‐69.

Boers, T. M. and Ben‐Asher, J. 1982, A review of rainwater harvesting. Agric.
Water Management 5: 145‐158

Bruins, H. J.; Evenari M. and Nessler. U. 1986, Rainwater‐harvesting for Food
Production in Arid Zones. Applied Geography 6, 13‐32,

Catch Water, 2003, Global Water Partnership News, Vol. 5, No. 2, April – May
2003.

Critchley, W R S and Reij, C. 1989. Water harvesting for plant production: Part 2.
Case studies and conclusions from sub0Sahara

63
Critchley, W. and Siegert, K. 1991, A manual for the design and construction of
water harvesting schemes for plant production, with contributions from:
Chapman, C. and Finkel, M., FAO, Rome.

Critchley, W.; Reij, C. and Seznec, A. 1992a, Water Harvesting for Plant
Production. Vol 2. Case Studies and Conclusions from Sub‐Saharan Africa.
World Bank Techn. Paper 157.
Critchley, W.; Reij, C. and Turner, S. D. 1992b, Soil and Water Conservation in
Sub‐Saharan Africa: towards sustainable production by the rural poor. IFAD,
Rome and CDCS, Amsterdam.

Critchley, Will and Klaus Siegert. A Manual for the Design and Construction of
Water Harvesting Schemes for Plant Production. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 1991






Evenari, M.; Shanan, L. and Tadmor, N. 1971, The Negev: The Challenge of a
Desert. Harvard Univ., Press Cambridge, MA., U.S.A.

Finkel and Z. Naveh, Semi‐arid Soil and Water Conservation. CRC Press, Inc.,
Boca Raton, Florida: USA, p.93‐101.

64
Finkel, H. J. and Finkel, M. 1986, Engineering Measures: Water Harvesting. In:
Finkel H.J, M.

Frasier, G. W. 1994, Water Harvesting/Runoff Farming Systems for Agricultural
Production. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production.
Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 57‐73, FAO, Rome.

French, N. and Hussain, J. 1964, Water Spreading Manual. Range Management
Re. 1, Pakistan Range Impr. Scheme. Lahore, Pakistan.

Gibberd, V. (1993). Final report EMI dryland farming and dryland applied
Gilbertson, D. D. 1986, Runoff (floodwater) farming and rural water supply in
arid lands. In: Appl. Geogr. 6:5‐11.

Gould, J.; Lane, J.; Lambert, A.O.; Turton, P.; Dickinson, M.A. and G. Preston, G.
2000, Assessment of Water Supply Options, Final Draft: May 2000, Options
Assessment IV.3, Prepared for the WCD by:D.C. Sutherland and C.R. Fenn (WS
Atkins Consultants Ltd), With contributions from:World Commission on Dams
Secretariat,
Harvesting. The World Commission on Dams, Cape Town, South Africa, Report:
Dams and Development.
(http://www.damsreport.org/docs/kbase/thematic/drafts/tr43_finaldraft.pdf)

Ibrahim, H. 1994, Rainwater Harvesting in Dier‐Atye (Syria). In: FAO, Water

Smet Jo and Moriarty, P., 2001, Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting, DGIS Policy
Supporting Paper

Kolarkar, A. S.; Murthy, K. N. K. and Singh, N. 1980, Water Harvesting and
Runoff Farming in Arid Rajasthan, Indian Journal of Soil Conservation. 8 (2),
(http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia/national/2000/india‐eng.pdf).

Kutsch, H. 1982, Principle Features of a Form of Water‐concentrating Culture on
Small‐Holdings With Special Reference to the Anti‐Atlas. Trierer Geogr. Studien
5. Trier.

65
Lee, M.D. and J.T. Visscher 1990. Water harvesting in Five African Countries. IRC
Occasional Paper No. 14, 108 p.
Lövenstein, H. 1994, From Water Harvesting to Crop Harvesting‐Opportunities

for the Efficient Use of Runoff Water by Crops. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For
Improved AgriculturalProduction. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov.
1993, p. 301‐315, FAO, Rome. Mittal S.P. and Aggarwal R. K. 2001, Rainwater
Harvesting Need of the Hour, The Tribune, Agriculture Tribune, Monday, April
16, 2001, Chandigarh, India,
Managem. 5:145‐158.
(http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010416/agro.htm).

