Master of Business Administration – MBA Semester 3rd core

MB0050 Research Methodology - 4 Credits

Assignment Set- 1
60 Marks
Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.
Q1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of
research, explaining why – a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c)
Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research. (10 marks)

Ans:
a) Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been
clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only
with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.

Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available

literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches
through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature.
For example, RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information;
major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services
such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods
of time by services such as Google Trends; and websites may be created to attract
worldwide feedback on any subject.

The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although
the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and
"when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many".
Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large.

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar

problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and
much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot
study. The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the
researcher’s familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the
problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is
feasible to attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies.
“At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the
second, the discovery of relationships between variables.”

b) Descriptive Research

Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and

characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive
research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how...

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot
describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create
a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive
research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations.
Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey
investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers
may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the
implications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied.
But there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the
lives of the people around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that
affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to
prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of
research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the
various characteristics of a community or institution or problem under study and also
aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the subject matter of
study. It contributes to the development of a young science and useful in verifying
focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important
methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained
may be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the
research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social action
program.

c) Diagnostic Research
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It
aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may
also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are
associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its
thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods
for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical
analysis and test of significance.

d) Evaluation Research
It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or
economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental
projects on the development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise
the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes
and conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is
more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.
Q 2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a) Null
and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test
d) Parametric and non parametric tests. (10 marks)
Ans:
a) Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk null and alternative hypothesis. If
we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed
on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed
as null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior, it is
alternative hypothesis. Symbolically presented as:
Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha
Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the
hypothesis mean (µ H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that
the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can
express as: H0: µ= µ H0=100
If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0,
then we are accepting Ha. For H0: µ= µ H0=100, we may consider three possible
alternative hypotheses as follows:

Alternative
To be read as follows
Hypothesis
(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not
Ha: µ≠µ H0
equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less 100)
(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is
Ha: µ>µ H0
greater than 100)
(The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less
Ha: µ< µ H0
than 100)

The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is
drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data he
collects and testing the hypothesis from the same data). In the choice of null
hypothesis, the following considerations are usually kept in view:
 • Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which wishes to prove and the null
hypothesis are ones that wish to disprove. Thus a null hypothesis represents
the hypothesis we are trying to reject, the alternative hypothesis represents all
other possibilities.
• If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great
risk, it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it
when it is true is α (the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
• Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
about or approximately a certain value.
• Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis,
keeping the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on
assumption that null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to
different possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with
alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known
as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.

b) Type 1 and type 2 error

In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that
researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is
not true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other
words, Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted &
Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I
error is donated by α (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II
error is donated by β(beta).

Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error (α error)
Ho (false) Type II error (β error) Correct decision
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as
the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it
means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can
control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%,
we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be
0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced
simultaneously. There is a trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the
appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both
types of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of
chemicals that should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a
chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned,
then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking
a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned,
then in such a situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very
high level for type I error in one’s testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in
testing of hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance
between Type I & Type II error.

C) Two Tailed Test & One Tailed Test

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be
clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample
mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the
population. Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which
may µ>µ H0 or µ<µ H0. If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied,
the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as
0.025) and that of the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our
sample mean deviates significantly from µ, in that case we shall accept the null
hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered
appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the
population mean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.

d) Parametric and non parametric tests

The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically
described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting
hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the value of the
population of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis
of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or
false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of
significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as:

• Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis ;

• Non Parametric test or distribution – free test of the hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from
which we draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal
population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like
mean, variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are
situation when the researcher cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such
situations we use statistical methods for testing hypothesis which are called non
parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about the
parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test assumes only
nominal or original data, where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to
at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric test needs more observation than
a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I & Type II error.

Q3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and correlation, with an
example of each. What are the possible reasons for a correlation between two
variables? (10 marks)
Ans:
Economic & business variables are related. For instance, demand & supply of a
commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls.
Demand for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand & price are
inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity
when its price rises. Supply of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say
supply & price are directly related or positively co-related. Thus, correlation indicates
the relationship between two such variables in which changes in the value of one
variable is accompanies with a change in the value of other variable.

According to L.R.Connor, “ if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that

movements in the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the
others(s) they are said to be correlated.

W.I.King defined “Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there
exists some casual connection.”

The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of
relationship between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which
studies the relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be
correlated, change in the value of one variable results in a corresponding change in
the value of the other variable. Heights & weights of a group of people, age of
husbands & wives etc., are examples of bi-variant data that change together.

Correlation and Causation

Although, the term correlation is sued in the sense of mutual dependence of two or
more variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause & effect relation. Even
a high degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a
cause & effect relationship between them.
The main difference between cause and correlation is the strength and degree to
which two things are related and the certainty with which anyone can establish a
causal relationship. Essentially when you say one thing causes another, you are saying
that there is a direct line between that one thing and the result. Cause means that an
action will always have a predictable reaction.
When you define correlation, the terms cause and correlation become easier to
understand. If you see a correlation between two things, you can see that there is a
relationship between those two things. One thing doesn’t necessarily result in the
other thing occurring, but it may increase likelihood that something will occur.
Understanding the difference of cause and correlation can be helped by an example.
You can, perhaps, examine the statement: “Violent video games cause violent
behavior.” According to all research on this matter, this statement is not true, due to
the use of the word causes in the sentence. Research has shown that violent video
games may influence violent behavior.
It also shows that a number of different factors may be responsible for a person being
violent, among them, poorer socioeconomic status, mental illness, abusive childhoods,
and bad parenting. You cannot say violent video games are the cause of violence. In
order to make the above statement, you’d have to be able to prove that everyone who
ever played a violent video game subsequently exhibited violence.
Instead, what you can say, and what has been studied, is the correlation between
violent video games and violent behavior. Researchers have shown that there is a
connection/correlation there. Such games may influence others to act in more
aggressive ways but they are not the sole factor and sometimes not even a factor for
predicting violence. Thus there’s a correlation there, which should be considered, but
there is no cause factor. Plenty of people were violent, prior to the advent of video
games, thus if you’re deciding between cause and correlation here, you must choose
correlation.
In some ways, it can be almost impossible, except in extremely controlled
circumstances to say any one thing causes something else, especially when you’re
dealing with human health or behavior. You can, in limited ways, make blanket
cause/effect statements about some things. For example, heating water to a certain
temperature causes it to boil. This is a specific cause/effect relationship that no one
would dispute.

