erst BIAS SYSTEM and chemically breaking down food into smaller, us- able compounds and absorbing and transporting these nutrients into the bloodstream for delivery to the individual cells of the body. This process provides the crucial raw ma terials and energy for all metabolic processes carried out by the organism, The extreme specialization of individual di- | gestive organs and the efficiency of the digestive process per- | mit mammals to sustain high metabolic rates and maintain | an endothermic balance without the need for constant con- sumption of food. Tz digestive system is responsible for mechanically HEAD, NECK AND ORAL CAVITY Be iin around the neck These glands should If these glands have been destroyed on your specimen, use another group's pig or ask your instructor a demonstration specimen available, Wi There are four pairs of salivary glands in the pig. First locate the parotid gland, lying ventral to the ear (Figures 4.14.2). Trace the parotid duct along the masseter muscle from this gland toward the mouth. The parotid duct catties digestive enzymes from the parotid gland into the oral cavity where they mix with food. Ventral to the parotid gland is the mandibular gland which also contributes to the production of saliva, Underneath the parotid gland there is a small, oval-shaped gland known as the submaxillary gland. The fourth salivary gland to identify is the sublingual gland which is flat and narrow and lies underneath the skin alongside the congue (Figure 4.2) The sublingual gland produces a mucosal component of saliva that travels through the sublingual duct along the ventral surface of the neck to the mouth, Saliva is a rather complex fluid that plays a critical role in the digestive process of mammals by lubricating the food and starting digestive chemical reactions. In humans and a few other mammals, amylase is a major enzyme released by these glands which is primarily responsible for the breakdown of starches, aeInternal and external Mandibular Lymph nodes ‘maxillary veins ‘land Lingual vein External maxillary vein Mandibular sland Lymph nodes — Incernal maxillary vein External jugular vein ‘Thymus Thymus External jugular vein a @ Ficuré 4.1 Photographs of head/neck region showing salivary glands, ventral view (a) and lateral view (b). Branches of the facal nerve Masseter muscle Internal maxillary vein Parotid duct Subtingual gland External maxillary veln Lymph nodes External jugular vein Mandibular gland Parotid gland @ Ficure 4.2 Lateral view of neck region showing salivary glands.Cuarrer Four ing your scalpel, make a ent from the corner of the head. This mouth toward the ear on each side of the pi will extend the opening of the mouth and allow you to r structures of the oral cavity. Angle your view the dee} incision along the l navgins of the mouth and de- press the lower jaw with your fing 8s Don't he afraid to ent too far; uswally if he structures indicated in the photograph (E 4.3), may need to use a pair you have not cut far enough. Ye mandible on each sich of heavy scissor ¢ of the oval cavity, If your pig is sufficiently mature, there will be teeth protrud- ing from the roof of the mouth (Figure 4.3), In this region of the mouth, the roof is comprised of a bony hard palate Nasopharyn Esophagus Glottis Epiglottis Ficure 4.3, Oral cavity of fetal pig, Dicesrive System ea separating the oral cavity from the nasal cavity above. Thi soft palate is a continuation caudally from the hard palate ‘This structure is more fleshy in its consistency. The adven of the complete secondary palate allowed mammals to ea and breath simultaneously — one characteristic that allow: mammals to have such a high metabolic rate, making endothermy possible, Just caudal to the soft palate is th elliptical opening to the nasopharynx. This chamber lead rostrally to the external nares. The opening to the esophagus should be visible. Next, locate the glottis, the opening intc the larynx. When the pig swallows, this opening is protectet by a thin flap of cartilage called the epiglottis. Slowly clos the oral cavity and notice how the glottis and epiglottis mee up with the opening to the nasopharynx. On the lower jaw locate the tongue. Notice that there are small bumps neat the tip and base of the tongue. These are called papillae and they help mammals manipulate food in their mouths. Canine Hard palate Soft palate Mandible (cut) Papilae (root) Tongue Papllae (fungiform)A Dissection Gusoe : ABDOMINAL CAVITY Use Figure 4.4 as a guide to make the necessary cuts through the muscle layers to expose the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity. USING SCISSORS, begin by making au incision from the base of the umbilical cord cranially along the ventral midline to the base