Bit CN Manual 7th Cse

Computer Networks Lab Manual BIT,BANGALORE-04
COMPUTER NETWORKS
LAB MANUAL
For
VII SEMESTER
Prepared by:
Jyothi. D.G & Girija. J,
Dept. of CSE,
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
&
ENGINEERING
BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
K R ROAD, V V PURAM
BANGALORE-560004
Department Of Computer Science and Engineering Page 0
Computer Networks Lab Manual BIT,BANGALORE-
04
NETWORKS LABORATORY
(COMMON TO CSE & ISE)
Sub Code : CSL77
Note : Student is required to solve one problem from PART-A and one problem
from PART-B. Both the parts have equal weightage.
PART A – Simulation Exercises
The following experiments shall be conducted using either NS228/OPNET or any
other simulators.
1. Simulate a three nodes point-to-point network with duplex links between them.
Set
the queue size vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped.
2. Simulate a four node point-to-point network, and connect the links as follows
: n0-n2,
n1-n2 and n2-n3. Apply TCP agent between n0-n3 and UDP n1-n3. Apply relevant
applications over TCP and UDP agents changing the parameter and determine the
number of packets by TCP/UDP.
3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP a TELNET over a
network
and analyze the throughput.
4. Simulate the transmission of ping messaged over a network topology consisting
of 6
nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.
5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N-nodes(6-10), change error rate and data rate
and
compare the throughput.
6. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and
determine collision across different nodes.
7. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and plo
t
congestion window for different source/destination.
8. Simulate simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wire-less LAN by simulatio
n and
determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets.
PART B
The following experiments shall be conducted using C/C++.
1. Write a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16-bits).
2. Write a program for frame sorting technique used in buffers.
3. Write a program for distance vector algorithm to find suitable path for trans
mission.
4. Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client-server program to make client sending th
e file
name and the server to send back the contents of the requested file if presen
t.
5. Implement the above program using as message queues or FIFOs as IPC channels.
6. Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data.
Write a program for Hamming Code generation for error detection and correctio
n.
7.
8. Write a program for congestion control using Leaky bucket algorithm.
Department Of Computer Science and Engineering
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PART A Programs
Start up
1. Open three terminals
a) in terminal 1 at command prompt run dispatcher( root@localhost#
dispatcher)
b) in terminal 2 at command prompt run coordinator( root@localhost#
coordinator)
c) in terminal 3 at command prompt run nctunsclient( root@localhost#
nctunsclient)
2. After the above steps NCTUns starting screen will appear.
3. To draw the network topology perform the following steps
Choose Menu-> File-> Operating Mode-> D(draw mode), draw the required
topology or change the existing simulation topology.(drag and drop)
4 Once topology is drawn , set the node property by switching to “Edit property”
mode E
5 Configure the node with appropriate commands at source and destination
6 Run the Simulation menu simulation run
7 Play back the simulation.
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Experiment No 1
1. Simulate a three-node point-to-point network with a duplex link between them.
Set
the queue size and vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped.
Topology:-
STEPS:
To draw a network topology, do the following steps:
1. Select the host icon on the toolbar and drag it onto the working w
indow.
Repeat this for another host icon. Select the link icon on the to
olbar and
drag it on the screen from host [node 1] to the hub and again fro
m host
[node2] to the hub. Here the hub acts as node 3 in the point-to-p
oint
network. This leads to the creation of the 3-node point-to-point
network
topology.
[We can see the ip address of the host by moving the mous
e
pointer on host ]
2. Save this topology as a filename.tpl
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To configure the network devices, do the following steps:
At Sender
1. Double click on host [node-1], a host dialog box will open up
2. Click on the Add button and enter the command (at the sender)
stg [-u udp][-t duration (sec)] [-p port number]HostIPaddr and set the si
mulation
time 0 to 40 sec then click ok
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3. Click on the node editor and you can see the different layers-int
erface,
ARP, FIFO, MAC, TCPDUMP, Physical layers.
4. Select MAC and then select full-duplex for switches and routers a
nd half-
duplex for hubs, and check the log packet statistics check box ,
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5. Select output throughput log file etc (at sender), select the number of d
rop
packets, number of collisions.
Click the OK button.