While all relationships tell about the correspondence between two variables, there is a
special type of relationship that holds that the two variables are not only in
correspondence, but that one causes the other. This is the key distinction between a
simple correlational relationship and a causal relationship. A correlational
relationship simply says that two things perform in a synchronized manner. For
instance, we often talk of a correlation between inflation and unemployment. When
inflation is high, unemployment also tends to be high. When inflation is low,
unemployment also tends to be low. The two variables are correlated. But knowing
that two variables are correlated does not tell us whether one causes the other. We
know, for instance, that there is a correlation between the number of roads built in
Europe and the number of children born in the United States. Does that mean that is
we want fewer children in the U.S., we should stop building so many roads in
Europe? Or, does it mean that if we don't have enough roads in Europe, we should
encourage U.S. citizens to have more babies? Of course not. (At least, I hope not).
While there is a relationship between the number of roads built and the number of
babies, we don't believe that the relationship is a causal one. This leads to
consideration of what is often termed the third variable problem. In this example, it
may be that there is a third variable that is causing both the building of roads and the
birthrate, that is causing the correlation we observe. For instance, perhaps the general
world economy is responsible for both. When the economy is good more roads are
built in Europe and more children are born in the U.S. The key lesson here is that you
have to be careful when you interpret
correlations. If you observe a
correlation between the number of
hours students use the computer to
study and their grade point averages
(with high computer users getting
higher grades), you cannot assume that
the relationship is causal: that
computer use improves grades. In this
case, the third variable might be socioeconomic status -- richer students who have
greater resources at their disposal tend to both use computers and do better in their
grades. It's the resources that drives both use and grades, not computer use that causes
the change in the grade point average.
Correlation between two variables can be due to following reasons:
 • Cause & effect relationship: Heat & temperature are cause & effect variable.
Heat is the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the
temperature.

• Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For
instance, price of rice & price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may
not be any cause & effect relation between price of rice & price of sugar.

• Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is
either a cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases
when price rise due to increased demand.

• The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show
correlation between wages & productivity. That is higher wage leading to
lower productivity. In real life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to
chance.

• There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between and

two variables. For instance, relationship between number of divorces &
television exports may be correlated. There cannot be any relationship
between divorce & exports of television.

The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship & it
does not necessarily signify a cause & effect relationship between the variable.

Q4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique.
What are the characteristics of a good sample? (10 marks)
Ans:

The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-

probability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling
does. Does that mean that non-probability samples aren't representative of the
population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that non-probability samples cannot
depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample,
we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. We are
able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With non-probability samples,
we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to
know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods over non probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate
and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where
it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we
consider a wide range of non-probabilistic alternatives.

We can divide non-probability sampling methods into two broad types:

Accidental or purposive.

Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach

the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions
among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of
purposive sampling approaches.

Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling

One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles
listed here. I would include in this category the traditional "man on the street" (of
course, now it's probably the "person on the street") interviews conducted frequently
by television news programs to get a quick (although non representative) reading of
public opinion. I would also argue that the typical use of college students in much
psychological research is primarily a matter of convenience. (You don't really believe
that psychologists use college students because they believe they're representative of
the population at large, do you?). In clinical practice, we might use clients who are
available to us as our sample. In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking
for volunteers. Clearly, the problem with all of these types of samples is that we have
no evidence that they are representative of the populations we're interested in
generalizing to -- and in many cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.

Purposive Sampling

In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would

have one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you
ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who
are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they
are conducting a purposive sample (and most likely they are engaged in market
research). They might be looking for Caucasian females between 30-40 years old.
They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category they
stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify
that the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive
sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample
quickly and where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a
purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you
are also likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily
accessible.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive
sampling methods. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in
modal instance, expert, or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in
heterogeneity sampling. Or, we might capitalize on informal social networks to
identify specific respondents who are hard to locate otherwise, as in snowball
sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want -- we are sampling with a
purpose.

• Modal Instance Sampling

In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution. In
sampling, when we do a modal instance sample, we are sampling the most frequent
case, or the "typical" case. In a lot of informal public opinion polls, for instance, they
interview a "typical" voter. There are a number of problems with this sampling
approach. First, how do we know what the "typical" or "modal" case is? We could say
that the modal voter is a person who is of average age, educational level, and income
in the population. But, it's not clear that using the averages of these is the fairest
(consider the skewed distribution of income, for instance). And, how do you know
that those three variables -- age, education, income -- are the only or even the most
relevant for classifying the typical voter? What if religion or ethnicity is an important
discriminator? Clearly, modal instance sampling is only sensible for informal
sampling contexts.

• Expert Sampling
Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or
demonstrable experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a
sample under the auspices of a "panel of experts." There are actually two reasons you
might do expert sampling. First, because it would be the best way to elicit the views
of persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert sampling is essentially just
a specific sub case of purposive sampling. But the other reason you might use expert
sampling is to provide evidence for the validity of another sampling approach you've
chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance sampling and are concerned that
the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism. You
might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience
and insight into that field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions
and comment on their appropriateness and validity. The advantage of doing this is that
you aren't out on your own trying to defend your decisions -- you have some
acknowledged experts to back you. The disadvantage is that even the experts can be,
and often are, wrong.

• Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota.
There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional.
In proportional quota sampling you want to represent the major characteristics of
the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you know
the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size
of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages and then you will
stop. So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but not the sixty men,
you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women respondents come
along, you will not sample them because you have already "met your quota." The
problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you have to decide the specific
characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it be by gender, age, education
race, religion, etc.?
Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you
specify the minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. Here,
you're not concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the
population. Instead, you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be able to
talk about even small groups in the population. This method is the non-probabilistic
analogue of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used to assure that
smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.

• Heterogeneity Sampling
We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and we
aren't concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this
is sampling for diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes
(including concept mapping), we would use some form of heterogeneity sampling
because our primary interest is in getting broad spectrum of ideas, not identifying the
"average" or "modal instance" ones. In effect, what we would like to be sampling is
not people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all possible ideas relevant
to some topic and that we want to sample this population, not the population of people
who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of the ideas, and especially the
"outlier" or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of
participants. Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal
instance sampling.

• Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria for
inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know
who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative
samples, there are times when it may be the best method available. Snowball
sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach populations that are
inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are
not likely to be able to find good lists of homeless people within a specific
geographical area. However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you may
find that they know very well whom the other homeless people in their vicinity are
and how you can find them.
Characteristics of good Sample: The decision process is a complicated one. The
researcher has to first identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously
balance the conflicting factors. The various criteria governing the choice of the
sampling technique are:
11. Purpose of the Survey: What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to
generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then
an appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The choice
of a particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical
area of the survey and the size and the nature of the population under
study.
22.Measurability: The application of statistical inference theory requires
computation of the sampling error from the sample itself. Only probability
samples allow such computation. Hence, where the research objective
requires statistical inference, the sample should be drawn by applying
simple random sampling method or stratified random sampling method,
depending on whether the population is homogenous or heterogeneous.
33.Degree of Precision: Should the results of the survey be very precise, or
could even rough results serve the purpose? The desired level of precision
is one of the criteria for sampling method selection. Where a high degree
of precision of results is desired, probability sampling should be used.
Where even crude results would serve the purpose (E.g., marketing
surveys, readership surveys etc), any convenient non-random sampling
like quota sampling would be enough.
44. Information about Population: How much information is available about
the population to be studied? Where no list of population and no
information about its nature are available, it is difficult to apply a
probability sampling method. Then an exploratory study with non-
probability sampling may be done to gain a better idea of the population.
After gaining sufficient knowledge about the population through the
 exploratory study, an appropriate probability sampling design may be
adopted.
55. The Nature of the Population: In terms of the variables to be studied, is
the population homogenous or heterogeneous? In the case of a
homogenous population, even simple random sampling will give a
representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified
random sampling is appropriate.
66. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the
area covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is
quite large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the
area and the size of the population are small, single stage probability
sampling methods could be used.
77. Financial Resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become
necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster
sampling, or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the
objectives of the study and the desired level of precision cannot be attained
within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative but to give up the
proposed survey. Where the finance is not a constraint, a researcher can
choose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research
objective and the nature of population.
88. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project should
be completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a
compromise, it may become necessary to choose less time consuming
methods like simple random sampling, instead of stratified
sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size; or multi-stage
cluster sampling, instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of course,
the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent.
99. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method.
It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. A
sample is economical if the precision per unit cost is high, or the cost per
unit of variance is low. The above criteria frequently conflict with each
other and the researcher must balance and blend them to obtain a good
sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the
sampling theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it
 represents a compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use
simple workable methods, instead of unduly elaborate and complicated
techniques.

Q5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and
primary sources to gather the required information. (10 marks)
Ans:

Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that has not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the
researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects
of consumer behavior, from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary
data is first hand information collected through various methods such as surveys,
experiments and observation, for the purposes of the project immediately at hand.
The advantages of primary data are –
1 It is unique to a particular research study
2 It is recent information, unlike published information that is already
available

The disadvantages are –

1 It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering information from
available sources
2 Data collection is a time consuming process
3 It requires trained interviewers and investigators

2 Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data, which has been collected and compiled for another
purpose. Secondary sources may be internal sources, such as annual reports, financial
statements, sales reports, inventory records, minutes of meetings and other
information that is available within the firm, in the form of a marketing information
system. They may also be external sources, such as government agencies (e.g. census
reports, reports of government departments), published sources (annual reports of
currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, publications of
international organizations such as the UN, World Bank and International Monetary
Fund, trade and financial journals, etc.), trade associations (e.g. Chambers of
Commerce) and commercial services (outside suppliers of information).

Methods of Data Collection:

The researcher directly collects primary data from its original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs and
he can collect them when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the collection
of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science
research, required data is not available from secondary sources and it has to be
directly gathered from the primary sources.
Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data is inappropriate,
inadequate or obsolete. It includes: socio economic surveys, social anthropological
studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social
problems and social institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls,
attitudinal surveys, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness
practice (KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies etc.
There are various methods of primary data collection, including surveys, audits and
panels, observation and experiments.
1 Survey Research
A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data
directly from a population or a sample at a particular time. A survey has certain
characteristics:
1 It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study.
2 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
3 It can cover a very large population.
4 It may include an extensive study or an intensive study
5 It covers a definite geographical area.

A survey involves the following steps -

1 Selection of a problem and its formulation
2 Preparation of the research design
3 Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales
4 Sampling
5 Construction of tools for data collection
6 Field work and collection of data
7 Processing of data and tabulation
8 Analysis of data
9 Reporting
There are four basic survey methods, which include:
1 Personal interview
2 Telephone interview
3 Mail survey and
4 Fax survey

Personal Interview
Personal interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be
defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an
informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves
not only conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gestures, facial
expressions and pauses, and his environment.
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in
studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information
from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of
data, from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information
relating to a person’s opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, experiences and future
intentions. Interviewing is appropriate when qualitative information is required, or
probing is necessary to draw out the respondent fully. Where the area covered for the
survey is compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are
available, personal interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more
willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential
information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for
answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp
the behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the
investigator to seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, which
for some reason or the other the respondents do not want to answer. Interviewing as a
method of data collection has certain characteristics. They are:
1. The participants – the interviewer and the respondent – are strangers; hence,
the investigator has to get himself/herself introduced to the respondent in an
appropriate manner.
 2. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed
beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting,
momentary experience for them.
3. The interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a
conversation with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a
study.
4. The interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.
5. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not
necessarily be on a face-to-face basis, because the interview can also be
conducted over the telephone.
6. Although the interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need
not be limited to a single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of
persons, such as family members, or a group of children, or a group of
customers, depending on the requirements of the study.
7. The interview is an interactive process. The interaction between the
interviewer and the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other.
8. The respondent reacts to the interviewer’s appearance, behavior, gestures,
facial expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the questions
and his own personal needs. As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be
closer to the social-economic level of the respondents.
9. The investigator records information furnished by the respondent in the
interview. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere
with the tempo of conversation.
10. Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical technician; it
is rather a flexible, psychological process.

3 Telephone Interviewing Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data

collection. It may be used as a major method or as a supplementary method. It will be
useful in the following situations:

1. When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in
telephone directories, e.g. business houses, business executives, doctors and
other professionals.
 2. When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions, e.g. a radio
or television program survey.
3. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided
the units of study are listed in the telephone directory.
4. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a survey
relating to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a
survey relating to a profession conducted by the concerned professional
association.
5. When the respondents are widely scattered and when there are many call
backs to make.

4 Group Interviews A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting

primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with
each other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The
group may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The
interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some
aspect of the subject under study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members
to interact with each other. The desired information may be obtained through self-
administered questionnaire or interview, with the discussion serving as a guide to
ensure consideration of the areas of concern. In particular, the interviewers look for
evidence of common elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among
individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a single comment by
a member can provide important insight. Samples for group interviews can be
obtained through schools, clubs and other organized groups.

5 Mail Survey The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This
method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete
them and return them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents
only. The mail questionnaires should be simple so that the respondents can easily
understand the questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-
ended and multiple choice questions, so that it could be completed within a few
minutes. The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-
administered by the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them
and not by the investigator, as in the case of personal interview method. It does not
involve face-to-face conversation between the investigator and the respondent.
Communication is carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from
the respondents than verbal communication. The researcher should prepare a mailing
list of the selected respondents, by collecting the addresses from the telephone
directory of the association or organization to which they belong. The following
procedures should be followed -  a covering letter should accompany a copy of the
questionnaire. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the
importance of his cooperation to the success of the project.  Anonymity must be
assured.  The sponsor’s identity may be revealed. However, when such information
may bias the result, it is not desirable to reveal it. In this case, a disguised
organization name may be used.  A self-addressed stamped envelope should be
enclosed in the covering letter.
1 After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to the respondents,
the researcher can expect the return of completed ones from them. The progress in
return may be watched and at the appropriate stage, follow-up efforts can be made.

