Chapter 2 Chemistry

1. A solution is a mixture in which one or more substances are uniformly dissolved in

another substance. A solute is the substance dissolved in a solution. A solvent is the
substance in which a solute is dissolved.
2. Belongs in Chapter 3.
3.

4. Activation energy is the amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to star and
continue on its own.
5. A chemical reaction is the process of breaking chemical bonds, forming new bonds, or
both.
6. A catalyst us a chemical that reduces the amount of activation energy needed for a
reaction but is not a reactant. A reaction in the presence of the correct catalyst will
proceed spontaneously.
7. Enzymes are an important class of catalysts in living things. They are usually proteins
and a single organism can have thousands of different ones—each one tailor made for a
different chemical reaction.
8. A pH scale is a numeric range that quantifies the relative concentrations of hydronium
ions and hydroxide ions in a solution. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the
most acidic, 7 being neutral, and 14 being the most alkaline. Buffers are chemicals that
neutralize the effects of adding small amounts of either an acids or base to a solution;
they control the pH values in organisms.
9. The terms base and alkaline refers to a solution that contains more hydroxide ions.
10. The reactants are the compounds involved in a chemical reaction, which forms a product,
the compound formed by the reaction.

Chapter 3 Biochemistry
1. ._.
2. Proteins = monomers (building blocks) are amino acids joined together by peptide bonds
and proteins are used for various reasons in cell such as structure, defense, modification.
Carbohydrates = monomers are monosaccarides with the general formula of CH20.
Carbohydrates can be used for storage or energy or even for structure. Examples include
sugars and starches.
Nucleic Acids = RNA and DNA, the monomers of both of them are nucleotides and
nucleic acids are used to transfer their genetic information which codes for proteins. In
other words, they code for production of specific proteins.
Lipids = Includes glycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. The main important point of
lipids is that they are all virtually hydrophobic and nonpolar. Lipids are extremely good
in storing energy and that is their main function. They do not really have a monomer,
though fatty acids do make up a main part of glycerides.
3. The building block of any protein is the amino acid, which has an amino end (NH2) and a
carboxyl end (COOH).
4. The molecules that are make up of glucose are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
5. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains information that is used in the development and
functioning of all living organisms. RNA (ribonucleic acid) stores and transfers
information that is essential for the manufacturing of proteins. Both are polymers,
composed of thousands of linked monomers called nucleotides.
 6. Lipids are a kind of organic compound that is insoluble in water, such as fats and
steroids. Fatty acids are unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. Lipid
molecules have a higher ratio of carbon and oxygen atoms than carbohydrates. They store
energy efficiently. The two ends of a fatty acid molecule have different properties:
carboxyl end is hydrophilic and the hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and hydrophobic. *polar
compound – compound with one side having a negative charge and the other side a
positive charge.
7. The element found in organic compounds is carbon, which bonds to oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and as well as other carbon atoms. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are the
elements mostly found in organic compounds.
8. The organic molecule that is most closely related to proteins (organic compounds
composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen) are amino acids. Amino acids are
the monomer building blocks of proteins. They share a basic structure. The main
difference is in the R group, which gives the different proteins very different shapes to
perform different roles.
9. A carbohydrate is an organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a
ratio of 2H to O. The number of carbon atoms varies.
10. The difference between a polymer and a monomer is that is a monomer is a single
structure and has low molecular weight, while a polymer consists of several monomers.
11. Polysaccharides are relatively complex carbohydrates. They are polymers made up of
many monosaccarides joined together by glycosidic bonds. They are therefore very large,
often branched, macromolecules. They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and
have no sweet taste. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates. They cannot be
hydrolyzed into simpler sugars. They consist of one sugar and are usually colorless,
water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccarides have a sweet taste.
12. Carbon has a few unique bonding properties. The biggest one is its ability to form long
chains of carbon. No other elements on the periodic table do this. The reason carbon can
is because their bonds are extremely strong. This allows carbon to make up many of the
basic building blocks of life (fats, sugars, etc). Also, because carbon makes four bonds, it
is able to create many different forms of isomers. This means that carbon molecules can
connect in the same way, but be different molecules because they are mirror images of
each other. This occurs most commonly in sugars and amino acids. No other element
naturally does this near as much as carbon.
13. The chemical which animals store glucose is ATP. ATP is the major source of energy for
cellular reactions.
14.