Nasr, M. 1999, Assessing Desertification and Water Harvesting in the Middle
East and NorthAfrica:Number 10, Policy Implications ZEF – Discussion Papers
on Development Policy,Bonn, ZEF Bonn, Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung,
Center for Development Research,Universität Bonn.

Oweis, T. and Prinz, D. 1994, Identification of Potential Water Harvesting Areas
and Methods for the Arid Regions of West Asia and North Africa: Proposal for a
Regional Research Project. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural
Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 401‐412, FAO,
Rome.

Oweis, T. and Taimeh, A. 1994, Overall Evaluation of On‐Farm Water Harvesting
Systems in the Arid Regions, In: Lacirignola, C. and A. Hamdy (eds).
Proceedings, CIHEAM Conference “Land and Water Resources Management in
the Mediterranean Region” 04. – 08. September, 1994, Valencano (Bari), Vol. III, p.
763‐781.

Oweis, T.; Hachum, A. and Kijne, J. 1999, Water harvesting and supplementary
irrigation, for improved water use efficiency in dry areas. SWIM Paper 7,
Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.

Oweis, T.; Prinz, D. and Hachum, A. 2001, Water Harvesting, Indigenous
Knowledge for the Future of the Drier Environments, ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.

Pacey A. and Cullis A. 1986, Rainwater Harvesting. The collection of rainfall and
runoff in rural areas. Intermediate Technology Publ., London.

66
Pacey, A and Cullis, A. 1986. Rainwater harvesting; The Collection of rainfall and
runoff in rural areas. IT Publication, London.

Pacey, A. and Cullis, A. 1991, Rainwater Harvesting. The collection of rainfall
and runoff in rural areas. Intermediate Technology Publ., London.
Patencheru, India.

Prinz, D. 1994, Water Harvesting and Sustainable Agriculture in Arid and Semi‐
arid Regions. In: Lacirignola, C. and A. Hamdy (eds). Proceedings, CIHEAM
Conference “Land and Water Resources Management in the Mediterranean
Region” 04. – 08. September, 1994, Valencano (Bari), Vol. III, p. 745‐762.

Prinz, D. 1996, Water Harvesting: Past and Future. In: Pereira, L. S. (ed.),
Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture. Proceedings, NATO Advanced Research
Workshop, Vimeiro, 21‐ 26.03.1994, Balkema, Rotterdam, 135‐144

Prinz, D. 2002, The Role of Water Harvesting in Alleviating Water Scarcity in
Arid Areas. Keynote Lecture, Proceedings, International Conference on Water
Resources Management in Arid Regions. 23‐27 March, 2002, Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research, Kuwait, (Vol. III, 107‐122).

Prinz, D. and Singh A. K. 2000, Technological Potential for Improvements of
Water

Prinz, D.; Tauer, W. and Vögtle, Th. 1994, Application of Remote Sensing and
Geographic Information Systems for Determining Potential Sites for Water
Harvesting. Proceedings, Expert Consultation on Water Harvesting for Improved
Agricultural Production. Cairo, 21 – 25 Nov. 1993. FAO, Rome, 135‐144.

Prinz, D.; Tauer, W. and Vögtle, Th. 1994, The Application of Geographic
Information Systems to Identify Areas Suitable for Water Harvesting/Runoff
Irrigation. Proceedings, XII CIGR World Congress, Milano 29.08 – 01.09.1994, Vol.
I, p. 79 – 87.Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p.
113‐132, FAO, Rome.

Reij, C.; Mulder, P. and L. Begemann 1988, Water Harvesting for Plant
Production. World Bank Techn. Paper. Washington DC.
Research project, 1998‐1993.

67
Rosegrant, M.W.; Cai, X.; Cline, S. and Nakagawa, N. 2002, The Role of Rainfed
Agriculture in the Future of Global Food Production, EPTD DISCUSSION
PAPER NO. 90, Environment and Production Technology Division, International
Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006
U.S.A. runoff harvesting on maize yield in semi‐arid Eastern Kenya. KARI‐
Katumani

Ryan, J. G.; Sarin, R and Pereia, M. 1980, Assessment of Prospective Soil‐Water‐
and Crop Management Technologies for the Semi‐arid Tropics of Peninsular
India. ICRISAT,

Siegert, K. 1994, Introduction to Water Harvesting. Some Basic Principles for
Planning, Design and Monitoring. In: FAO, Water Harvesting For Improved
Agricultural Production. Expert Consultation, Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 9‐
23, FAO, Rome.
Sustainable Agriculture 3: 305‐315.