At Receiver: Steps
1. Click on the Add button and enter the command (at the receiver)
rtg [-t] [-w log] [-p port number] and click OK
2. Click on the node editor and you can see the different layers-interf
ace, ARP,
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FIFO, MAC, TCPDUMP, Physical layers.
3. Select input throughput log file etc (at receiver), select the number of
drop
Click ok.
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To RUN the Simulation
1. Now click on the R button (Run simulation). By doing so a user can
run/pause/continue/stop/abort/disconnect/reconnect/submit a simulatio
n. No
simulation settings can be changed in this mode.
2. Now go to the Menu->Simulation->Run. Executing this command will submit th
e
current simulation job to one available simulation server managed by the
dispatcher. When the simulation server is executing, the user will see th
e time
knot at the bottom of the screen move. The time knot reflects the current
virtual
time (progress) of the simulation case.
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To playback the simulation
To start the playback, the user can left-click the start icon ( |>) of the t
ime bar located
at the bottom. The animation player will then start playing the recorded pac
ket
animation.
.
The results are stored in file.results folder(“file” is the same name given
by the
user to the simulation file).
You will see the following log files in the folder: file.results
Filename.8023_N2_P1_OutThrput.log
Filename.8023_N3_P1_InThrput.log
Filename..8023_n2_p1_coll.log
Filename.8023_N2_P1_Drop.log
Here the drop and collision files do not have data, because of point to point co
nnection
no drop, no collision
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Graph can be plotted during the play mode
To plot the graph on menu Tools plot graph open file name
Graph for 10 mbps bandwidth
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04
Change the bandwidth say, 9 Mbps or less , and run the simulation and com
pare
the two results. To view the results go to the filename. results folder.
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To change the setting of the graph and X-values and Y-values ,go to options
general
setting
Inference: Since it is a point to point connection and no of nodes are only 2 ,s
o there is
no chance of drop and collision , what ever the data sent from source is receive
d by the
receiver.
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Experiment No 2
2. Simulate a four-node point-to-point network and connect the link as follow
s:
Apply a TCP agent between n0 to n3 and apply a UDP agent between n1 and
n3. Apply relevant applications over TCP and UDP agents changing the
parameters and determine the number of packets sent by two agents.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 3000 –l 1024 1.0.1.3
stg –u 1024 1.0.1.3
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 3000 –l 1024
rtg –u 3000
Parameters:-
Throughput of incoming and outgoing Packets
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Experiment No 3
3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP, TELNET over
a
network and analyze the throughput.
To draw a network topology, do the following steps:
Step 1: Select the host icon on the toolbar and drag it onto the working
window.
Repeat this for another host icon. Select the link icon on the to
olbar and
Draw the topology as shown above.
[We can see the ip address of the host by moving the mous
e
pointer on host ]
Step 2: Save this topology as a filename.tpl
To configure the network devices, do the following steps:
Step 1: click on host , a host dialog box will open up
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Step 2: Click on the Add button and enter the command (at the sender)
node 1: For FTP stcp –p 21 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
node 2: For Telnet stcp –p 23 –l1024 1.0.1.4
and set the simulation time 0 to 40 sec then click ok
Step 3: Click on the node editor and you can see the different layers-int
erface,
ARP, FIFO, MAC, TCPDUMP, Physical layers.
Step 4: Select MAC and then select full-duplex for switches and routers
and
half-duplex for hubs, and check the log packet statistics
check
box ,
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Step5: Select output throughput log file etc (at sender), select the numb
er of drop
Packets, Output ThroughPut.
Click the OK button.
Step 6: At Receiver:
Click on the Add button and enter the command (at the receiver) node 4
For FTP rtcp -p 21 –l 1024
For TELNET rtcp -p 23 –l 1024 and click OK
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Step 7: Click on the node editor and you can see the different layers-interface,
ARP,
FIFO, MAC, TCPDUMP, Physical layers.
Step 8: Select input throughput log file etc (at receiver), select the number of
drop
Click ok.
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To RUN the Simulation
Step 1: Now click on the R button (Run simulation). By doing so a user can
run/pause/continue/stop/abort/disconnect/reconnect/submit a sim
ulation. No
simulation settings can be changed in this mode.