15.

16. Amino acids are the monomers of polypeptide chains, so they build/make up proteins.

Chapter 4 Structure and Function of the Cell

1. The cell theory states that 1) all living things are composed of one or more cells. 2) Cells
are the basic units of structure and functions in an organism 3) cells only come from the
reproduction of existing cells.
2. Catalysts are chemicals that reduce the amount of activation energy, but are not reactants.
A catalyst helps make a reaction go forward faster or slower but a catalyst is not
consumed by the reaction itself. The catalyst may participate in multiple chemical
transformations. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts
that slow down the reaction are called negative catalysts or inhibitors.
3. Enzymes are organic molecules that act as catalysts and they are essential for the
functioning of any cell. Most enzymes are proteins. Enzyme reactions depend on a
physical fit between the enzyme molecule and its substrate, the reactant being catalyzed.
The enzyme and substrate have shapes that allow them to fit together like a lock and key.
The linkage of the enzyme and substrate causes a slight change in the enzyme’s shape.
This shape change allows the enzyme to conform to the shape of the substrate. The
enzyme itself does not change so it can be used many times. An enzyme may fail to work
if its environment changes.
4. Inside of the nucleus, you will find a nucleolus, which serves as a "control center" for the
nucleus and DNA, which is responsible for gene transcription and protein making.
5. The nucleus of a cell contains the majority of the cell’s genetic information and directs
most of the activities of the cell.
6. Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and other
organelles. Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not have membrane bound
organelles. They are placed in two kingdoms, separate from eukaryotes.
7.

8. The Golgi apparatus is the cell’s processing, packaging, and secreting organelle.
9. Lysosomes digest organic compounds, old cell parts and other materials.
10. The endoplasmic reticulum functions as a path along which molecules move from one
part of the cell to another.
11. Mitochondria are the sites of chemical reactions that transfer energy from organic
compounds to ATP.
12. Vacuoles store enzymes and metabolic wastes.
13. Ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins.
14. Chloroplasts are the organelles in a plant cell in which the energy of sunlight is converted
into chemical energy in organic compounds.
15. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes which smooth ER is not. Rough
ER is prominent in cells that make large amounts of proteins to be exported from the cell
or inserted into the cell membrane. Smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of steroids in
gland cells, the regulation of calcium levels in muscle cells and the breakdown of toxic
substances by liver cells.
16. Cell walls are located around plant cells, in which the rigidity of cell walls helps
support and protect the plant.
17. The cell membrane controls what goes in or out of the cell.
18. A) Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to one
of lower concentration. This movement occurs because the molecules are constantly
colliding with one another. The net movement of the molecules is away from the region
of high concentration to the region of low concentration. Diffusion is a random
 movement of molecules down the pathway called the concentration gradient. Molecules
are said to move down the concentration gradient because they move from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. B) Osmosis is the movement of
water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Osmosis often
occurs across a membrane that is semipermeable. Osmosis is really a type of diffusion
involving only water molecules. C) Facilitated diffusion is when certain proteins in the
membrane assist facilitated diffusion by permitting only certain molecules to pass across
the membrane. The proteins encourage movement in the direction that diffusion would
normally take place, from a region with a higher concentration of molecules to a region
of lower concentration. D) Endocytosis, a process in which a small patch of the
membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of fluid that is at or near the cell surface.
The membrane enclosure then sinks into the cytoplasm and pinches off from the
membrane, forming a vesicle. When the vesicle contains particles, the process is called
phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains fluid, the process is called pinocytosis.
Endocytosis ensures that the internal cellular environment will be able to exchange
materials with the external environment and that the cell will continue to function.
19. In an environment that is isotonic to the cytosol, the cell keeps its normal shape—round
and dimpled. In a hypertonic environment, the cell loses water and becomes shriveled. In
a hypotonic environment, the cell gains water and swells.
20. When active transport is taking place, a protein moves a certain material across the
membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.
Because this movement is happening against the concentration gradient, the cell must
expend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine triphosphate or
ATP. When passive transport is taking place, substances move across the cell membrane
without the use of cell energy.