Tauer, W. and Humborg, G. 1992, Runoff Irrigation in the Sahel Zone: Remote
Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Determining Potential Sites.
Markgraf, Weikersheim.

Thompson, D.; Quashie‐Sam, J. and McGregor, D. 2001, Testing the Feasibility of
Water Harvesting as a Supplement to Clean Water Supply in Peri‐Urban Kumasi,
Series Editors: Duncan McGregor and James Quashie‐Sam, CEDAR/IRNR
Kumasi Paper 8,
(http://glacier.gg.rhbnc.ac.uk/kumasi/Project_Related_Papers/Cedar_IRNR/Paper
_8/paper_8.html).

Tobbi, B. 1994, Water Harvesting: Historic, Existing and Potentials in Tunisia. In:

UNEP 1983, Rain and Stormwater Harvesting in Rural Areas. Tycooly, Dublin.

Van Dijk, J. and Reij C. 1994, Indigenous Water Harvesting Techniques in Sub‐
Saharan Africa: Examples from Sudan and the West African Sahel. In: FAO,
Water Harvesting For Improved Agricultural Production. Expert Consultation,
Cairo, Egypt 21‐25 Nov. 1993, p. 101‐112, FAO, Rome.

68
Vijayalakshmi, K.; Vittal, K. P. R. and Singh, L. R. P. 1982, Water Harvesting and
Re‐use. In: ICAR. A Decade of Dryland Agricultural Research in India 1971‐1980,
p. 103‐119. New Delhi, India.

69

Roof Water Harvesting

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Roof Water Harvesting

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

APPRAISAL OF ROOF WATER HARVESTING

AND ITS POTENTIAL FOR PRODUCTIVE

USES IN NORTHERN GHANA

1 Draft, IWMI and SARI

2.1 ROOF WATER HARVESTING ............................................................................................................ 10

2 Draft, IWMI and SARI

3 Draft, IWMI and SARI

4 Draft, IWMI and SARI

5 Draft, IWMI and SARI

6 Draft, IWMI and SARI

7 Draft, IWMI and SARI

8 Draft, IWMI and SARI

9 Draft, IWMI and SARI

10 Draft, IWMI and SARI

11 Draft, IWMI and SARI

12 Draft, IWMI and SARI

13 Draft, IWMI and SARI

14 Draft, IWMI and SARI

15 Draft, IWMI and SARI

16 Draft, IWMI and SARI

17 Draft, IWMI and SARI

18 Draft, IWMI and SARI

19 Draft, IWMI and SARI

20 Draft, IWMI and SARI

21 Draft, IWMI and SARI

22 Draft, IWMI and SARI

23 Draft, IWMI and SARI

24 Draft, IWMI and SARI

25 Draft, IWMI and SARI

26 Draft, IWMI and SARI

27 Draft, IWMI and SARI

28 Draft, IWMI and SARI

29 Draft, IWMI and SARI

30 Draft, IWMI and SARI

31 Draft, IWMI and SARI

32 Draft, IWMI and SARI

33 Draft, IWMI and SARI

34 Draft, IWMI and SARI

35 Draft, IWMI and SARI

The area receives annual precipitation averaging 1,050mm, considered enough

36 Draft, IWMI and SARI

37 Draft, IWMI and SARI

38 Draft, IWMI and SARI

39 Draft, IWMI and SARI

40 Draft, IWMI and SARI

41 Draft, IWMI and SARI

42 Draft, IWMI and SARI

43 Draft, IWMI and SARI

44 Draft, IWMI and SARI

45 Draft, IWMI and SARI

46 Draft, IWMI and SARI

47 Draft, IWMI and SARI

48 Draft, IWMI and SARI

1.1.1 3.2.1.5. Household acquisition of water

49 Draft, IWMI and SARI

50 Draft, IWMI and SARI

51 Draft, IWMI and SARI

Fig 5. Proportion of households in six districts of

Animal manure only

Plant residue only

Animal manure + plant

52 Draft, IWMI and SARI

Fig 7. Percent of households indicating