Contents

Articles
Landform 1
Mountain 2
Mountain range 8
Plateau 10
Hill 12
Valley 16
Plain 22
Tundra 24
Ice sheet 28
River 30
River delta 37
Lake 41
Meander 51
Waterfall 58
Rapid 63
Canyon 64
Channel (geography) 68
Alluvial fan 69
Beach 71
Cave 76
Cliff 84
Floodplain 92
Levee 95
Oasis 99
Swamp 102
Pond 105
Arête 108
Cirque 110
Esker 112
Fjord 115
Glacier 122
Tunnel valley 137
Atoll 148
Bay 152
Coast 153
Continental shelf 160
Coral reef 163
Estuary 182
Lagoon 188
Oceanic trench 190
List of peninsulas 199
Isthmus 213
Island 216
Seamount 219
Volcano 228
Caldera 244
Crater Lake 251
Geyser 255
Hotspot (geology) 265
Mid-ocean ridge 272
Lava plain 277
Volcanic plateau 277
Volcanic crater 278
Volcanic plug 280
Wall rock 282
Lava dome 283
Submarine volcano 286
Guyot 288
Desert 289
Dry lake 299
Dune 302
Sandhill 313
Building 314
Bridge 318
Canal 328
Dam 336
Reservoir 351
Polder 359
Artificial island 363
Quarry 365
Ditch 367
Land reclamation 368
 Mine reclamation 372

References
Article Sources and Contributors 373
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 387

Article Licenses
License 401
Landform 1

Landform
A landform or physical feature in the earth sciences and geology sub-fields, comprises a geomorphological unit,
and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such, is typically
an element of topography. Landform elements also include seascape and oceanic waterbody interface features such
as bays, peninsulas, seas and so forth, including sub-aqueous terrain features such as submersed mountain ranges,
volcanoes, and the great ocean basins.

Physical characteristics
Landforms are categorised by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification,
rock exposure, and soil type.
Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such as berms, mounds, hills, ridges, cliffs, valleys,
rivers, peninsulas and numerous other structural and size-scaled (i.e. ponds vs. lakes, hills vs. mountains) elements
including various kinds of inland and oceanic waterbodies and sub-surface features.

This panorama in Great Smoky Mountains National Park has the readily identifiable physical features of a rolling
plain, actually part of a broad valley, distant foothills, and a backdrop of the old much weathered Appalachian
mountain range

Hierarchy of classes
Oceans and continents exemplify the highest-order landforms. Landform elements are parts of a high-order
landforms that can be further identified and systematically given a cohesive definition such as hill-tops, shoulders,
saddles, foreslopes and backslopes.
Some generic landform elements including: pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools and plains, may be extracted
from a digital elevation model using some automated techniques where the data has been gathered by modern
satellites and stereoscopic aerial surveillance cameras.[1] Until recently, compiling the data found in such data sets
required time consuming and expensive techniques of many man-hours.
Terrain (or relief) is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. Topography is the study of terrain, although the
word is often used as a synonym for relief itself. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used.
In cartography, many different techniques are used to describe relief, including contour lines and TIN (Triangulated
irregular network).
Elementary landforms (segments, facets, relief units) are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface, at
the given scale/resolution. These are areas with relatively homogenous morphometric properties, bounded by lines of
discontinuity. A plateau or a hill can be observed at various scales ranging from few hundred meters to hundreds of
kilometers. Hence, the spatial distribution of landforms is often scale-dependent as is the case for soils and
Landform 2

geological strata.
A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition, can generate and affect landforms.
Biological factors can also influence landforms— for example, note the role of vegetation in the development of
dune systems and salt marshes, and the work of corals and algae in the formation of coral reefs.
Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such
as deserts, forests, grasslands, and impact craters.
Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet Earth, and can be used to describe surface
features of other planets and similar objects in the Universe. Examples are mountains, polar caps, and valleys, which
are found on all of the terrestrial planets.

References
[1] Robert A. MacMillan, David H. McNabb, R. Keith Jones (September, 2000). "Conference paper: "Automated landform classification using
DEMs"" (http:/ / www. colorado. edu/ research/ cires/ banff/ pubpapers/ 198/ ). . Retrieved 2008-06-26.

Mountain
A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding
land in a limited area usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is
generally steeper than a hill. The adjective montane is used to describe
mountainous areas and things associated with them. The study of
mountains is called Orography.
Exogeology deals with planetary mountains, which in that branch of
science are usually called montes (singular—mons). The highest
mountain on Earth based from sea level is Mount Everest (8848 m
(29029 ft)) in the Himalayas of Asia. The highest known mountain in
the Solar System is Olympus Mons on the planet Mars at 21171 m
(69459 ft).

The Matterhorn, Swiss Alps

Mountain 3

Five Finger Mountain, Azerbaijan

Definition
There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation,
volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as
criteria for defining a mountain.[1] In the Oxford English Dictionary a
mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising
more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an
altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or
notable."[1]

Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on usage among

the local people. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is
called Mount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m (980 ft),
which makes it ten feet short of the minimum for a mountain in
American appellation<needs citation>. Similarly, Mount Scott outside
Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251 m (823 ft) from its base to its highest
point.
The view of Jeff Davis Peak from the
glacier-carved summit of Wheeler Peak, Nevada.
Because Boundary Peak, Nevada is partially in
California, and is actually a sub-peak of
Montgomery Peak, the shorter Wheeler Peak can
be considered the tallest mountain in Nevada.

Definitions of "mountain" include:[2]

• Height over base of at least 2500 m (8202 ft).
• Height over base of 1500 m (4921 ft).–2500 m (8202 ft). with a slope greater than 2 degrees
• Height over base of 1000 m (3281 ft).–1500 m (4921 ft). with a slope greater than 5 degrees
• Local (radius 7000 m (22966 ft). elevation greater than 300 m (984 ft)., or 300 m (984 ft)–1000 m (3281 ft). if
local (radius 7000 m (22966 ft). elevation is greater than 300 m (984 ft).
By this definition <ambiguous>, mountains cover 64% of Asia, 25% of Europe, 22% of South America, 17% of
Australia, and 3% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous and 10% of people live in
mountainous regions.[3] Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity
depends on mountains for water.[4] [5]
Mountain 4

Characteristics
Tall mountains reach into the colder layers of the atmosphere. They are
consequently subject to glaciation, and erosion through frost action.
Such processes produce the peak shape. Some of these mountains have
glacial lakes, created by melting glaciers; for example, there are an
estimated 3,000 glacial lakes in Bhutan. Mountains can be eroded and
weathered, altering their characteristics over time.