Chapter 6 Photosynthesis
1. The gas given off by photosynthesis is oxygen.
2. The starting materials for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, sunlight & energy.
3. The products of photosynthesis are organic compounds and
4. Full balanced equation of photosynthesis: 6(CO2) + 6(H2O)→C6H12O6 + 6(O2)
5. A pigment is a compound that absorbs certain colors of light and reflects or transmits the
other colors.
6. The pigment that makes plants green is chlorophyll because they do not absorb green
light.
7. The light reactions of photosynthesis begin with the absorption of light by chlorophyll a
and accessory pigments in the thylakoids. Chlorophyll a absorbs less blue and more red
lights, while chlorophyll b absorbs the opposite. Neither absorbs much green light, for
they allow green light to be reflected or transmitted. Chlorophyll b (the accessory
pigment) assists chlorophyll a in capturing light.
8. The products of the light independent reactions are oxygen, ATP & NAPDH.
9. The Calvin Cycle takes place within the stroma of chloroplast. The Calvin Cycle is the
reaction in plants, which result in formation of the glucose molecule. Photosynthesis is
divided up into the Light reactions and the Calvin Cycle. The Calvin Cycle's whole
existence is to produce sugar. The Calvin cycle is powered by NADPH and ATP, which
come from the light reactions.
10. Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are basically the plant’s environment: light
intensity, carbon dioxide, temperature & water.
Chapter 7 Cell Respiration
1. The equation for cellular respiration is
2. The gas related to cellular respiration is oxygen.
3. Aerobic process occurs when oxygen is present while an anaerobic process operates in
the absence of oxygen.
4. Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of cells. Glycolysis is a metabolic process that
breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid
or lactic acid and releases energy for the body in the form of ATP.
5. During glycolysis, one 6-carbon molecule of glucose is oxidized to produce 2-carbon
molecules to produce pyruvic acid, a colorless acid formed as an important intermediate
in metabolism or fermentation. Oxidization is the process of oxidizing; the addition of
oxygen to a compound with a loss of electrons; always occurs accompanied by reduction.
6. The ATP net gain during glycolysis has two ATP molecules for every molecule of
glucose that is converted into pyruvic acid.
7. Fermentation is a set of anaerobic pathways in which pyruvic acid is converted into other
organic molecules in the cytosol. Fermentation does not produce ATP, but it regenerates
NAD+, which helps keep glycolysis operating.
8. The products of glycolysis are 2 ATP molecules & 4 NAPH molecules.
9. The two types of fermentation are lactic acid and alcoholic.
10. In lactic acid fermentation, an enzyme converts pyruvic acid into lactic acid, a chemical
that is formed when sugars are broken down for energy in the absence of adequate
oxygen. In alcoholic fermentation, other enzymes convert pyruvic acid into ethyl alcohol,
the intoxicating agent in fermented and distilled liquors, and carbon dioxide.
11. If oxygen is present, the process which follows glycolysis is aerobic respiration, a cellular
respiration that requires oxygen. During aerobic respiration, oxygen accepts both protons
and electrons from the electron transport chain. As a result, oxygen is converted to water.
It also produces 20 times as much ATP as is produced by glycolysis alone.
12. The Krebs cycle is a biochemical pathway that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
The starting molecule for this process is acetyl CoA to combine with oxaloacetic acid, to
produce citric acid.
13. Each turn of the Krebs cycle generates 3 NADH, one FADH2, one ATP, and two CO2
molecules.
14. The gas necessary to make electron transport work is oxygen.
15. The process of anaerobic respiration is relatively less energy yielding as compared to the
aerobic respiration process. Anaerobic respiration breaks down one glucose molecule to
obtain two units of the energy storing ATP molecules.
16. A multicellular, anaerobic organism is any organism that does not require oxygen for
growth. It could possibly react negatively and may even die if oxygen is present.
17. The equations of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are opposites, if glucose is a
product. The products of photosynthesis are reactants in aerobic respiration, and the
products of aerobic respiration are reactants in photosynthesis. However, they are not the
reverse of each other. The two processes involve different biochemical pathways and
occur at different sites inside cells.