The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in developing countries like
India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are:
11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed on quality light
colored paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent.
22. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style, so
as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate
objections and answer them briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by
name.
33. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential
respondents by a telephone call, or advance notice in the newsletter of the
concerned organization, or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential
respondents is more successful than follow-up efforts.
44. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to
induce respondents to complete and return the mail questionnaire.
55. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization,
they may be approached through someone in that organization known as the
researcher.
 66. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample
size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may
be drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size
closer to the required size.
7

Q6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study; define the research
problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study. (10 marks)

Ans:

Title: Newspaper reading choices

Research problem: A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to
feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area
within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and
the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources
usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of
others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific
literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not
covered. This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source.
Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at
clarifying contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the
inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting
opinions, or at solving existing practical problems

Types of questions to be asked :For more than 35 years, the news about newspapers
and young readers has been mostly bad for the newspaper industry. Long before any
competition from cable television or Nintendo, American newspaper publishers were
worrying about declining readership among the young.
As early as 1960, at least 20 years prior to Music Television (MTV) or the Internet,
media research scholars1 began to focus their studies on young adult readers'
decreasing interest in newspaper content. The concern over a declining youth market
preceded and perhaps foreshadowed today's fretting over market penetration. Even
where circulation has grown or stayed stable, there is rising concern over penetration,
defined as the percentage of occupied households in a geographic market that are
served by a newspaper.2 Simply put, population growth is occurring more rapidly
than newspaper readership in most communities.
This study looks at trends in newspaper readership among the 18-to-34 age group and
examines some of the choices young adults make when reading newspapers.
One of the underlying concerns behind the decline in youth newspaper reading is the
question of how young people view the newspaper. A number of studies explored
how young readers evaluate and use newspaper content.
Comparing reader content preferences over a 10-year period, Gerald Stone and
Timothy Boudreau found differences between readers ages 18-34 and those 35-
plus.16 Younger readers showed increased interest in national news, weather, sports,
and classified advertisements over the decade between 1984 and 1994, while older
readers ranked weather, editorials, and food advertisements higher. Interest in
international news and letters to the editor was less among younger readers, while
older readers showed less interest in reports of births, obituaries, and marriages.
David Atkin explored the influence of telecommunication technology on newspaper
readership among students in undergraduate media courses.17 He reported that
computer-related technologies, including electronic mail and computer networks,
were unrelated to newspaper readership. The study found that newspaper subscribers
preferred print formats over electronic. In a study of younger, school-age children,
Brian Brooks and James Kropp found that electronic newspapers could persuade
children to become news consumers, but that young readers would choose an
electronic newspaper over a printed one.18
In an exploration of leisure reading among college students, Leo Jeffres and Atkin
assessed dimensions of interest in newspapers, magazines, and books,19 exploring the
influence of media use, non-media leisure, and academic major on newspaper content
preferences. The study discovered that overall newspaper readership was positively
related to students' focus on entertainment, job / travel information, and public affairs.
However, the students' preference for reading as a leisure-time activity was related
only to a public affairs focus. Content preferences for newspapers and other print
media were related. The researchers found no significant differences in readership
among various academic majors, or by gender, though there was a slight correlation
between age and the public affairs readership index, with older readers more
interested in news about public affairs.

Methodology
Sample
Participants in this study (N=267) were students enrolled in 100- and 200-level
English courses at a midwestern public university. Courses that comprise the
framework for this sample were selected because they could fulfill basic studies
requirements for all majors. A basic studies course is one that is listed within the core
curriculum required for all students. The researcher obtained permission from seven
professors to distribute questionnaires in the eight classes during regularly scheduled
class periods. The students' participation was voluntary; two students declined. The
goal of this sampling procedure was to reach a cross-section of students representing
various fields of study. In all, 53 majors were represented.
Of the 267 students who participated in the study, 65 (24.3 percent) were male and
177 (66.3 percent) were female. A total of 25 participants chose not to divulge their
genders. Ages ranged from 17 to 56, with a mean age of 23.6 years. This mean does
not include the 32 respondents who declined to give their ages. A total of 157
participants (58.8 percent) said they were of the Caucasian race, 59 (22.1 percent)
African American, 10 (3.8 percent) Asian, five (1.9 percent) African/Native
American, two (.8 percent) Hispanic, two (.8 percent) Native American, and one (.4
percent) Arabic. Most (214) of the students were enrolled full time, whereas a few
(28) were part-time students. The class rank breakdown was: freshmen, 45 (16.9
percent); sophomores, 15 (5.6 percent); juniors, 33 (12.4 percent); seniors, 133 (49.8
percent); and graduate students, 16 (6 percent).
Procedure
After two pre-tests and revisions, questionnaires were distributed and collected by the
investigator. In each of the eight classes, the researcher introduced herself to the
students as a journalism professor who was conducting a study on students' use of
newspapers and other media. Each questionnaire included a cover letter with the
researcher's name, address, and phone number. The researcher provided pencils and
was available to answer questions if anyone needed further assistance. The average
time spent on the questionnaires was 20 minutes, with some individual students taking
as long as an hour. Approximately six students asked to take the questionnaires home
to finish. They returned the questionnaires to the researcher's mailbox within a couple
of day.
 Master of Business Administration – MBA Semester 3rd core
MB0050 Research Methodology - 4 Credits
Assignment Set- 2
60 Marks
Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions.
Q1. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of
distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study. (10 marks)
Ans:

There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents.

They are:
1) Personal delivery,
2) Attaching the questionnaire to a product,
3) Advertising the questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine, and
4) News-stand inserts.
Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to
the potential respondents, with a request to complete them at their convenience. After
a day or two, the completed questionnaires can be collected from them. Often referred
to as the self-administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the
personal interview and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be
delivered in person and the respondents may return the completed questionnaires
through mail.
Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product may attach a
questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the
firm. A gift or a discount coupon usually rewards the respondent.
Advertising the questionnaire: The questionnaire with the instructions for
completion may be advertised on a page of a magazine or in a section of newspapers.
The potential respondent completes it, tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For
example, the committee of Banks Customer Services used this method for collecting
information from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be
useful for large-scale studies on topics of common interest. Newsstand inserts: This
method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-
paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a newspaper or magazine.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
The advantages of Questionnaire are:
 this method facilitates collection of more accurate data for longitudinal studies
than any other method, because under this method, the event or action is reported
soon after its occurrence.
 this method makes it possible to have before and after designs made for field based
studies. For example, the effect of public relations or advertising campaigns or
welfare measures can be measured by collecting data before, during and after the
campaign.
 the panel method offers a good way of studying trends in events, behavior or
attitudes. For example, a panel enables a market researcher to study how brand
preferences change from month to month; it enables an economics researcher to study
how employment, income and expenditure of agricultural laborers change from month
to month; a political scientist can study the shifts in inclinations of voters and the
causative influential factors during an election. It is also possible to find out how the
constituency of the various economic and social strata of society changes through
time and so on.
 A panel study also provides evidence on the causal relationship between variables.
For example, a cross sectional study of employees may show an association between
their attitude to their jobs and their positions in the organization, but it does not
indicate as to which comes first - favorable attitude or promotion. A panel study can
provide data for finding an answer to this question.
 It facilities depth interviewing, because panel members become well acquainted
with the field workers and will be willing to allow probing interviews.