Mountain in Carbon County, Utah

Tall mountains have different climatic conditions at the top than at the
base, and will thus have different life zones at different altitudes. At
the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be
present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra.[6] Just below the
tree line, one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can
withstand cold, dry conditions.[7] In regions with dry climates, the
tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower
temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which in turn lead to
differing flora and fauna.[6] [8] Some plants and animals found in these
Mount Olympus in Greece
zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a
particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements
or dispersal. On the other hand, birds, being capable of flight, may take advantage of montane habitats and migrate
into a region that would otherwise not provide appropriate habitat.[9] These isolated ecological systems, or
microclimates, are known as sky islands.[10]

The reason mountains are colder than lowlands has to do with how the sun heats the surface of the Earth. Practically
all the heat at the surface of the Earth comes from the sun, in the form of solar energy. The sun's radiation is
absorbed by land and sea, whence the heat is transferred into the air. Air is an insulator, so conduction of heat from
the ground to the atmosphere is negligible. Heat is mainly transferred into the atmosphere through convection and
radiation. Warm air rises because of its buoyancy, leading to convective circulation, in the form of thermals, within
the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere. When heat radiates from the surface of the earth, it is released as
long-wave radiation, which does not travel through the air efficiently. This radiant heat is absorbed temporarily by
gasses in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Thus, the lower portion of the troposphere—more
than 50% of all air lies below the altitude of the summit of Mt. Everest—forms a blanket of air keeping the surface
warm. This is the Greenhouse Effect. The higher one goes in altitude, the less of this blanket there is to keep in the
heat. Thus, higher elevations, such as mountains, are colder than surrounding lowlands.[11] Air temperature in the
lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, decreases with gains in altitude. The rate at which the temperature
drops with elevation, called the environmental lapse rate, is not constant (it can fluctuate throughout the day or
seasonally and also regionally), but a normal lapse rate is 5.5°C per 1,000 m (3°F per 3,000 ft).[12] [13] The
temperature continues to drop up to a height of about 9–16 km, where it does not decrease further. However, this is
higher than the highest mountaintop.
Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands; the weather is often harsher, and there is
little level ground suitable for agriculture. At very high altitudes, there is less oxygen in the air and less protection
against solar radiation (UV). Acute mountain sickness (caused by hypoxia—a lack of oxygen in the blood) affects
over half of lowlanders who spend more than a few hours above 3500 metres (11480 ft).
Mountain 5

Many mountains and mountain ranges throughout the world have been left in their natural state, and are today
primarily used for recreation, while others are used for logging, mining, grazing, or see little use. Some mountains
offer spectacular views from their summits, while others are densely wooded. Summit accessibility is affected by
height, steepness, latitude, terrain, weather. Roads, lifts, or tramways affect accessibility. Hiking, backpacking,
mountaineering, rock climbing, ice climbing, downhill skiing, and snowboarding are recreational activities enjoyed
on mountains. Mountains that support heavy recreational use (especially downhill skiing) are often the locations of
mountain resorts.
Mountains are made up of earth and rock materials. The outermost layer of the Earth or the Earth's crust is composed
of seven primary plates. When two plates move or collide each other, vast land areas are uplifted, resulting in the
formation of mountains.

Types
Classified by the geological processes that shape them, there are five major types of mountains:
Fold mountains
Fold mountains are the most common type of mountains.
They are formed due to collision of two plates, causing
folding of the Earth's crust. The fold that descends on both
sides is called anticline; whereas, the fold that ascends from
a common low point (on both sides) is called syncline.
Examples of fold mountains are the Himalayas of Asia and
the Alps in Europe.

Fault-Block mountains Left to right: Mount Everest, Lhotse and Ama Dablam
in the Himalayas
As the name suggests, fault-block mountains or fault
mountains are formed when blocks of rock materials slide
along faults in the Earth's crust. There are two types of block mountains, namely the lifted and tilted. Lifted
mountains have two steep sides; whereas, the tilted type has one steep side and a gentle sloping side. Examples
of fault-block mountains are found in the Sierra Nevada mountain range of the western United States.
Volcanic mountains
Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic eruptions
where magma piles up on the surface of the Earth. Examples
of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines.
Dome mountains
Dome mountains are formed when the hot magma rises from
the mantle and uplifts the overlying sedimentary layer of the
Earth's crust. In the process, the magma is not erupted, but it Mount Kilimanjaro, 5895 metres (19341 ft), Tanzania

cools down and forms the core of the mountain. They are
called dome mountains due to their appearance that resembles a dome shape. Example of a dome mountain is
Navajo Mountain in the U.S. state of Utah.

Plateau mountains
Plateau mountains are pseudo mountains that are formed because of erosion. They usually occur near folded
mountain ranges. An example of a plateau mountain is the Catskill Mountains in the U.S. state of New York.
Some mountains are formed as a result of several of the Earth's forces. Though the Rockies in North America is
formed due to folding, there are mountains in the same range that are formed by faulting and doming. In nature, there
Mountain 6

is a continuous process of glaciation, soil erosion, and mechanical and chemical weathering, which altogether play a
major role in altering the shape and characteristics of mountains.

Geology
A mountain is usually produced by the movement of lithospheric
plates, either orogenic movement or epeirogenic movement.
Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter
forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the
surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or,
if higher and steeper, a mountain. The absolute heights of features
termed mountains and hills vary greatly according to an area's terrain.
The major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating
The Himalayan mountain range with Mount
tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Two types of mountain are
Everest
formed in this way depending on how the rock reacts to the tectonic
forces, — fold mountains or fault-block mountains. Other mountain
building processes include volcanoes and sea floor spreading.

Fold mountains
Compressional forces in continental collisions may cause the compressed region to thicken and fold, with material
forced both upwards and downwards. Since the less dense continental crust "floats" (cf iceberg) on the denser mantle
rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be
balanced by the buoyancy force (see isostasy) of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the
continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains ( sometimes called "mountain roots"),[14] compared to
lower lying areas. However, in many continental collisions (e.g. the Himalayas) part of one continent may simply
override the other, crumpling in the process with the overridden crust forming much of the support. Mountains may
similarly be partly supported by oceanic crust subducted beneath the continental crust (e.g. the Andes as the Nazca
plate flows beneath the South American Plate).

Fault-block mountain
Block mountains are created when large areas are widely broken up by
faults creating large vertical displacements. This occurrence is fairly
common. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The
intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or
form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen
in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western
North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the
regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.

Rock that does not fault may fold, either symmetrically or Blue Ridge Mountains in Shenandoah National
asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are Park, Virginia, USA
synclines: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and
overturned folds. The Jura Mountains are an example of folding. Over time, erosion can bring about an inversion of
relief: the soft upthrust rock is worn away so the anticlines are actually lower than the tougher, more compressed
rock of the synclines.
Mountain 7

Volcanoes
Some isolated mountains are produced by volcanoes, including many apparently small islands or seamounts that
reach a great height above the ocean floor.

Mid-ocean ridges
The mid-ocean ridges formed during sea-floor spreading are often referred to as undersea mountain ranges due to
their bathymetric prominence.