Step 2: Now go to the Menu->Simulation->Run. Executing this command will submit
the
current simulation job to one available simulation server managed by the
dispatcher. When the simulation server is executing, the user will see t
he time
knot at the bottom of the screen move. The time knot reflects the curren
t virtual
time (progress) of the simulation case.
To playback the simulation
To start the playback, the user can left-click the start icon ( |>) of the ti
me bar located
at the bottom. The animation player will then start playing the recorded pack
et
animation.
The results are stored in file.results folder(“file” is the same name given by th
e user
to the simulation file).
You will see the following log files in the folder: file.results
Filename.8023_N1_P1_OutThrput.log
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Filename.8023_N4_P1_InThrput.log
Filename..8023_n4_p1_coll.log
Filename.8023_N4_P1_Drop.log
Here the drop and collision files do not have data, because of in point to point
connection
no drop, no collision
Graph can be plotted during the play mode
To plot the graph on menu Tools plot graph open file name
Graph for out put Thruput FTP Traffic
Graph for Input Thruput , FTP Traffic
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Graph For output Thrput, TELNET Traffic
Graph for input Thrput (Telnet Traffic)
gene
ral
To change the setting of the graph and X-values and Y-values ,go to options
setting
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4. Simulate the transmission of ping messages over a network topology consist
ing of
6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Command Console:-
Goto tools-> simulation time and change Simulation time to 100. During ru
n
mode, double click host 2 and then click command console. And execute the
following command.
ping 1.0.1.4
Parameters:-
Drop Packets and Collision Packets.
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5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes (6-10), change error rate and data
rate
and compare throughput.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Double click on receiver link and change BER to 0.000001, Run Again.
Parameters:-
Throughput of outgoing Packets
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determine collisions across different nodes.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Parameters:-
Collision Packets and Drop Packets (Optional)
plot
congestion window for different source/destination.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Parameters:-
Receiver side Collision Packets and Drop Packets
Department Of Computer Science and Engineering Pag
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4
8. Simulate simple BSS and with transmitting nodes in wireless LAN by simulat
ion
and determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets.
Topology:-
Click on “access point”. Goto wireless interface and tick on “show transmission ran
ge
and then click OK.
Double click on Router -> Node Editor and then
Left stack -> throughput of Incoming packets
Right stack -> throughput of Outgoing packets
Select mobile hosts and access points then click on.
Tools -> WLAN mobile nodes-> WLAN Generate infrastructure.
Subnet ID: Port number of router (2)
Gateway ID: IP address of router
Mobile Host 1
ttcp –t –u –s –p 3000 1.0.1.1
Mobile Host 1
ttcp –t –u –s –p 3001 1.0.1.1
Host(Receiver)
ttcp –r –u –s –p 3000
ttcp –r –u –s –p 3001
Run and then play to plot the graph.
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Part B Programs
Experiment No 1
CRC
Problem Statement
Write a program for error detecting code using CRC-CCITT (16-bits).
Theory
It does error checking via polynomial division. In general, a bit string
bn-1bn-2bn-3...b2b1b0
As
n-1 n-2
Xn-3 + ...b2 X2 + b1 X1
+ b0
bn-1X + bn-2 X + bn-3
Ex: -
10010101110
As
X10 + X7 + X5 + X3 + X2 + X1
All computations are done in modulo 2
Algorithm:-
1. Given a bit string, append 0S to the end of it (the number of 0s is the
same as the degree of
the generator polynomial) let B(x) be the polynomial corresponding to B
.
2. Divide B(x) by some agreed on polynomial G(x) (generator polynomial) and
determine
the remainder R(x). This division is to be done using Modulo 2 Division
.
3. Define T(x) = B(x) –R(x)
(T(x)/G(x) => remainder 0)
4. Transmit T, the bit string corresponding to T(x).
5. Let T’ represent the bit stream the receiver gets and T’(x) the associated p
olynomial. The
receiver divides T1(x) by G(x). If there is a 0 remainder, the receiver
concludes T = T’
and no error occurred otherwise, the receiver concludes an error occurr
ed and requires a
retransmission.
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Experiment No 2
Frame Sorting
Problem Statement
Write a program for frame sorting technique used in buffers.
Theory
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network lay
er into manageable
data units called frames.