of the chin (1). Next, make an incision around each side of the umbilical cord toward the anus (2). Then make lateral incisions in the abdomen just in front of the hips (3 and 4). Next, make lateral incisions along the base of the ribs & ATLAS 10 THE FETAL PIG toward each side (5 and 6), Finally, make lateral incisions to each side of the neck (7 and 8). Many preserved specimens contain large amounts of liquid preservatives in their body cavities. You may want to drain these ont of your specimen, or use a paper towel or sponge to re move them, before proceeding with the idemification of the digestive organs. You may also want to score the ribs with a scalpel along the sides of the body (see dashed line in Figure 4.4) and then crack them open to facilitate ‘access to the thoracic cavity. Use pins to secure the flaps of tissue to your dissecting pan to bold your pig open for identification of the underlying anatonty. IW Ficure 4.4 Diagram of incisions for exposing internal organs of male (a) and female (b) fetal pig.cua Dig A thin muscular layer (the diaphragm) separates the upper thoracic cavity from the lower abdominal cavity (Figures 4,5-4.6). The role of the diaphragm will be discussed in Chapter 6. For now, you should concentrate your efforts primarily on the structures in the abdominal cavity. Food thar is swallowed passes down the esophagus and into the stomach. The esophagus is a narrow tube containing smooth muscle that contracts to push food into the stomach. The stomach lies on the left side of the pig underneath the large, ‘Thyroid gland Heart Liver Umbitcal vein ‘Small intestine Gejunum) Urinary bladder Umbilical cord Syste. ee dark liver. I¢is a J-shaped sac that is responsible for storing large quantities of food. This relieves mammals of the nee« to eat constantly. A large stomach permits an animal to con sume greater quantities of food in a very short time spar and then retire to a safe place to digest the meal over severa hours. The stomach releases several chemical compound: that assist the digestive process including hydrochloric aci and pepsinogen. Larynx Brachial plexus Diaphragm Spleen Spiral colon Small intestine (eum) Umbilical artery BH Ficure 4.5 Ventral view depicting organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities; umbilical vein still intact.A Dissecrion Gujot @ Artas ro rw Ferat Pig Thyroid gland ae ver: Diaphragm Gallbladder ——— an Umbilical vein (cut) Spleen Urogenital opening (4) Pancreas Umbitcus Small Intestine ejunum) Spiral colon Cecum Umbilical artery Small Intestine (leum) Urinary bladder Penis Testes in scrotum WW Ficure 4.6 Ventral view depicting organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities; umbilical vein cut.Cuarren Four You will need to and look underneath the left side of th omach, Next, make an inc ip the umbilical vein with scissor ion along the caudal in of the stomach to expose it Notice that there are small folds of smooth muscle on the inside of the stomach wall. These are called rugae, and they help churn the food and mix it with chemical secretions The stomach empties its contents into the duodenum — the first portion of the small intestine. At this point, several Cystic artery laying on the cystie duet Digestive System [47 accessory glands empty digestive fluids into the duodenum Locate the liver, the largest organ in the abdominal region. In the pig, the liver has four distinct lobes. The liver is 3 multifunctional organ that contributes to many systems in the body. One function of the liver is to produce bile. Bile contains no digestive enzymes, but it does contain bile sats which assist in the breakdown of fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder which is located on the underside of the right lobe of the liver (Figures 4.6-4.7). Bile is released directly into the eystie duct which carries the bile into the common bile duct and then into the duodenum, Gallbladder Umbiicat vetn ver Cystic artery laying on the cystic duet Lymph nodes Hepatic porta vein Stomach (Caudal vena cava M Ficure 4.7 Gallbladder and common bile duct entering duodenum (a) and close-up of gallbladder showing arterial supply (b); with liver partially removed in both photos.Na multitobular liver and exasine the thin evily lift up he individual lobes of membranous attachments beturce be liver as well as between the lives 1e stomach aud paw cystic duet luodenun, creas, Locate the almost translucent, ti exiting the gallbladder aud trace it to the Now locate the pancreas, a whitish-yellow, elongated, granu- lar organ which is imbedded in the mesenteries that support the stomach (Figure 4.8). The pancreas is actually com- posed of two lobes, a left lobe which runs transversely across the body and a smaller, right