Notes
[1] Gerrard, A. J. 1990. Mountain Environments
[2] Blyth, S., Groombridge, B., Lysenko, I., Miles, L. & Newton, A. (2002). "Mountain Watch" (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ mountains/
mountain_watch/ pdfs/ WholeReport. pdf). UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. . Retrieved 2009-02-17.
[3] Panos (2002). "High Stakes" (http:/ / www. panos. org. uk/ ?lid=278). . Retrieved 2009-02-17.
[4] "International Year of Freshwater 2003" (http:/ / www. wateryear2003. org/ en/ ev. php-URL_ID=3903& URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&
URL_SECTION=201. html). . Retrieved 2006-12-07.
[5] "The Mountain Institute" (http:/ / www. mountain. org/ mountains/ whymtns. cfm?slidepage=water). . Retrieved 2006-12-07.
[6] "Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: C. Hart Merriam and the Life Zones Concept" (http:/ / cpluhna. nau. edu/ Biota/ merriam.
htm). . Retrieved 30 January 2010.
[7] "Tree". Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2002. 60210-442-1635445-74407.
[8] "Mountain Environments" (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ mountains/ mountain_watch/ pdfs/ mountainEnvironments. pdf). United Nations
Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. . Retrieved 30 January 2010.
[9] Taylor, Richard Cachor (2005). A Birder's Guide to Southeastern Arizona. American Birding Association. pp. 2–4. ISBN 1-878788-22-1.
[10] Tweit, Susan J. (1992). The Great Southwest Nature Factbook. Alaska Northwest Books. pp. 138–141. ISBN 0-88240-434-2.
[11] Lutgens, Frederick K.; Tarbuck, Edward J. (1998). The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology. Prentice Hall. pp. 15–17, 30–35,
38–40. ISBN 0-13-742974-6.
[12] "Temperature". Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2002. 60210-442-1635445-74407.
[13] "Atmosphere". Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2002. 60210-442-1635445-74407.
[14] Press, Frank and Siever, Raymond, Earth, W. H. Freeman, 4th ed., 1985, p. 413 ISBN 978-0716717430

Further reading
• Fraknoi, A., Morrison, D., & Wolff, S. (2004). Voyages to the Planets. 3rd Ed. Belmont: Thomson Books/Cole.
Mountain range 8

Mountain range
A mountain range is a single, large mass
consisting of a succession of mountains or
narrowly spaced mountain ridges, with or
without peaks, closely related in position,
direction, formation, and age; a component
part of a mountain system or of a mountain
chain.[1] Other definitions may include a
mountain system which is a group of
mountain ranges exhibiting certain unifying
features, such as similarity in form,
structure, and alignment, and presumably
originating from the same general causes;
esp. a series of ranges belonging to an
The Himalayas, the world's highest mountain range, seen from space.
orogenic belt.[2] A mountain system or
system of mountain ranges sometimes is
used to combine several geological features
that are geographically (regionally) related.

Mountain ranges are usually segmented by

highlands or mountain passes and valleys.
Individual mountains within the same
mountain range do not necessarily have the
same geology, though they often do; they
may be a mix of different orogeny, for
example volcanoes, uplifted mountains or
fold mountains and may, therefore, be of
different rock.
The Ocean Ridge, the world's longest mountain range (chain), by USGS.

Major ranges
The Himalaya Range contains the highest mountains on the Earth's surface, the highest of which is Mount Everest.
The world's longest mountain system is known as Ocean Ridge, which is a chain of mountains that runs on the
seafloor of five oceans around the world; it has a length of 65000 kilometres (40400 mi), and the total length of the
system is 80000 kilometres (49700 mi). The Andes is the world's longest mountain system on the surface of a
continent; it is 7000 kilometres (4300 mi) in length. To clarify, the Andes is the world's
Mountain range 9

largest chain of mountains above sea level.

The Arctic Cordillera is the world's
northernmost mountain system and contains
the highest point in eastern North America.

Divisions and Categories

The mountain systems of the earth are
characterized by a tree structure, that is,
many mountain ranges have sub-ranges
within them. It can be thought of as a
parent-child relationship. For example, the
Appalachian Mountains range is the parent
of other ranges it comprises, some of which
are the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge
Mountains. The White Mountains are a child
of the Appalachians, and there are also
children of the Whites, including the
Sandwich Range and the Presidential Range.
Further, the Presidential Range can be
broken up into the Northern Presidential
Range and Southern Presidential Range.

The Andes, the world's longest mountain range on the surface of continent, seen
Climate from the air.

The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains,
the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms
again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a
rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.
A mountain's location also affects temperature. If the sun is shining from the east, then the eastern side of the
mountain will receive sunlight and warmth, while the other side will be shaded and cooled, so certain ecosystems
maintain different biological clocks depending on the location of a mountain.

Erosion
Uplifted regions or volcanic caps can undergo erosion, which makes them move resulting in a range of mountains.
An example is the English Lake District. Mountain streams carry erosion debris downhill and deposit it in alluvial
plains or in deltas. This forms the classical geological chain of events, leading to one type of sedimentary rock
formation: erosion, transportation, deposition and compaction.

References
[1] Mountain range definition by the dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms (http:/ / www. webref. org/ geology/ m/ mountain_range.
htm) (English)
[2] Mountain range definition by the dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms (http:/ / www. webref. org/ geology/ m/ mountain_range.
htm) (English)
Mountain range 10

External links
• Peakbagger Ranges Home Page (http://www.peakbagger.com/rangindx.aspx)

Plateau
In geology and earth science, a plateau (pronounced /ˈplætəʊ/), also
called a high plain or tableland, is an area of highland, usually
consisting of relatively flat terrain. A highly eroded plateau is called a
dissected plateau. A volcanic plateau is a plateau produced by volcanic
activity.
Plateaus can be formed by a number of processes, including, upwelling
of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava, and erosion by water and
glaciers. Magma rises from the mantle causing the ground to swell Island in the Sky, Canyonlands National Park
upward, in this way large, flat areas of rock are uplifted. Plateaus can
also be built up by lava spreading outwards from cracks and weak
areas in the crust, an example of such a plateau is the Columbia Plateau
in the northwestern United States of America. Plateaus can also be
formed due to the erosional processes of glaciers on mountain ranges,
in this case the plateaus are left sitting between the mountain ranges.
Water can also erode mountains and other landforms down into
plateaus.

Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment,

common categories are: intermontane, piedmont, and continental
plateaus. Monte Roraima

• Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world, these plateaus

are bordered by mountains. The Tibetan plateau is one such plateau.
• Piedmont plateaus are bordered on one side by mountains and on the other by a plain or sea.
• Continental plateaus are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas, form away from mountains.
Plateau 11

Major plateaus of the world

The largest and highest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau, called the "roof of the world", which is still being
formed by the collisions of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates. In all the Tibetan plateau covers an area
of some 2.5 million square kilometres which is approximately 5000 m above sea level. The height of this plateau is
such that it is enough to reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles and to drive the monsoons of India towards the
south.
The second-largest current plateau in the world is the Antarctic
Plateau, which covers most of the central part of Antarctica. In that
region of Antarctica, there are no mountains that we know of, but
rather, there are 3000 meters or more of ice - which very slowly
spreads towards its coastline via enormous glaciers. This ice cap is so
massive that echo location sound measurements of the thickness of the
ice have shown that large parts of the "dry land" surface of Antarctica
have been pressed below sea level. Thus, if the icecap were somehow
removed, large areas of Antarctica would be flooded by the oceans. On
Bogotá, Colombia is located in a high plateau,
the other hand - more realistically - if that icecap were to gradually
over 8600 ft (2600 m) high
melt away, the surface of the land beneath it would gradually rebound
away from the center of the Earth, and that land would become land
above sea level.

The third-largest plateau in the world is probably the one in South America that lies in the middle of the Andes
Mountains. This Andean Plateau covers most of Bolivia, central Ecuador, central Peru, northern Chile and northern
Argentina.