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the Dat
a link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
Each Data link layer has its own frame format. One of the fields defined in
the format is the
maximum size of the data field. In other words, when datagram is encapsulated in
a frame, the
total size of the datagram must be less than this maximum size, which is defined
by restriction
imposed by the hardware and software used in the network.
IP Datagram
Header MTU Trailer
The value of MTU differs from one physical network to another
In order to make IP protocol portable/independent of the physical network, t
he packagers
decided to make the maximum length of the IP datagram equal to the largest Maxim
um Transfer
Unit (MTU) defined so far. However for other physical networks we must divide th
e datagrams to
make it possible to pass through these networks. This is called fragmentation.
When a datagram is fragmented, each fragmented has its own header. A fragmen
ted datagram
may itself be fragmented if it encounters a network with an even smaller MTU. In
another words,
a datagram may be fragmented several times before it reached the final destinati
on and also, the
datagrams referred to as (frames in Data link layer) may arrives out of order at
destination. Hence
sorting of frames need to be done at the destination to recover the original dat
a.
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Experiment No 3
Distance Vector Routing
Problem Statement
Write a program for distance vector algorithm to find suitable path for transmis
sion.
Theory
Routing algorithm is a part of network layer software which is responsible f
or deciding which
output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on. If the subnet uses data
gram internally,
this decision must be made anew for every arriving data packet since the best ro
ute may have
changed since last time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing
decisions are made
only when a new established route is being set up. The latter case is sometimes
called session
routing, because a rout remains in force for an entire user session (e.g., login
session at a terminal
or a file).
Routing algorithms can be grouped into two major classes: adaptive and nonad
aptive.
Nonadaptive algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurement or est
imates of
current traffic and topology. Instead, the choice of route to use to get from I
to J (for all I and J) is
compute in advance, offline, and downloaded to the routers when the network ids
booted. This
procedure is sometime called static routing.
Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect
changes in the
topology, and usually the traffic as well. Adaptive algorithms differ in where t
hey get information
(e.g., locally, from adjacent routers, or from all routers), when they change th
e routes (e.g., every
T sec, when the load changes, or when the topology changes), and what metric i
s used for
optimization (e.g., distance, number of hops, or estimated transit time).
Two algorithms in particular, distance vector routing and link state routing
are the most
popular. Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router mainta
in a table (i.e.,
vector) giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to get
there. These
tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors.
The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, in
cluding the
distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm, aft
er the
researchers who developed it (Bellman, 1957; and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962). It w
as the original
ARPANET routing algorithm and was also used in the Internet under the RIP and in
early
versions of DECnet and Novell’s IPX. AppleTalk and Cisco routers use improved dist
ance vector
protocols.
In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by
, and containing
one entry for, each router in subnet. This entry contains two parts: the preferr
ed out going line to
use for that destination, and an estimate of the time or distance to that destin
ation. The metric
used might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds, total number of packet
s queued along
the path, or something similar.
The router is assumed to know the “distance” to each of its neighbor. If the met
ric is hops, the
distance is just one hop. If the metric is queue length, the router simply exami
nes each queue. If
the metric is delay, the router can measure it directly with special ECHO packet
s hat the receiver
just time stamps and sends back as fast as possible.
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The Count to Infinity Problem.
Distance vector routing algorithm reacts rapidly to good news, but leisurely
to bad news.
Consider a router whose best route to destination X is large. If on the next exc
hange neighbor A
suddenly reports a short delay to X, the router just switches over to using the
line to A to send
traffic to X. In one vector exchange, the good news is processed.
To see how fast good news propagates, consider the five node (linear) subnet
of following
figure, where the delay metric is the number of hops. Suppose A is down initiall
y and all the other
routers know this. In other words, they have all recorded the delay to A as infi
nity.