The major limitations or problems of Questionnaire method are:

 this method is very expensive. The selection of panel members, the payment of
premiums, periodic training of investigators and supervisors, and the costs involved in
replacing dropouts, all add to the expenditure.
 it is often difficult to set up a representative panel and to keep it representative.
Many persons may be unwilling to participate in a panel study. In the course of the
study, there may be frequent dropouts. Persons with similar characteristics may
replace the dropouts. However, there is no guarantee that the emerging panel would
be representative.
 A real danger with the panel method is “panel conditioning” i.e., the risk that
repeated interviews may sensitize the panel members and they become untypical, as a
result of being on the panel. For example, the members of a panel study of political
opinions may try to appear consistent in the views they express on consecutive
occasions. In such cases, the panel becomes untypical of the population it was
selected to represent. One possible safeguard to panel conditioning is to give members
of a panel only a limited panel life and then to replace them with persons taken
randomly from a reserve list.
 the quality of reporting may tend to decline, due to decreasing interest, after a
panel has been in operation for some time. Cheating by panel members or
investigators may be a problem in some cases.
Q2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency
and measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency
and dispersion? (10 marks)

Ans:
Measures of Central tendency:
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the
sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the
mean of a population. The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula
for m is shown below: m=
ΣX
N
Where ΣX is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the
number of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers
1+2+3+6+8=
20
5
=4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample
from the population.
The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD)
passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000
season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below.
m=
ΣX
N
=
634
31
=20.4516
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23
22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20
19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15
14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Table 1: Number of touchdown passes
Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean),
it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without
specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean,
it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean.
Median
The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the
midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it.
For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th
highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the
16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as
the 50th percentile.
Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed
previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.
Student Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3
You 3 3 3
John's 3 4 2
Maria's 3 4 2
Shareecia's 3 4 2
Luther's 3 5 1
Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz
For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median
is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half
of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is
above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution.
Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median
is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there
is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.
Thus, the median of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is
4+7
2
=5.5.
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of
touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes
than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response
time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two
scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables). Therefore the
mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution.
The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for
the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700,
the mode is the middle of that interval (650).
Range Frequency
500-600 3
600-700 6
700-800 5
800-900 5
900-1000 0
1000-1100 1
Table 3: Grouped frequency
distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is

zero if all the data are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It
cannot be less than zero.

Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured.
In other words, if the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the
measure of dispersion has the same units. Such measures of dispersion include:

• Standard deviation
• Interquartile range
• Range
• Mean difference
• Median absolute deviation
• Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation)
• Distance standard deviation

These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale
parameters, in which capacity they are called estimates of scale.

All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are
location-invariant, as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a
dispersion of SX then a linear transformation Y = aX + b for real a and b should have
dispersion SY = |a|SX.
Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they
have no units even if the variable itself has units. These include:

• Coefficient of variation
• Quartile coefficient of dispersion
• Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient

There are other measures of dispersion:

• Variance (the square of the standard deviation) — location-invariant but not

linear in scale.
• Variance-to-mean ratio — mostly used for count data when the term
coefficient of dispersion is used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count
data are themselves dimensionless: otherwise this is not scale-free.

Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan
variance and the Hadamard variance.

For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number.

See qualitative variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy.

Sources of statistical dispersion

In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement
errors: instrument measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible.
One may assume that the quantity being measured is unchanging and stable, and that
the variation between measurements is due to observational error.