Major plateaus of North America

In North America, the largest plateau is the Colorado Plateau covering an area of about 337000 square kilometres (
sq mi) in Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico.[1]
The Colorado Plateau in northern Arizona and southern Utah is bisected by the valley of the Colorado River and the
Grand Canyon. How this came to be is that over 10 million years ago, a river was already there, though not
necessarily on exactly the same course. Then, subterranean geological forces caused the land in that part of North
America to gradually rise by about a centimeter per year for millions of years. An unusual balance occurred: the river
that would become the Colorado River was able to erode its way down into the crust of the Earth just as fast as the
land rose. Now, millions of years later, the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is at an elevation of about 3000 meters
above sea level, and the South Rim of the Grand Canyon is about 2500 meters above sea level. At its deepest, the
Colorado River is about 1600 meters below the level of the North Rim.
The southern edge of the plateau in northern Arizona is called the Mogollon Rim, where the elevation of the land
starts declining rather steeply into central Arizona. This Mogollon Rim is located about 50 kilometers south of these
cities and towns: Flagstaff, Holbrook, Sedona, Winslow, and Williams, Arizona. Because of the snowy plateau and
the San Francisco Mountains to its north, the Mogollian Rim area is prominient for its many natural springs and
artesian wells.
Plateau 12

References
[1] Leighty, Dr. Robert D. (2001). "Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province" (http:/ / www. tec. army. mil/ publications/ ifsar/ lafinal08_01/
five/ 5. 1. 5_frame. htm). Contract Report. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DOD) Information Sciences Office. . Retrieved
2007-12-25.

• "Plateau" at scienceclarified.com (http://www.scienceclarified.com/landforms/Ocean-Basins-to-Volcanoes/

Plateau.html)
• nationalgeographic.com (http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/
plateaus-article.html)
• travel-university.org (http://www.travel-university.org/general/geography/landforms/plateaus.html)
• edu.pe.ca (http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/plateaurh.htm)
• britannica.com (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/463959/plateau)

Hill
A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. Hills often have a distinct summit, although in areas
with scarp/dip topography a hill may refer to a particular section of flat terrain without a massive summit (e.g. Box
Hill).

The panoramic view from Connors Hill, near Swifts Creek, Victoria

Terminology
The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely
subjective, but a hill is generally somewhat lower and less steep than a
mountain. In the United Kingdom geographers historically regarded
mountains as hills greater than 1000 feet (300 m) above sea level,
which formed the basis of the plot of the 1995 film The Englishman
Who Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain. In contrast,
hillwalkers have tended to regard mountains as peaks 2000 feet
(610 m) above sea level: the Oxford English Dictionary also suggests a
limit of 2000 feet (610 m). This has led to Cavanal Hill in Poteau,
A Khulan (Mongolian Wild Ass) on a hill in the
Oklahoma, receive billing as the "World's Tallest Hill" due to its height
Gobi of Mongolia at sunset.
of 1999 feet (609 m). Mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to
as "hills" no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the
Cuillin Hills and the Torridon Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use and appearance and has
nothing to do with height.

A hillock is a small hill. Other words include knoll and (in Scotland, Northern Ireland and northern England) its
variant, knowe.[1]
Artificial hills may be referred to by a variety of technical names, including mound and tumulus.
Hill 13

Hills may form through a number of geomorphic phenomena: faulting,

erosion of larger landforms, such as mountains and movement and
deposition of sediment by glaciers (e.g. moraines and drumlins, or by
erosion exposing solid rock which then weathers down into a hill. The
rounded peaks of hills results from the diffusive movement of soil and
regolith covering the hill, a process known as downhill creep.

Areas that would otherwise have hills do not because of glacier cover
during the Ice Age. The hills that existed before the ice age were worn
down by the ice (and the rocks they carry) and/or the surrounding Hills of the Judean Desert.
valleys and hollows were filled in with glacial drift, therefore leaving a
level topography. The contrast between the flat plains of northern Indiana, once covered by ice, and the rugged hills
of southern Indiana, where the ice never reached, is a result of this. Another example is the Driftless Zone, an island
of hilly country that the ice sheets missed, surrounded by glacial plains, also in the American Midwest.

There are various specific names used to describe particular types of hill, based on appearance and method of
formation. Many such names originated in one geographical region to describe a type of hill formation peculiar to
that region, though the names are often adopted by geologists and used in a wider geographical context. These
include:
• Drumlin – an elongated whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action.
• Butte – an isolated hill with steep sides and a small flat top, formed by weathering.
• Tor – a rock formation found on a hilltop; also used to refer to the hill itself, especially in South West England.
• Puy – used especially in the Auvergne, France, to describe a conical volcanic hill.
• Pingo – a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Historical significance
Hills have played an important role in history.
Many settlements were originally built on hills, either to avoid or curb
floods, particularly if they were near a large body of water, or for
defence, since they offer a good view of the surrounding land and
require would-be attackers to fight uphill. For example, Ancient Rome
was built on seven hills, protecting it from invaders.
In northern Europe, many ancient monuments are sited in heaps. Some
of these are defensive structures (such as the hill-forts of the Iron Age), Clouds over hills
but others appear to have hardly any significance. In Britain, many
churches at the tops of hills are thought to have been built on the sites of earlier pagan holy places. The National
Cathedral in Washington, DC has followed this tradition and was built on the highest hill in that city.
Hill 14

Military significance
Hills provide a major advantage to an army, giving them an elevated
firing position and forcing an opposing army to charge uphill to attack
them. They may also conceal forces behind them, allowing a force to
lay in wait on the crest of a hill, using that crest for cover, and firing on
unsuspecting attackers as they broach the hilltop.
As a result, conventional military strategies often demand possession
of high ground. Hills have become sites for many noted battles, such as
the first recorded military conflict in Scotland known as the battle of
The Battle of Bunker Hill
Mons Graupius. Modern conflicts include the Battle of Bunker Hill
(which was actually fought on Breed's Hill) in the American War for
Independence and Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill in the Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil
War. The Battle of San Juan Hill in the Spanish-American War won Americans control of Santiago. The Battle of
Alesia was also fought from a hilltop fort. Fighting on Mamayev Kurgan during the Battle of Stalingrad and the
Umurbrogol Pocket in the Battle of Peleliu were also examples of bloody fighting for high ground. Another recent
example is the Kargil War between India and Pakistan.

Sports and games

Hillwalking is a British English term for a form of hiking which
involves the ascent of hills. The activity is usually distinguished from
mountaineering as it does not involve ropes or technically difficult
rock climbing, although the terms mountain and hill are often used
interchangeably in Britain. Hillwalking is popular in mountainous
areas such as the English Peak District or the Scottish Highlands.
Many hills are categorised according to relative height or other criteria
and feature on lists named after mountaineers, such as Munros
(Scotland) or Wainwrights (England). Specific locating activities such
Hillwalkers on Beinn Dearg, Scotland
as "peak bagging" (or "Munro bagging") involve climbing hills on
these lists with the aim of completing (or "compleating") the list.