lobe which runs longi- tudinally along che length of the duodenum (Figure 4.9) (Caudal vena cava (cut) Liver (partially removed) Umbilical vein (cut) Hepatic portal vein Branches of the cranfal mesenteric artery Small intestine (jejuni) A Dissection Guloe & ATLAS TO THE FerAL PIG The pancreas produces several kinds of digestive enzymes and hormones. The digestive enzymes travel through a small pancreatic duct and accessory duct and empty into the duo- denum (Figure 4.10). The duodenum receives the partially digested foodstuffs and enzyme mix, known as chyme, from the stomach, gallbladder and pancreas and is prima~ rily responsible for the final stages of enzymatic digestion. Food passes next into the jejunum, a region of the small intestine that is highly convoluted and tightly bound to- gether by mesentery (Figure 4.11). Absorption of nutrients and water occurs along the length of the jejunum and the nutrients are delivered to the circulatory system through the hundreds of small blood vessels found throughout the intes- tinal mesentery. If your pig has been injected with colored Hepatic veins Spleen Stomach Pancreas Spiral colon Mesenteric lymph nodes Small intestine (leur) BH Ficure 4.8 Photograph of ventral view of abdominal cavity with organs displaced to expose underlying structures (liver partially removed).Cuarrer Four D EN You will need look 10 snip the winbilical vein eath the left side of th New, fiver to locate alee an incision along the caudal ior Notice that there are small folds of smooth muscle on the inside of the stomach wall. These are called rugae, and they help churn the food and mix it with chemical secretions The stomach empties its contents into the duodenum — the first portion of the small intestine. At this point, several Gallbladder Cystic artery laying on the cystic duct cEstive System ae accessory glands empty digestive fluids into the duodenum, Locate the liver, the largest organ in the abdominal region. In the pig, the liver has four distinct lobes. The liver is a multifunctional organ that contributes to many systems in the body. One function of the liver is to produce bile. Bile contains no digestive enzymes, but it does contain bile salts which assist in the breakdown of fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder which is located on the underside of the right lobe of the liver (Figures 4,6-4.7), Bile is released directly into the eystic duct which carries the bile into the common bile duct and then into the duodenum. Gallbladder Umbitcal vein ver (Cystic artery laying con the cystic duet Lymph nodes Hepatic portal vein Stomach Caudal vena cava Wi Ficure 4.7 Gallbladder and common bile duct entering duodenum (a) and close-up of gallbladder showing arterial supply (6) with liver partially removed in both photos.A Dissection Guspe & Arias ro rwe Ferat Pic 1e mubilobular liver and examine the thin membranoss attachments between the indiv bes of 1e stomach aud pair the liver as well as between the live ent, tubular eystic duc e almost transh lade nas, Locate t Now locate the pancreas, a whitish-yellow, elongated, granu- lar organ which is imbedded in the mesenteries that support the stomach (Figure 4,8), The pancreas is actually com- posed of two lobes, a left lobe which runs transversely across the body and a smaller, right lobe which runs longi- tudinally along the length of the duodenum (Figure 4.9). ‘Caudal vena cava (cut) Liver (partially removed) Umbical vein (cut) Hepatic portal vein Branches of the cranial mesenteric artery Small intestine (jejunum) The pancreas produces several kinds of digestive enzymes and hormones. The digestive enzymes travel through a small pancreatic duet and accessory duct and empty into the duo- denum (Figure 4.10). The duodenum receives the partially digested foodstuffs and enzyme mix, known as chyme, from the stomach, gallbladder and pancreas and is prima~ rily responsible for the final stages of enzymatic digestion, Food passes next into the jejunum, a region of the small intestine that is highly convoluted and tightly bound to: gether by mesentery (Figure 4.11), Absorption of nutrients and water occurs along the length of the jejunum and the nutrients are delivered to the circulatory system through the hundreds of small blood vessels found throughout the intes- tinal mesentery. If your pig has been injected with colored Hepatic veins Spleen Stomach Pancreas Spiral colon Mesenteric lymph nodes mal WI Ficure 4.8 Photograph of ventral view of abdominal cavity with organs displaced to expose underlying structures (liver partially removed).Digestive Sysren Right lobe of the pancreas (head) Hepatic —3 : rE = Left lobe of postal vln f ? the pancreas ; (a) Small intestine (auodenum) Bi Ficure 4.9 