In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be
intrinsic to the phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is
also seen in the arena of manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist
finds variation.The simple model of a stable quantity is preferred when it is tenable.
Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it warrants such a simplification.
Q3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research
design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and
diagnostic studies. (10 marks).
Ans:
Good research design: Much contemporary social research is devoted to examining
whether a program, treatment, or manipulation causes some outcome or result. For
example, we might wish to know whether a new educational program causes
subsequent achievement score gains, whether a special work release program for
prisoners causes lower recidivism rates, whether a novel drug causes a reduction in
symptoms, and so on. Cook and Campbell (1979) argue that three conditions must be
met before we can infer that such a cause-effect relation exists:
1. Covariation. Changes in the presumed cause must be related to changes in the
presumed effect. Thus, if we introduce, remove, or change the level of a
treatment or program, we should observe some change in the outcome
measures.
 2. Temporal Precedence. The presumed cause must occur prior to the presumed
effect.
3. No Plausible Alternative Explanations. The presumed cause must be the
only reasonable explanation for changes in the outcome measures. If there are
other factors, which could be responsible for changes in the outcome
measures, we cannot be confident that the presumed cause-effect relationship
is correct.
In most social research the third condition is the most difficult to meet. Any number
of factors other than the treatment or program could cause changes in outcome
measures. Campbell and Stanley (1966) and later, Cook and Campbell (1979) list a
number of common plausible alternative explanations (or, threats to internal validity).
For example, it may be that some historical event which occurs at the same time that
the program or treatment is instituted was responsible for the change in the outcome
measures; or, changes in record keeping or measurement systems which occur at the
same time as the program might be falsely attributed to the program. The reader is
referred to standard research methods texts for more detailed discussions of threats to
validity.
This paper is primarily heuristic in purpose. Standard social science methodology
textbooks (Cook and Campbell 1979; Judd and Kenny, 1981) typically present an
array of research designs and the alternative explanations, which these designs rule
out or minimize. This tends to foster a "cookbook" approach to research design - an
emphasis on the selection of an available design rather than on the construction of an
appropriate research strategy. While standard designs may sometimes fit real-life
situations, it will often be necessary to "tailor" a research design to minimize specific
threats to validity. Furthermore, even if standard textbook designs are used, an
understanding of the logic of design construction in general will improve the
comprehension of these standard approaches. This paper takes a structural approach to
research design. While this is by no means the only strategy for constructing research
designs, it helps to clarify some of the basic principles of design logic.
Minimizing Threats to Validity
Good research designs minimize the plausible alternative explanations for the
hypothesized cause-effect relationship. But such explanations may be ruled out or
minimized in a number of ways other than by design. The discussion, which follows,
outlines five ways to minimize threats to validity, one of which is by research design:
1. By Argument. The most straightforward way to rule out a potential threat to
validity is to simply argue that the threat in question is not a reasonable one.
Such an argument may be made either a priori or a posteriori, although the
former will usually be more convincing than the latter. For example,
depending on the situation, one might argue that an instrumentation threat is
not likely because the same test is used for pre and post test measurements and
did not involve observers who might improve, or other such factors. In most
cases, ruling out a potential threat to validity by argument alone will be
weaker than the other approaches listed below. As a result, the most plausible
threats in a study should not, except in unusual cases, be ruled out by
argument only.
2. By Measurement or Observation. In some cases it will be possible to rule
out a threat by measuring it and demonstrating that either it does not occur at
all or occurs so minimally as to not be a strong alternative explanation for the
cause-effect relationship. Consider, for example, a study of the effects of an
advertising campaign on subsequent sales of a particular product. In such a
study, history (i.e., the occurrence of other events which might lead to an
increased desire to purchase the product) would be a plausible alternative
explanation. For example, a change in the local economy, the removal of a
competing product from the market, or similar events could cause an increase
in product sales. One might attempt to minimize such threats by measuring
local economic indicators and the availability and sales of competing products.
If there is no change in these measures coincident with the onset of the
advertising campaign, these threats would be considerably minimized.
Similarly, if one is studying the effects of special mathematics training on
math achievement scores of children, it might be useful to observe everyday
classroom behavior in order to verify that students were not receiving any
additional math training to that provided in the study.
3. By Design. Here, the major emphasis is on ruling out alternative explanations
by adding treatment or control groups, waves of measurement, and the like.
This topic will be discussed in more detail below.
4. By Analysis. There are a number of ways to rule out alternative explanations
using statistical analysis. One interesting example is provided by Jurs and
Glass (1971). They suggest that one could study the plausibility of an attrition
 or mortality threat by conducting a two-way analysis of variance. One factor
in this study would be the original treatment group designations (i.e., program
vs. comparison group), while the other factor would be attrition (i.e., dropout
vs. non-dropout group). The dependent measure could be the pretest or other
available pre-program measures. A main effect on the attrition factor would be
indicative of a threat to external validity or generalizability, while an
interaction between group and attrition factors would point to a possible threat
to internal validity. Where both effects occur, it is reasonable to infer that
there is a threat to both internal and external validity.
The plausibility of alternative explanations might also be minimized using
covariance analysis. For example, in a study of the effects of "workfare"
programs on social welfare caseloads, one plausible alternative explanation
might be the status of local economic conditions. Here, it might be possible to
construct a measure of economic conditions and include that measure as a
covariate in the statistical analysis. One must be careful when using
covariance adjustments of this type -- "perfect" covariates do not exist in most
social research and the use of imperfect covariates will not completely adjust
for potential alternative explanations. Nevertheless causal assertions are likely
to be strengthened by demonstrating that treatment effects occur even after
adjusting on a number of good covariates.
5. By Preventive Action. When potential threats are anticipated some type of
preventive action can often rule them out. For example, if the program is a
desirable one, it is likely that the comparison group would feel jealous or
demoralized. Several actions can be taken to minimize the effects of these
attitudes including offering the program to the comparison group upon
completion of the study or using program and comparison groups which have
little opportunity for contact and communication. In addition, auditing
methods and quality control can be used to track potential experimental
dropouts or to insure the standardization of measurement.
The five categories listed above should not be considered mutually exclusive. The
inclusion of measurements designed to minimize threats to validity will obviously be
related to the design structure and is likely to be a factor in the analysis. A good
research plan should, where possible. make use of multiple methods for reducing
threats. In general, reducing a particular threat by design or preventive action will
probably be stronger than by using one of the other three approaches. The choice of
which strategy to use for any particular threat is complex and depends at least on the
cost of the strategy and on the potential seriousness of the threat.
Design Construction
Basic Design Elements. Most research designs can be constructed from four basic
elements:
1. Time. A causal relationship, by its very nature, implies that some time has
elapsed between the occurrence of the cause and the consequent effect. While
for some phenomena the elapsed time might be measured in microseconds and
therefore might be unnoticeable to a casual observer, we normally assume that
the cause and effect in social science arenas do not occur simultaneously, In
design notation we indicate this temporal element horizontally - whatever
symbol is used to indicate the presumed cause would be placed to the left of
the symbol indicating measurement of the effect. Thus, as we read from left to
right in design notation we are reading across time. Complex designs might
involve a lengthy sequence of observations and programs or treatments across
time.
2. Program(s) or Treatment(s). The presumed cause may be a program or
treatment under the explicit control of the researcher or the occurrence of
some natural event or program not explicitly controlled. In design notation we
usually depict a presumed cause with the symbol "X". When multiple
programs or treatments are being studied using the same design, we can keep
the programs distinct by using subscripts such as "X1" or "X2". For a
comparison group (i.e., one which does not receive the program under study)
no "X" is used.
3. Observation(s) or Measure(s). Measurements are typically depicted in
design notation with the symbol "O". If the same measurement or observation
is taken at every point in time in a design, then this "O" will be sufficient.
Similarly, if the same set of measures is given at every point in time in this
study, the "O" can be used to depict the entire set of measures. However, if
different measures are given at different times it is useful to subscript the "O"
to indicate which measurement is being given at which point in time.
4. Groups or Individuals. The final design element consists of the intact groups
or the individuals who participate in various conditions. Typically, there will
 be one or more program and comparison groups. In design notation, each
group is indicated on a separate line. Furthermore, the manner in which groups
are assigned to the conditions can be indicated by an appropriate symbol at the
beginning of each line. Here, "R" will represent a group, which was randomly
assigned, "N" will depict a group, which was nonrandom assigned (i.e., a
nonequivalent group or cohort) and a "C" will indicate that the group was
assigned using a cutoff score on a measurement.

Q4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific
examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research. (10
marks)
Ans:

While case study writing may seem easy at first glance, developing an effective case
study (also called a success story) is an art. Like other marketing communication
skills, learning how to write a case study takes time. What’s more, writing case
studies without careful planning usually results in sub optimal results?
Savvy case study writers increase their chances of success by following these ten
proven techniques for writing an effective case study:
Involve the customer throughout the process. Involving the customer throughout
the case study development process helps ensure customer cooperation and approval,
and results in an improved case study. Obtain customer permission before writing the
document, solicit input during the development, and secure approval after drafting the
document.
• Write all customer quotes for their review. Rather than asking the customer
to draft their quotes, writing them for their review usually results in more
compelling material.