In golf, the terrain on golf courses is often made more rugged and hilly
to make the holes harder to play. For example, the hole may be located
at the top of a hill, and the course is designed specifically to make it
almost impossible to allow the golf ball to rest near the top; it would
roll down, and the player would have to try again.
Cheese rolling is an annual event in the West Country of England
which involves rolling a wheel of cheese down a hill. Contestants stand
at the top and chase the wheel of cheese to the bottom. The winner, the
An example of a golf course in England that has
one who catches the cheese, gets to keep the wheel of cheese as a prize.
hills

Largest man-made
• The Berg proposed (1000 m (3300 ft))
• Blackstrap Ski Hill (45 m (148 ft))[2]
• Grizzly Peak (Disneyland Resort) (34 m (112 ft))
• Monks Mound (30 m (98 ft))
Hill 15

• Mount Gushmore (27 m (89 ft))

Gallery

The Chocolate Hills in Bohol, Philippines A coffee plantation on a conical hill near Some hills can be quite small, such as this
consist of 1,776 dome-shaped limestone hills. Orosí, Costa Rica. Ant-hill

References
[1] Knowe (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ knowe), Random House Dictionary at dictionary.com
[2] "Blackstrap Provincial Park" (http:/ / www. tpcs. gov. sk. ca/ Blackstrap). Government of Saskatchewan. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.

• Earth Sculpture; Or, The Origin of Land-forms (http://books.google.com/books?id=_4AlAAAAMAAJ&

pg=PA88&dq=hill+landform&as_brr=1#PPA340,M1)
• The International Geography (http://books.google.com/books?id=nkE2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA49&dq=hill+
landform&as_brr=1)
ltg:Kaupris
Valley 16

Valley
In geology, a valley or dale is a
depression with predominant extent in
one direction. A very deep river valley
may be called a canyon or gorge.
The terms U-shaped and V-shaped are
descriptive terms of geography to
characterize the form of valleys. Most
valleys belong to one of these two
main types or a mixture of them, at
least with respect of the cross section
of the slopes or hillsides.

Name
A valley in its broadest geographic
sense is also known as a dale. A valley U-shaped valley in Glacier National Park in Montana, United States.

through which a river runs may also be

referred to as a vale. A small,
secluded, and often wooded valley is
known as a dell, or in Scotland as a
glen. A wide, flat valley through which
a river runs is known in Scotland as a
strath. A small valley surrounded by
mountains is known as a hollow. A
deep, narrow valley is known as a
coon (also spelled combe or coombe).
Similar geological structures, such as
canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, and
kloofs, are not usually referred to as
Fljótsdalur in East Iceland, a rather flat valley (in Scotland, this type of valley is called a
valleys. "strath")

River valleys
For a comprehensive list of world wide river valleys see: River valleys (category)
A valley formed by flowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped. The exact shape will depend on the
characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep
Valley 17

walls and a narrow bottom. Shallower

slopes may produce broader and
gentler valleys, but in the lowest
stretch of a river, where it approaches
its base level, it begins to deposit
sediment and the valley bottom
becomes a floodplain.

Some broad V examples are:

• USA: Black Canyon of the
Gunnison National Park, and others
in Grand Canyon NP
• Alpine Europe:
• Austria: narrow passages of
upper Inn valley (Inntal),
affluents of Enns a.s.o
• Switzerland: Napf region, Zurich
Oberland, Engadin
• Germany: affluents to the middle
reaches of Rhine and Mosel
The original natural habitat of the
human species was the large river
A glaciated valley in the Mount Hood Wilderness showing a characteristic U-shape, the
valleys of the world, such as the Nile, bottom's rocky 'rubble' accretion and the broad shoulders
Tigris-Euphrates, Yellow, Ganges,
Amazon, Mississippi, etc. In pre-history, the rivers were used as a source of fresh water & food (fish and game
animals), as well as a place to wash, and a sewer. The rivers carved the valleys. The valleys blocked the winds and
shaded the inhabitants, creating cooler temperatures in the daytime, and warmer temperatures at night. The first
civilizations grew from these river valley communities.

Glacial valleys
A valley carved by glaciers, or glacial valley, is normally U-shaped.
The valley becomes visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms
it. When the ice recedes or thaws, the valley remains, often littered
with small boulders that were transported within the ice. Floor gradient
does not affect the valley's shape, it is the glacier's size that does.
Tal-y-llyn U shaped valley at Dolgoch
Continuously flowing glaciers – especially in the ice age – and
large-sized glaciers carve wide, deep incised valleys.

Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in every mountainous region that has experienced glaciation, usually during
the Pleistocene ice ages. Most present U-shaped valleys started as V-shaped before glaciation. The glaciers carved it
out wider and deeper, simultaneously changing the shape. This proceeds through the glacial erosion processes of
glaciation and abrasion, which results in large rocky material (glacial till) being carried in the glacier. A material
called boulder clay is
Valley 18

deposited on the floor of the valley. As the ice melts and retreats, the
valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. A river or
stream may remain in the valley. This replaces the original stream or
river and is known as a misfit stream because it is smaller than one
would expect given the size of its valley.
Other interesting glacially carved valleys include:

Yosemite Valley from an airplane

• Yosemite Valley (USA)

• Side valleys of the Austrian river Salzach for their parallel directions and hanging mouths.
• Some Scottish glens full with bushes and flowers.
• That of the St. Mary River in Glacier National Park in Montana, USA.

Transition forms and valley shoulders

Depending on the topography, the rock
types and the climate, a lot of
transitional forms between V-, U- and
plain valleys exist. Their bottoms can
be broad or narrow, but characteristic
is also the type of valley shoulder. The
broader a mountain valley, the lower
Look from Paria View to a valley in Bryce Canyon, Utah, with very striking shoulders
its shoulders are located in most cases.
An important exception are canyons
where the shoulder almost is near the top of the valley's slope. In the Alps – e.g. the Tyrolean Inn valley – the
shoulders are quite low (100–200 meters above the bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. at the sunny side)
because the climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's floor is completely filled with fog, these villages
are in sunshine.

In some stress-tectonic regions of the Rockies or the Alps (e.g. Salzburg) the side valleys are parallel to each other,
and additionally they are hanging. The brooks flow into the river in form of deep canyons or waterfalls. Usually this
fact is the result of a violent erosion of the former valley shoulders. A special genesis we find also at arêtes and
glacial cirques, at every Scottish glen, or a northern fjord.
Valley 19

Hanging valleys
A hanging valley is a tributary valley with the floor at a higher relief
than the main channel into which it flows. They are most commonly
associated with U-shaped valleys when a tributary glacier flows into a
glacier of larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped
valley with nearly vertical sides while the tributary glacier, with a
smaller volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the
surfaces of the glaciers were originally at the same elevation, the
shallower valley appears to be ‘hanging’ above the main valley. Often,
waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley.[1]

Valley floors
Usually the bottom of a main valley is broad – independent of the U or
V shape. It typically ranges from about one to ten kilometers in width
and is commonly filled with mountain sediments. The shape of the
Bridal Veil Falls in Yosemite National Park
floor can be rather horizontal, similar to a flat cylinder, or terraced. flowing from a hanging valley.
Side valleys are rather V than U-shaped; near the mouth waterfalls are
possible if it is a hanging valley. The location of the villages depends on the across-valley profile, on climate and
local traditions, and on the danger of avalanches or landslides. Predominant are places on terraces or alluvial fans if
they exist.
Historic siting of villages within the mainstem valleys, however, have chiefly considered the potential of flooding.
Valley 20

Hollows
A hollow is a small valley or dry stream bed. This term is commonly used in New England, Appalachia, Arkansas,
Missouri and Pennsylvania to describe such geographic features. Hollows may be formed by river valleys such as
Mansfield Hollow or they may be relatively dry clefts with a notch-like characteristic in that they have a height of
land and consequent water divide in their bases.