A B C D E A B C D
E
_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
Initially 1 2 3
4 Initially
1 After 1 exchange 3 2 3
4 After 1 exchange
1 2 After 2 exchange 3 3 3
4 After 2 exchange
2 3 After 3 exchange 5 3 5
4 After 3 exchange
1
1 2 3 4 After 4 exchange 5 6 5
6 After 4 exchange
7 6 7
6 After 5 exchange
7 8 7
8 After 6 exchange
:
Many ad hoc solutions to the count to infinity problem have been proposed in
the literature,
each one more complicated and less useful than the one before it. The split hori
zon algorithm
works the same way as distance vector routing, except that the distance to X is
not reported on
line that packets for X are sent on (actually, it is reported as infinity). In t
he initial state of right
figure, for example, C tells D the truth about distance to A but C tells B that
its distance to A is
infinite. Similarly, D tells the truth to E but lies to C.
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Experiment No 4
TCP Socket
Problem Statement
Using TCP/IP sockets, write a client-server program to make client sending the f
ile name and the
server to send back the contents of the requested file if present.
Algorithm (Client Side)
1. Start.
2. Create a socket using socket() system call.
3. Connect the socket to the address of the server using connect() system c
all.
4. Send the filename of required file using send() system call.
5. Read the contents of the file sent by server by recv() system call.
6. Stop.
Algorithm (Server Side)
1. Start.
2. Create a socket using socket() system call.
3. Bind the socket to an address using bind() system call.
4. Listen to the connection using listen() system call.
5. accept connection using accept()
6. Receive filename and transfer contents of file with client.
7. Stop.
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Experiment No 5
FIFO IPC
Problem Statement
Implement the above program using as message queues or FIFO as IPC channels.
Algorithm (Client Side)
1. Start.
2. Open well known server FIFO in write mode.
3. Write the pathname of the file in this FIFO and send the request.
4. Open the client specified FIFO in read mode and wait for reply.
5. When the contents of the file are available in FIFO, display it on the t
erminal
6. Stop.
Algorithm (Server Side)
1. Start.
2. Create a well known FIFO using mkfifo()
3. Open FIFO in read only mode to accept request from clients.
4. When client opens the other end of FIFO in write only mode, then read th
e contents and
store it in buffer.
5. Create another FIFO in write mode to send replies.
6. Open the requested file by the client and write the contents into the cli
ent specified FIFO
and terminate the connection.
7. Stop.
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Experiment No 6
RSA Algorithm
Problem Statement
Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the data.
Theory
Cryptography has a long and colorful history. The message to be encrypted, k
nown as the
plaintext, are transformed by a function that is parameterized by a key. The out
put of the
encryption process, known as the ciphertext, is then transmitted, often by messe
nger or radio. The
enemy, or intruder, hears and accurately copies down the complete ciphertext. Ho
wever, unlike
the intended recipient, he does not know the decryption key and so cannot decryp
t the ciphertext
easily. The art of breaking ciphers is called cryptanalysis the art of devising
ciphers
(cryptography) and breaking them (cryptanalysis) is collectively known as crypto
logy.
There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms. They are gen
erally
categorized based on the number of keys that are employed for encryption and dec
ryption, and
further defined by their application and use. The three types of algorithms are
as follows:
1. Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and decr
yption. It is
also known as symmetric cryptography.
2. Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for de
cryption. It
is also known as asymmetric cryptography.
3. Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly "encrypt"
information
Public-key cryptography has been said to be the most significant new develop
ment in
cryptography. Modern PKC was first described publicly by Stanford University pro
fessor Martin
Hellman and graduate student Whitfield Diffie in 1976. Their paper described a t
wo-key crypto
system in which two parties could engage in a secure communication over a non-se
cure
communications channel without having to share a secret key.
Generic PKC employs two keys that are mathematically related although knowle
dge of one
key does not allow someone to easily determine the other key. One key is used to
encrypt the
plaintext and the other key is used to decrypt the ciphertext. The important poi
nt here is that it
does not matter which key is applied first, but that both keys are required for
the process to work.
Because pair of keys is required, this approach is also called asymmetric crypto
graphy.
In PKC, one of the keys is designated the public key and may be advertised a
s widely as the
owner wants. The other key is designated the private key and is never revealed t
o another party. It
is straight forward to send messages under this scheme.
The RSA algorithm is named after Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, who
invented it
in 1977. The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and digita
l signatures. Its
security is based on the difficulty of factoring large integers.