Case Study Writing Ideas

• Establish a document template. A template serves as a roadmap for the case
study process, and ensures that the document looks, feels, and reads
consistently. Visually, the template helps build the brand; procedurally, it
simplifies the actual writing. Before beginning work, define 3-5 specific
elements to include in every case study, formalize those elements, and stick to
them.
• Start with a bang. Use action verbs and emphasize benefits in the case study
title and subtitle. Include a short (less than 20-word) customer quote in larger
text. Then, summarize the key points of the case study in 2-3 succinct bullet
points. The goal should be to tease the reader into wanting to read more.
• Organize according to problem, solution, and benefits. Regardless of
length, the time-tested, most effective organization for a case study follows the
problem-solution-benefits flow. First, describe the business and/or technical
problem or issue; next, describe the solution to this problem or resolution of
this issue; finally, describe how the customer benefited from the particular
solution (more on this below). This natural story-telling sequence resonates
with readers.
• Use the general-to-specific-to-general approach. In the problem section,
begin with a general discussion of the issue that faces the relevant industry.
Then, describe the specific problem or issue that the customer faced. In the
solution section, use the opposite sequence. First, describe how the solution
solved this specific problem; then indicate how it can also help resolve this
issue more broadly within the industry. Beginning more generally draws the
reader into the story; offering a specific example demonstrates, in a concrete
way, how the solution resolves a commonly faced issue; and concluding more
generally allows the reader to understand how the solution can also address
their problem.
• Quantify benefits when possible. No single element in a case study is more
compelling than the ability to tie quantitative benefits to the solution. For
example, “Using Solution X saved Customer Y over $ZZZ, ZZZ after just 6
months of implementation;” or, “Thanks to Solution X, employees at
Customer Y have realized a ZZ% increase in productivity as measured by
standard performance indicators.” Quantifying benefits can be challenging, but
not impossible. The key is to present imaginative ideas to the customer for
ways to quantify the benefits, and remain flexible during this discussion. If
benefits cannot be quantified, attempt to develop a range of qualitative
benefits; the latter can be quite compelling to readers as well.
• Use photos. Ask the customer if they can provide shots of personnel, ideally
using the solution. The shots need not be professionally done; in fact,
“homegrown” digital photos sometimes lead to surprisingly good results and
 often appear more genuine. Photos further personalize the story and help form
a connection to readers.
• Reward the customer. After receiving final customer approval and finalizing
the case study, provide a pdf, as well as printed copies, to the customer.
Another idea is to frame a copy of the completed case study and present it to
the customer in appreciation for their efforts and cooperation.
Writing a case study is not easy. Even with the best plan, a case study is doomed to
failure if the writer lacks the exceptional writing skills, technical savvy, and
marketing experience that these documents require. In many cases, a talented writer
can mean the difference between an ineffective case study and one that provides the
greatest benefit. If a qualified internal writer is unavailable, consider outsourcing the
task to professionals who specialize in case study writing.

Q5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of
data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or
interviewing would be more appropriate. ( 10 marks)

Ans:
Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic
viewing of a specific phenomenon on its proper setting for the specific purpose of
gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific
study.

The prerequisites of observation consist of:

 • Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate
results. The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be
observed. The distance and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical
devices used must be in good working conditions and operated by skilled
persons.

• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the

cases.

• Recording should be accurate and complete.

• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain

number of cases can be observered again by another observer/another set of
mechanical devices as the case may be. If it is feasible two separate
observers and set of instruments may be used in all or some of the original
observations. The results could then be compared to determine their accuracy
and completeness.

Advantages of observation
o The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to
study behavior as it occurs. The researcher needs to ask people about
their behavior and interactions he can simply watch what they do and
say.

o Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena

as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce
elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance in
interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is no
such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed
persons are not aware of their being observed.

o Observations in more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to

articulate meaningfully e.g. studies of children, tribal animals, birds
etc.

o Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual

back ground of behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated
 and compared with behavior through observation. The validity of what
men of position and authority say can be verified by observing what
they actually do.

o Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.

For example only observation can be providing an insight into all the
aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management
representatives.

o Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing

effect on their conduct than questioning.

o It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised

questioning.

o Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure

more accurate data and also of making continuous observations over
longer periods.

Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for all Organisations. Their
purpose is to give the interviewer(s) a chance to assess your suitability for the role and
for you to demonstrate your abilities and personality. As this is a two-way process, it
is also a good opportunity for you to ask questions and to make sure the organisation
and position are right for you.
Interview format

Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in
advance what format the interview will take.

• Competency/criteria based interviews - These are structured to reflect the

competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job,
which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The
interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as:
‘Give an example of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common
goal.’
 The organisation determines the selection criteria based on the roles they are
recruiting for and then, in an interview, examines whether or not you have
evidence of possessing these.
Recruitment Manager, The Cooperative Group
• Technical interviews - If you have applied for a job or course that requires
technical knowledge, it is likely that you will be asked technical questions or
has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your final year
project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared
to prove yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that
you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you do not know the exact answer -
interviewers are interested in your thought process and logic.
• Academic interviews - These are used for further study or research positions.
Questions are likely to center on your academic history to date.
• Structured interviews - The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks
all the candidates the same questions.
• Formal/informal interviews - Some interviews may be very formal, while
others will feel more like an informal chat about you and your interests. Be
aware that you are still being assessed, however informal the discussion may
seem.
• Portfolio based interviews - If the role is within the arts, media or
communications industries, you may be asked to bring a portfolio of your
work to the interview, and to have an in-depth discussion about the pieces you
have chosen to include.
• Senior/case study interviews - These ranges from straightforward scenario
questions (e.g. ‘What would you do in a situation where…?’) to the detailed
analysis of a hypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your
analysis of the problem, how you identify the key issues, how you pursue a
particular line of thinking and whether you can develop and present an
appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview

The Screening Interview

Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification
requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified
candidates. (This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our
resume center for help.) Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers.
Screening interviewers often have honed skills to determine whether there is anything
that might disqualify you for the position. Remember-they does not need to know
whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether you are not a match. For
this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps in your
employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will
want to know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.

Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:

• Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications.

• Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the
screener as verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and
succinctly. Save your winning personality for the person making hiring
decisions!
• Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to
avoid giving specifics by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best
offer."
• If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with
your vital information sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the
interviewer catches you sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to
switch gears quickly.

The Informational Interview

On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the
informational interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is
underutilized by job-seekers who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the
merits of networking. Job seekers ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to
seek the advice of someone in their current or desired field as well as to gain further
references to people who can lend insight. Employers that like to stay apprised of
available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are often open to
informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel
flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them.
During an informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information
and get to know one another better without reference to a specific job opening.

This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:

• Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company.
• Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be
comfortable if you contact other people and use his or her name.
• Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume.
• Write a thank you note to the interviewer.

The Directive Style

In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows
unflinchingly. Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between
interviews; when interviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they
can more readily compare the results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own
questions and methods to tease from you what they wish to know. You might feel like
you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the conversation develops naturally.
Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominance issues, although you
should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your supervisor.

Either way, remember:

• Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead.

• Do not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does
not ask you for information that you think is important to proving your
superiority as a candidate, politely interject it.

The Meandering Style

This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead
the discussion. It might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which
you can use to your advantage. The interviewer might ask you another broad, open-
ended question before falling into silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to
guide the discussion in a way that best serves you.

The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly
important when interviewers use a non-directive approach:

• Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills,
qualities and experiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your
memory-jot down some notes that you can reference throughout the interview.
• Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's
seat and go in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's
role. If he or she becomes more directive during the interview, adjust.
• Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly
to shape the interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the
conversation means that you run the risk of missing important information
about the company and its needs.