Famous valleys
• Aburra Valley (Colombia)
• Barossa Valley (Australia)
• Cauca Valley (Colombia)
• Danube Valley (Eastern Europe)
• Death Valley (California), (USA)
• Fraser Canyon (British Columbia),
(Canada)
• Fraser Valley (British Columbia),
(Canada)
• Glen Coe (Scotland)
• Grand Canyon (Arizona), (USA)
• Great Glen (Scotland)
• Great Rift Valley (from Jordan to
Southern Africa)
• Hell's Gate (British Columbia),
The Valley of Flowers in Uttarakhand, India.
(Canada)
• Hunter Valley (Australia)
• Hutt Valley (New Zealand)
• Indus Valley (Pakistan)
• Iron Gate (Romania/Serbia)
• Las Vegas Valley (Nevada), (USA)
• Little Cottonwood Creek Valley
(Utah), (USA)
• Loire Valley with its famous castles
(France)
• Nant Ffrancon (Wales)
• Napa Valley (California), (USA)
• Nile Valley
(Egypt/Sudan/Ethiopia/Uganda),
(Northeast Africa)
• Okanagan Valley (British
The Lötschental Valley in the Swiss Alps
Columbia), (Canada)
• Ottawa Valley (Ontario/Quebec),
(Canada)
• Palo Duro Canyon (Texas), (USA)
• Panjshir Valley (Afghanistan)
• Upper Rhine Valley, an old graben system. (France)
Valley 21

• Rhone Valley from the Matterhorn

to Grenoble and Lyon (France)
• Rio Grande Valley (Texas), (USA)
• Saint Lawrence Valley, the most
densely populated region of
Canada. (Ontario/Quebec/New
York) (Canada, USA)
• San Fernando Valley (California),
(USA)
• Silicon Valley, (California), (USA)
• Sonoma Valley, (California), (USA)
• South Wales Valleys (Wales)
• Valley of flowers (India)
• Valley of the Kings (Egypt)
• Valley of Mexico (Mexico), also
known as "El Valle de México", see Hell's Gate, British Columbia

Mexico City
• Valley of the Sun (Arizona), (USA)
• Willamette Valley, (Oregon), USA)

Rift valleys
Rift valleys, such as the Great Rift Valley, are formed by the expansion of the Earth's crust due to tectonic activity
beneath the Earth's surface.

References
[1] "Glossary of Glacier Terminology" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ of/ 2004/ 1216/ h/ h. html). U.S. Geological Survey. May 28, 2004. . Retrieved
2007-05-24.

External links
• NPS.gov (http://www.nps.gov/brca/geodetect/Landfroms/valleys.htm), University of Wisconsin
• Glacial moraine types (LEO dictionary) (http://dict.leo.org/se?lp=ende&p=5qvU.&search=moraine)
• UWSP.edu (http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/alpine_glacial_glossary), Glossary of Alpine Glacial
Landforms
• BGU.ac.il (http://www.bgu.ac.il/BIDR/research/phys/remote/Papers/1998-Ichoku_Coherance_IJRS_98.
pdf), SAR interferometry (analysis of valley forms in Fig.2 and 6)
• Braggiotourismus.ch (http://www.braggiotourismus.ch/), Shoulder of the Swiss Calanca valley near Braggio
• Zum.de (http://www.zum.de/Faecher/Ek/BAY/gym/Ek11/tal.htm), Typical valley sections (valleys and
terrace valleys)
• Kented.org.uk (http://www.kented.org.uk/ngfl/subjects/geography/rivers/RiverArticles/vshapedvalley.
htm), V-shaped valley
• Valleys.com (http://www.valleys.com/), Valleys of the World
Valley 22

Extraterrestrial valleys
• ESA image (http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/SMART-1/SEMM7R7X9DE_2.html): Vallis Alpes, bisecting
the Lunar Alps
• Valles Marineris and Ophir Chasma (http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/projekte/mars/hrsc152-OphirChasma.
php), bilingual website (English and German)
ltg:Līkne

Plain
In geography, a plain is land with relatively low
relief, that is flat or gently rolling. Prairies and
steppes are types of plains, and the archetype for
a plain is often thought of as a grassland, but
plains in their natural state may also be covered
in shrublands, woodland and forest, or
vegetation may be absent in the case of sandy or
stony plains in hot deserts. Types of flatlands for
which the term is not generally used include
those covered entirely and permanently by
swamps, marshes, playas, or ice sheets.

Plains occur as lowlands and at the bottoms of

valleys but also on plateaus at high elevations. In
A small mirage on the road, Western plains, New South Wales, Australia
a valley, a plain is enclosed on two sides but in
other cases a plain may be delineated by a
complete or partial ring of hills, by mountains or
cliffs. Where a geological region contains more
than one plain, they may be connected by a pass
(sometime termed a gap). Plains may have been
formed from flowing lava, deposited by water,
ice or wind, or formed by erosion by these
agents from hills and mountains.

Plains in many areas are important for

agriculture, because where the soils were
deposited as sediments they may be deep and Los llanos, an area of land with relatively high relief in
Venezuela
fertile, and the flatness facilitates mechanization
of crop production; or because they support
grasslands which provide good grazing for livestock.
Plain 23

Types of terrestrial plains

• Coastal plain, an area of low-lying land adjacent to a sea; the
term is used especially where they contrast with hills,
mountains or plateau further inland.
• Alluvial plains are formed by rivers, and may be one of these
overlapping types:
• Flood plain, adjacent to a stream, river, lake or wetland that
experiences occasional or periodic flooding. Corn fields in the Wallachian Plain. The Walachian
• Alluvial plain, formed over a long period of time by a river plain is known for his thick deposits of loess and its
fertile black earth
depositing sediment on its floodplain or bed which becomes
alluvial soil. The difference between a floodplain and an
alluvial plain is that the floodplain represents the area
experiencing flooding fairly regularly in the present or
recently, whereas an alluvial plain includes areas where the
floodplain is now and used to be, or areas which only
experience flooding a few times a century.
• Scroll plain, a plain through which a river meanders with a
very low gradient.
• Lacustrine plain, a plain that originally formed in a lacustrine
environment, that is, as the bed of a lake.
• Lava plain, formed by sheets of flowing lava. Part of the plain that surrounds Lightning Ridge, New
• Glacial plains are formed by the movement of glaciers under South Wales, Australia
the force of gravity:
• Till plain, a plain of glacial till that forms when a sheet of ice becomes detached from the main body of a
glacier and melts in place depositing the sediments it carries. Till plains are composed of unsorted material
(till) of all sizes.
• Sandur (plural sandar), a glacial out-wash plain formed of sediments deposited by melt-water at the terminus
of a glacier. Sandar consist mainly of stratified (layered and sorted) gravel and sand

Other types
The term may also be used for flat areas of the ocean floor or for flat areas on moons and planets.
• Abyssal plain, a flat or very gently sloping area of the deep ocean basin floor.

References
Tundra 24

Tundra
Tundra

Map of arctic tundra shown in orange

Geography
Climate type ET

In physical geography, tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr "uplands," "treeless
mountain tract."[1] There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra,[2] alpine tundra,[2] and Antarctic tundra.[3] In
tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in
some tundra. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line
or timberline.