Close-up of pancreas depicting left and right lobes on opposite sides of the hepatic portal vein. common bi ut V/ Hepatic porta vein Pancreatic duct Small intestine (duodenum) Left lobe of pancreas (eit) Duodenal ampullae ‘Accessory pancreatic duct 1 Ficure 4.10 Iustration of pancreatic duets and their connections to the duodenum, Right lobe of pancreas (bead)A Dissection Guspe & ATLAS to THE FETAL Pic Liver (reflected) Umbilical vein DB cs st of enters 10x Gallbladder ‘Common bile duct 10x Small intestine (éuodenum) Pancreas: Left lobe (tall) Right lobe (head) on ie et (cin (ends pages) fc = eee Spiral colon Small intestine: \ i PEO an no fejunum \ tleum Rectum BD seat isin Figure 4.11 Ilfustration of isolated digestive system (a) with histology photographs of esophagus (b), wall of stomach (c), pancreas (4), small intestine (e), large intestine (9.Cuarrer Four latex, these blood vessels should be readily apparent. Chyme continues into the distal portion of the small intestine known as the ileum where further nutrient absorption and water re absorption occur. Again, there are more blood vessels associ- ated with the mesentery of this region to deliver the nutrients to the circulatory system. At the juncture of the small intes- tine and the colon there is a small, blind-ended outpocket of the intestine known as the cecum (Figure 4.11), In carnivores and omnivores the cecum is very small and does not play a ‘major role in digestion, In fact in humans, the cecum has been reduced to a vestigial remnant we call the appendix. However, in herbivores the cecum is typically quite large and serves as a fermentation chamber where symbiotic bacteria and protozoans reside. These microorganisms produce an important enzyme which mammals lack (cellulase) that breaks down the cellulose in plant cell walls and allows the mammal’s own digestive enzymes access to the proteins and carbohydrates within the plant cell, Since pigs are omnivo- rous, the cecum is fairly reduced in this group of animals. The mixture passes from the cecum through the colon which is primarily responsible for water reabsorption, In Digestive System gE many mammals, the colon is divided into three region: based on their relative positions in the body: the ascending colon, the transverse colon and the descending colon, Func tionally they are identical. Because of its unusually long length, the transverse portion of the colon in pigs is tightly wound into what is more commonly referred to as the spi ral colon, Locate the descending portion of the colon that runs along the dorsal aspect of the abdominal cavity. Its distal portion is referred to as the rectum. The colon and rectum permit mammals to conserve valuable water and electrolytes and produce a dry feces. From the beginning of the digestive process, fluid-based chemicals have been mixed in with the food, At this point, most usable nutrients have been dissolved and absorbed by the duodenum, je- junum and ileum, and the water that was previously added by the body is now reabsorbed. The undigested food parti cles (feces) are finally egested from the body through the anus in a process known as defecation — not excretion! Specific functions of the digestive organs in the pig are sum- marized in Table 4.1, TABLE 4.1 Digestive organs in the fetal pig and their functions. Structures denoted with an asterisk (*) are accessory digestive organs. Food does not pass directly into these accessory organs; however, they do play a major role in the digestive process. Teeth Salivary glands* Mechanically breakdown food Sectete digestive enzymes (eg, amylase) to begin chemical breakdown of foods and lubricate food for swallowing Esophagus Stomach breakdown of food Duodenum Transports food to stomach Produces hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen that aid in the chemical Receives chyme from the stomach along with secretory enzymes from the gallbladder and pancreas, Liver Produces bile, converts glucose to glycogen for storage, det ’s many constituents of the absorbed digested compounds Gallbladder ‘Stores bile for breakdown of fats duct to Produces digestive enzymes and delivers them through pancre: duodenum Responsible for majority of nutrient absorption and reabsorption of water Pancreas Jelunum, eum Continues process of nutrient absorption and reabsorption of water In adult herbivores, a large structure containing anaerobic bacteria and protozoans responsible for breakdown of cellulose. This structure has a reduced appearance and function in carnivores and omnivores Responsible for reabsorption of water and electrolytes; produces feces Cecum Colon Rectum Final site of water reabsorption and feces production Anus Regulates egestion of undigested food (feces) from the body