Q6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading
Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to
ascertain reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most
appropriate? Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections.(10
marks).
Ans:

There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:
1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led
by your own critical thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what
has been written.
 Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each
group in turn and really think about what you want to achieve in presenting
them this way. This is your opportunity for showing that you did not take all
your reading at face value, but that you have the knowledge and skills to
interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation to each other,
particularly if there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a
particular area.
Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature
surrounding a topic is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the
concepts, language, terminology and conventions in the field. In the early
stages of your research you cannot be expected to have a fully developed
appreciation of the implications of all findings.
As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will
find it easier and more purposeful to ask questions as you read:
o What is this all about?
o Who is saying it and what authorities do they have?
o Why is it significant?
o What is its context?
o How was it reached?
o How valid is it?
o How reliable is the evidence?
o What has been gained?
o What do other authors say?
o How does it contribute?
o So what?
2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and
discussions with your supervisor during the searching and organising phases
of the cycle, you will eventually reach a final decision as to your own topic
and research design.
As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your
literature review will emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to
finalise your concept map, grouping linked items, ideas and authors into firm
categories as they relate more obviously to your own study.
 Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your
own intentions and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to
convey will help you decide the most appropriate structure.
A review can take many forms; for example:
o An historical survey of theory and research in your field
o A synthesis of several paradigms
o A process of narrowing down to your own topic
It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.
As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:
o An introduction
o A body
o A conclusion
The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be
explored.
The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and
subsections. The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major
authors in association with their main ideas and areas of debate. The section
then expands on these ideas and authors, showing how each relates to the
others, and how the debate informs your understanding of the topic. A short
conclusion at the end of each section presents a synthesis of these linked ideas.
The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from
each of your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your
own study. Later, when you come to write the discussion chapter of your
thesis, you should be able to relate your findings in one-to-one correspondence
with many of the concepts or questions that were firmed up in the conclusion
of your literature review.
3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct
quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing)
You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that
it is not data you generated yourself.
When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results
with reference to their source, for example:
 o 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded
positively.'
When using published data, you would say:
o 'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see
table 2).'
o 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of
subjects responded positively.'
In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the
same results on page 17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would
naturally substitute the name, date and page number for 'table 2'. In each case
it would be your voice introducing a fact or statement that had been generated
somewhere else.
You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks'
and your 'voice' provides the ‘mortar’, which determines how strong the wall
will be. In turn, this is significant in the assessment of the merit and rigor of
your work.
There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:
o Direct quote
o Paraphrase
o Summary
In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated
with the words in the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't
do this you would be in severe breach of academic convention, and might be
penalized. Your field of study has its own referencing conventions you should
investigate before writing up your results.
Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:
o 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast'.
If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to
enclose it, and it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect.
Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own
argument by silencing your critical view or voice.
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the
author's intended meaning:
 o As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be
indicated by the presence of cloud in the sky.
Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the authors
without being rigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the
original. You retain a degree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through
most strongly.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by
restating the main points in your own words and in the order in which you
found them. The original writing is 'described' as if from the outside, and it is
your own voice that is predominant:
o Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988)
predicted the likelihood of rain.
o Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be
expected as the result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted
the findings of Jones (1986).

4. Using appropriate language

Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are
dealing with the subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.
Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your
literature review, and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your
citations, you should find that your writing becomes more lucid and fluent
because you know what you want to say and how to say it.
The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the
writing, and on the context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-
specific requirements. However, there may still be some points of grammar
and vocabulary you would like to improve. If you have doubts about your
confidence to use the English language well, you can help yourself in several
ways:
o Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and
academics
o Look for specific language information in reference materials
 o Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be
available on your campus
Grammar tips - practical and helpful

The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.
Which tense should I use?
Use present tense:
o For generalizations and claims:
 The sky is blue.
o To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the
time of reading:
 I think therefore I am.
o For authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be
compared on equal terms with others:
 Smith (1988) suggests that...
o In referring to components of your own document:
 Table 2 shows...
Use present perfect tense for:
o Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to
the present:
 Several studies have attempted to...
Use simple past tense for:
o Completed events or actions:
 Smith (1988) discovered that...
Use past perfect tense for:
o Events which occurred before a specified past time:
 Prior to these findings, it had been thought that...
Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:
o Convey degrees of doubt
 This may indicate that ... this would imply that...
Other language tips
 o Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an
intellectual tone for the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to
read your mind!
o Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point.
o Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or more
ideas which may be linked with 'and', 'but', 'because', 'whereas' etc.
o Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or
those that show the interaction of two or more complex elements.
o Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information
more densely than verbs.
o Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are
highlighting the 'doer' or the 'done to' of the action.
o Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of
complex sentences in order to keep subject, verb and object in clear
view.
o Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of a research study

Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to
investigate something in particular.

Review of literature

So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and
what had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would
fit into the big picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be
different from anything done previously.

Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research
question clearly in mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known
research methods (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad
decision about which research paradigm I would work within (that is,
qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research
instrument to get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew I would have to
analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the instrument and my proposed method(s)
of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then I carried out the research study
and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my intended methods of
analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of
classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc).
It was then that I began to realise what I had found.

Findings/results
What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be
pinned down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from
these records, but in writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly
significant to make sure my readers did not miss it. For each display of results, I wrote
a corresponding summary of important observations relating only elements within my
own set of results and comparing only like with like. I was careful not to let my own
interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts -
just the facts. I dealt correctly with all inferential statistical procedures, applying tests
of significance where appropriate to ensure both reliability and validity. I knew that I
wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean as possible. They would
carry a great deal more credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took no
shortcuts and remained both rigorous and scholarly.

Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find
in the results that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had
some answers? What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted
the results correctly? Could there have been any other factors involved? Were my
findings supported or contested by the results of similar studies? Where did that leave
mine in terms of contribution to my field? Can I actually generalise from my findings
in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see myself as reinforcing existing
knowledge? And so what, after all? There were some obvious limitations to my study,
which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't become over-apologetic about the
things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating byways sadly left
behind. I have my memories...

Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate?
How did I end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to
be a few clear, succinct sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking
about. I'll wrap up with whatever generalizations I can make, and whatever
implications have arisen in my mind as a result of doing this thing at all. The more
you find out, the more questions arise. How I wonder what you are ... how I speculate.
OK, so where do we all go from here?
Three stages of research
1. Reading
2. Research design and implementation
3. Writing up the research report or thesis
Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.
Establishing good practice
1. Keep your research question always in mind.
2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.
3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic,
particularly to your hypothesis or research question.
4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.
5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.
6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind,
changes of mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc.
7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.
8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other
research data, remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or
unexpected occurrences at the time you notice them.
9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have
frameworks to fit findings into straightaway.
 10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the
start.
Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way
you will consider and store new information as it comes to light.