Arctic
Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra" usually refers only to
the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. (It may also refer to the treeless plain in
general, so that northern Sápmi would be included.) Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and
Canada.[2] The polar tundra is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the
Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area (and the Sami in Sápmi).
Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from
25–90 cm (9.8–35.4 inches) down, and it is impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can
only support low growing plants such as moss, heath (Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry),
and lichen. There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very
cold and dark, with the average temperature around −28 °C (−18 °F), sometimes dipping as low as −50 °C (−58 °F).
However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further
south (for example, Russia's and Canada's lowest temperatures were recorded in locations south of the tree line).
During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of the permafrost melts, leaving the ground very
soggy. The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime
temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 °C (54 °F) but can often drop to 3 °C (37 °F) or even below
freezing. Arctic tundras are sometimes the subject of habitat conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of
these areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan.
Tundra 25

The tundra is a very windy area, with winds often blowing upwards of
48–97 km/h (30–60 miles an hour). However, in terms of precipitation,
it is desert-like, with only about 15–25 cm (6–10 inches) falling per
year (the summer is typically the season of maximum precipitation).
During the summer, the permafrost thaws just enough to let plants
grow and reproduce, but because the ground below this is frozen, the
water cannot sink any lower, and so the water forms the lakes and
marshes found during the summer months. Although precipitation is
Tundra in Alaska
light, evaporation is also relatively minimal.

The biodiversity of the tundras is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 land mammals can be found,
although millions of birds migrate there each year for the marshes.[4] There are also a few fish species such as the
flatfish. There are few species with large populations. Notable animals in the Arctic tundra include caribou
(reindeer), musk ox, arctic hare, arctic fox, snowy owl, lemmings, and polar bears (only the extreme north).[5]
Due to the harsh climate of the Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even though they
are sometimes rich in natural resources such as oil and uranium. In recent times this has begun to change in Alaska,
Russia, and some other parts of the world.
A severe threat to the tundras, specifically to the permafrost, is global warming. The melting of the permafrost in a
given area on human time scales (decades or centuries) could radically change which species can survive there.[6]
Another concern is that about one third of the world's soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas. When the
permafrost melts, it releases carbon in the form of carbon dioxide and methane,[7] both of which are greenhouse
gases. The effect has been observed in Alaska. In the 1970s the tundra was a carbon sink, but today, it is a carbon
source.[8]

Antarctic
Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and
subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich
Islands and the Kerguelen Islands. Most of Antarctica is too cold and
dry to support vegetation, and most of the continent is covered by ice
fields. However, some portions of the continent, particularly the
Antarctic Peninsula, have areas of rocky soil that support plant life.
The flora presently consists of around 300–400 lichens, 100 mosses,
25 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algae species,
which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of Tundra on the Péninsule Rallier du Baty,
the continent. Antarctica's two flowering plant species, the Antarctic Kerguelen Islands.

hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort

(Colobanthus quitensis), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula.[9]

In contrast with the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic tundra lacks a large mammal fauna, mostly due to its physical
isolation from the other continents. Sea mammals and sea birds, including seals and penguins, inhabit areas near the
shore, and some small mammals, like rabbits and cats, have been introduced by humans to some of the subantarctic
islands. The Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion includes the Bounty Islands, Auckland Islands,
Antipodes Islands, the Campbell Island group, and Macquarie Island.[10] Species endemic to this ecoregion include
Nematoceras dienemum and Nematoceras sulcatum, the only Subantarctic orchids; the royal penguin; and the
Antipodean albatross.[10]
The flora and fauna of Antarctica and the Antarctic Islands (south of 60° south latitude) are protected by the
Antarctic Treaty.[11]
Tundra 26

Alpine
Alpine tundra does not contain trees because it has high altitude.
Alpine tundra is distinguished from arctic tundra, because alpine
tundra typically does not have permafrost, and alpine soils are
generally better drained than arctic soils. Alpine tundra transitions to
subalpine forests below the tree line; stunted forests occurring at the
forest-tundra ecotone are known as Krummholz.

Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide. The flora of the alpine

Hikers traversing the Franconia Ridge in the
White Mountains, New Hampshire, United
States, much of which is in the alpine zone.
tundra is characterized by dwarf shrubs close to the ground. The cold
climate of the alpine tundra is caused by the low air pressure, and is
similar to polar climate.

Climatic classification
Tundra climates ordinarily fit the Köppen climate classification ET,
signifying a local climate in which at least one month has an average
temperature high enough to melt snow (0°C or 32°F), but no month
with an average temperature in excess of (10°C/50°F). The cold limit
generally meets the EF climates of permanent ice and snows; the
warm-summer limit generally corresponds with the poleward or
altitudinal limit of trees, where they grade into the subarctic climates
designated Dfd and Dwd (extreme winters as in parts of Siberia), Dfc
typical in Alaska, Canada, European Russia, and Western Siberia (cold
Tundra region with fjords, glaciers and
winters with months of freezing), or even Cfc (no month colder than
mountains. Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen.
-3°C as in parts of Iceland and southernmost South America). Tundra
climates as a rule are hostile to woody vegetation even where the
winters are comparatively mild by polar standards, as in Iceland.

Despite the potential diversity of climates in the ET category involving precipitation, extreme temperatures, and
relative wet and dry seasons, this category is rarely subdivided. Rainfall and snowfall are generally slight due to the
low vapor pressure of water in the chilly atmosphere, but as a rule potential evapotranspiration is extremely low,
allowing soggy terrain of swamps and bogs even in places that get precipitation typical of deserts of lower and
middle latitudes. The amount of native tundra biomass depends more on the local temperature than the amount of
precipitation.
Tundra 27

References
[1] Aapala, Kirsti. "Tunturista jängälle" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061001211854/ http:/ / www. kotus. fi/ julkaisut/ ikkunat/ 1999/
kielii1999_19. shtml). Kieli-ikkunat. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. kotus. fi/ julkaisut/ ikkunat/ 1999/ kielii1999_19. shtml) on
2006-10-01. . Retrieved 2009-01-19.
[2] "The Tundra Biome" (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ glossary/ gloss5/ biome/ tundra. html). The World's Biomes. . Retrieved
2006-03-05.
[3] "Terrestrial Ecoregions: Antarctica"" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial_an. html). Wild World. National
Geographic. . Retrieved 2009-11-02.
[4] "Great Plain of the Koukdjuak" (http:/ / www. ibacanada. com/ site. jsp?siteID=NU078& seedet=N). Ibacanada.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-16.
[5] "Tundra" (http:/ / www. blueplanetbiomes. org/ tundra. htm). Blue Planet Biomes. . Retrieved 2006-03-05.
[6] "Tundra Threats" (http:/ / science. nationalgeographic. com/ science/ earth/ habitats/ tundra-threats. html). National Geographic. . Retrieved
2008-04-03.
[7] "Global Warming: Methane Could Be Far Worse Than Carbon Dioxide" (http:/ / www. communicationagents. com/ sepp/ 2005/ 02/ 01/
global_warming_methane_could_be_far_worse_than_carbon_dioxide. htm). Sepp Hasslberger. 2005-02-01. .
[8] Oechel, Walter C.; et al. (1993). "Recent change of Arctic tundra ecosystems from a net carbon dioxide sink to a source". Nature 361 (6412):
520–523. doi:10.1038/361520a0.
[9] "Terrestrial Plants" (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ About_Antarctica/ Wildlife/ Plants/ index. html). British Antarctic Survey: About
Antarctica. . Retrieved 2006-03-05.
[10] "Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ aa/ aa1101_full. html). Wild
World Full Report. World Wildlife Fund. . Retrieved 2009-11-02.
[11] "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty" (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ About_Antarctica/ Treaty/ protocol. html).
British Antarctic Survey: About Antarctica. . Retrieved 2006-03-05.