Algorithm
1. Generate two large random primes, P and Q, of approximately equal size.
2. Compute N = P x Q
3. Compute Z = (P-1) x (Q-1).
4. Choose an integer E, 1 < E < Z, such that GCD (E, Z) = 1
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5. Compute the secret exponent D, 1 < D < Z, such that E x D 1 (mod Z)
6. The public key is (N, E) and the private key is (N, D).
Note: The values of P, Q, and Z should also be kept secret.
The message is encrypted using public key and decrypted using private key.
An example of RSA encryption
1. Select primes P=11, Q=3.
2. N = P x Q = 11 x 3 = 33
Z = (P-1) x (Q-1) = 10 x 2 = 20
3. Lets choose E=3
Check GCD(E, P-1) = GCD(3, 10) = 1 (i.e. 3 and 10 have no common factors exc
ept 1),
and check GCD(E, Q-1) = GCD(3, 2) = 1
therefore GCD(E, Z) = GCD(3, 20) = 1
4. Compute D such that E x D 1 (mod Z)
compute D = E^-1 mod Z = 3^-1 mod 20
find a value for D such that Z divides ((E x D)-1)
find D such that 20 divides 3D-1.
Simple testing (D = 1, 2, ...) gives D = 7
Check: (E x D)-1 = 3.7 - 1 = 20, which is divisible by Z.
5. Public key = (N, E) = (33, 3)
Private key = (N, D) = (33, 7).
Now say we want to encrypt the message m = 7,
Cipher code = M^E mod N
= 7^3 mod 33
= 343 mod 33
= 13.
Hence the ciphertext c = 13.
To check decryption we compute Message’ = C^D mod N
= 13^7 mod 33
= 7.
Note that we don have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here.
We can make use
t
of the fact that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break down a
potentially
large number into its components and combine the results of easier, smaller calc
ulations to
calculate the final value.
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NGALORE-04
Experiment No 7
Hamming Codes
Problem Statement
Write a program for Hamming Code generation for error detection and correction
Theory
Hamming codes are used for detecting and correcting single bit errors in tra
nsmitted data. This
requires that 3 parity bits (check bits) be transmitted with every 4 data bits.
The algorithm is
called A(7, 4) code, because it requires seven bits to encode 4 bits of data.
Eg:
Bit String Parity Bit Verification
000 0 0+0+0+0
= 0
001 1 0+0+1+1
= 0
010 1 0+1+0+1
= 0
011 0 0+1+1+0
= 0
100 1 1+0+0+1
= 0
101 0 1+0+1+0
= 0
0 1+0+1+0
= 0
110
111 1 1+1+1+1
= 0
Parity types:
Even: - Even number of 1’s is present, i.e. the modulo 2 sum of the bits i
s 0.
Odd: - Odd number of 1’s is present, i.e. the modulo 2 sum of the bits is
1.
Given data bits D1, D2, D3 and D4, A (7, 4) Hamming code may define parity b
its P1, P2 and
P3 as,
P1=D2+D3+D4
P2=D1+D3+D4
P3=D1+D2+D4
There are 4 equations for a parity bit that may be used in Hamming codes,
P4=D1+D2+D3
Valid Hamming codes may use any 3 of the above 4 parity bit definitions. Vali
d Hamming
codes may also place the parity bits in any location within the block of 7 data
and parity bits.
One method for transferring 4 bits of data into a 7 bit Hamming code word is
to use a 4x7
generate matrix [G] defined to be the 1x4 vector [D1 D2 D3 D4].
Its possible to create a 4x7 generator matrix [G] such that the product modul
o 2 of d and [G]
(D[G]) is the desired 1x7 Hamming code word.
For example each data bits can be represented with in a column vector as foll
ows.
1 0 0
0
0 1 0
0
D1= D2= D3= D4=
0 0 1
0
0 0 0
1
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Computer Networks Lab Manual BIT
,BANGALORE-04
And represent each parity bit with a column vector continuing a 1 in the row
corresponding to
each data bit included in the computation and a zero in all other rows.
0 1
1
1 0
1
P1= P2= P3=
1 1
0
1 1
1
And
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
G=
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
P1 P2 P3 D1 D2 D3 D4
Encoding
The process to encode the data value 1010 using the Hamming code defined by
the G matrix is
as follows: -
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
[1010] 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
(1*0)+ (0*1)+ (1*1)+ (0*1) 0+0+1+0
1
(1*1)+ (0*0)+ (1*1)+ (0*1) 1+0+1+0
0
(1*1)+ (0*1)+ (1*0)+ (0*1) 1+0+0+0
1
= (1*1)+ (0*0)+ (1*0)+ (0*0) = 1+0+0+0
= 1
(1*0)+ (0*1)+ (1*0)+ (0*0) 0+0+0+0
0
(1*0)+ (0*0)+ (1*1)+ (0*0) 0+0+1+0
1
(1*0)+ (0*0)+ (1*0)+ (0*1) 0+0+0+0
0
Therefore 1010 encodes into 1011010. Equivalent Hamming codes represented by
different
generator matrices will produce different results.
Decoding
The first step is to check the parity bits to determine if there is an error
. Arithmetically, parity
may be checked as follows: -
P1 = D2+D3+D4 = 0+1+1 = 0
P2 = D1+D3+D4 = 1+1+1 = 1
P3 = D1+D2+D4 = 1+0+1 = 0
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Computer Networks Lab Manual BIT,B
ANGALORE-04
Parity may also be validated by using matrix operation. A 3x7 parity check m
atrix [H] may be
constructed such that row 1 contains 1s in the position of the first parity bits
and all the data bits
that are included in its parity calculation. Using this, matrix [H] may be defin
ed as follows: -
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
H=
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
rd
3 Bit Parity
nd
2 Bit Parity
st
1 Bit Parity
Multiplying the 3x7 matrix [H] by a 7x1 matrix representing the encoded data
produces a 3x1
matrix called the Syndrome.
If the syndrome is all 0’s the encoded data is error free. If the syndrome has
a non-zero value,
flipping the encoded bit that is in the position of the column matching the synd
rome will result in
a valid code word.
Ex: -
Suppose the data received is 1011011,
Then
1
0
1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 (1*1)+(0*0)+(0*1)+(0*1)+(1*0)+(1*1)+(
1*1)
1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 = (0*1)+(1*0)+(0*1)+(1*1)+(0*0)+(1*1)+(
1*1) =
1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 (0*1)+(0*0)+(1*1)+(1*1)+(1*0)+(0*1)+(
1*1)
1
1
Looking back at the matrix [H] the 7th column is all 1s so the 7th bit is th
e bit that has an
error.
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Computer Networks Lab Manual BIT,
BANGALORE-04
Experiment No 8
Leaky Bucket
Problem Statement
Write a program for congestion control using Leaky bucket algorithm.
Theory
The congesting control algorithms are basically divided into two groups: ope
n loop and closed
loop. Open loop solutions attempt to solve the problem by good design, in essenc
e, to make sure
it does not occur in the first place. Once the system is up and running, midcour
se corrections are
not made. Open loop algorithms are further divided into ones that act at source
versus ones that
act at the destination.
In contrast, closed loop solutions are based on the concept of a feedback lo
op if there is any
congestion. Closed loop algorithms are also divided into two sub categories: exp
licit feedback
and implicit feedback. In explicit feedback algorithms, packets are sent back fr
om the point of
congestion to warn the source. In implicit algorithm, the source deduces the exi
stence of
congestion by making local observation, such as the time needed for acknowledgme
nt to come
back.
The presence of congestion means that the load is (temporarily) greater than
the resources (in
part of the system) can handle. For subnets that use virtual circuits internally
, these methods can
be used at the network layer.
Another open loop method to help manage congestion is forcing the packet to
be transmitted
at a more predictable rate. This approach to congestion management is widely use
d in ATM
networks and is called traffic shaping.
The other method is the leaky bucket algorithm. Each host is connected to th
e network by an
interface containing a leaky bucket, that is, a finite internal queue. If a pack
et arrives at the queue
when it is full, the packet is discarded. In other words, if one or more process
are already queued,
the new packet is unceremoniously discarded. This arrangement can be built into
the hardware
interface or simulate d by the host operating system. In fact it is nothing othe
r than a single server
queuing system with constant service time.
The host is allowed to put one packet per clock tick onto the network. This
mechanism turns
an uneven flow of packet from the user process inside the host into an even flow
of packet onto
the network, smoothing out bursts and greatly reducing the chances of congestion
.
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