Further reading
• Allaby, Michael; Peter D Moore; Trevor Day; Richard Garratt (2008), Tundra (http://books.google.ca/
books?id=VdA8qT5KZvkC&lpg=PP1&dq=Tundra&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Facts On File,,
ISBN 0816059349
• Bliss, L. C; O. W. Heal, J. J. Moore (1981), Tundra Ecosystems: A Comparative Analysis (http://books.google.
ca/books?id=mK48AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Tundra&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), International
Biological Programme Synthesis Series (No. 25), ISBN 9780521227766
• Warhol, Tom (2007), Tundra (http://books.google.ca/books?id=oYUc7o43cuAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Tundra&
pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, ISBN 9780761421931
• Yu I, Chernov (1998), The Living Tundra;Studies in Polar Research (http://books.google.ca/
books?id=agc5AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Tundra&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 9780521357548

External links
• WWF Tundra Ecoregions (http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/
selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat11.cfm)
• The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future (http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/tundra.
html)
• Arctic Feedbacks to Global Warming: Tundra Degradation in the Russian Arctic (http://kaares.ulapland.fi/
home/arktinen/tundra/tundra.htm)
• British Antarctica Survey (http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/wildlife/plants/)
Ice sheet 28

Ice sheet
An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km² (20,000 mile²),[1]
thus also known as continental glacier.[2] The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland; during the
last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America, the
Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America.
Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an
ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.
Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting
occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing
channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams.
The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms. The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a
small ice cap (maybe several) in the early Oligocene, but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene,
when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica. The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late
Pliocene, but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation. This had the unusual effect of
allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly
forming Antarctic ice sheet.

Antarctic ice sheet

The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth. It covers an
area of almost 14 million km2 and contains 30 million km3 of ice. Around
90% of the fresh water on the Earth's surface is held in the ice sheet, and, if
melted, would cause sea levels to rise by 61.1 metres.[3] The continent-wide
average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at
>0.05°C/decade since 1957.[4]

The Antarctic ice sheet is divided by the Transantarctic Mountains into two
unequal sections called the East Antarctic ice sheet (EAIS) and the smaller
West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS). The EAIS rests on a major land mass but
the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 meters below sea level. It A satellite composite image of Antarctica
would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a
marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The
WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea.
Ice sheet 29

Greenland ice sheet

The Greenland ice sheet occupies about 82% of the surface of Greenland, and
if melted would cause sea levels to rise by 7.2 metres.[3] Estimated changes in
the mass of Greenland's ice sheet suggest it is melting at a rate of about 239
cubic kilometres (57.3 cubic miles) per year.[6] These measurements came
from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite,
launched in 2002, as reported by BBC News in August 2006.[7]

Ice sheet dynamics

Ice movement is dominated by the motion of glaciers, whose activity is
[5]
determined by a number of processes.[8] Their motion is the result of cyclic Map of Greenland
surges interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on both hourly and
centennial time scales.

Predicted effects of global warming

The Greenland, and probably the Antarctic, ice sheets have been losing mass recently, because losses by melting and
outlet glaciers exceed accumulation of snowfall. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), loss of Antarctic and Greenland ice sheet mass contributed, respectively, about 0.21 ± 0.35 and 0.21 ±
0.07 mm/year to sea level rise between 1993 and 2003.[9]
The IPCC projects that ice mass loss from melting of the Greenland ice sheet will continue to outpace accumulation
of snowfall. Accumulation of snowfall on the Antarctic ice sheet is projected to outpace losses from melting.
However, loss of mass on the Antarctic sheet may continue, if there is sufficient loss to outlet glaciers. In the words
of the IPCC, "Dynamical processes related to ice flow not included in current models but suggested by recent
observations could increase the vulnerability of the ice sheets to warming, increasing future sea level rise.
Understanding of these processes is limited and there is no consensus on their magnitude." More research work is
therefore required in order to improve the reliability of predictions of ice-sheet response on global warming.
The effects on ice formations of an increasing in temperature will accelerate. When ice is melted away less light
from the sun will be reflected back into space and more will be absorbed by the ocean water causing further rises in
temperature. This positive feedback system will could become independent of climate change past a certain point
which will cause huge losses of ice to the icecaps.

References
[1] "Glossary of Important Terms in Glacial Geology" (http:/ / gemini. oscs. montana. edu/ ~geol445/ hyperglac/ glossary. htm). . Retrieved
2006-08-22.
[2] American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=ice-sheet1)
[3] Some physical characteristics of ice on Earth, Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) (http:/ / www. grida. no/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg1/ 412. htm#tab113)
[4] Steig E.J., Schneider D.P., Rutherford S.D., Mann M.E., Comiso J.C., Schindell D.T. (2009). "Warming of the Antarctic ice-sheet surface
since the 1957 International Geophysical Year". Nature 457 (7228): 459–462. doi:10.1038/nature07669. PMID 19158794.
[5] The map of Greenland is not on the same scale as the map of Antarctica; Greenland's area is approximately 15% Antarctica's.
[6] Rasmus Benestad et al.: The Greenland Ice. Realclimate.org 2006 (http:/ / www. realclimate. org/ index. php/ archives/ 2006/ 03/
greenland-ice-and-other-glaciers/ )
[7] Greenland melt 'speeding up', BBC News, 11 August 2006 (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 4783199. stm)
[8] Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009). Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2. ISBN 978-3-642-03414-5.
[9] Richard B. Alley et al.:Summary for Policymakers, A report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (http:/ /
www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-spm. pdf)
Ice sheet 30

External links
• United Nations Environment Programme: Global Outlook for Ice and Snow (http://www.unep.org/geo/
geo_ice/)
• http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/ice_sheets.html

River
A river is a natural watercourse,[1] usually freshwater, flowing towards
an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply
flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another
body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names,
including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, tributary and rill; there is no
general rule that defines what can be called a river, although in some
countries or communities a stream may be defined by its size. Many
names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; one example
Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National
is "burn" in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is said
Park, Alberta, Canada.
to be larger than a creek,[2] but this is not always the case, because of
vagueness in the language.[3]

A river is part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is

generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff,
groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in
natural ice and snowpacks (e.g., from glaciers). Potamology is the
scientific study of rivers.

Topography
A false-color satellite photograph of the Amazon
The water in a river is usually confined to a channel, made up of a River in Brazil.
stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is also a wider
floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of
the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred especially in urban areas
where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing and industry.
The term upriver refers to the direction leading to the source of the river, which is against the direction of flow.
Likewise, the term downriver describes the direction towards the mouth of the river, in which the current flows.
The river channel typically contains a single stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams
of water, producing a braided river. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide, such as
the South Island of New Zealand. They also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing
rivers are similar to braided rivers and are also quite rare. They have multiple sinuous channels carrying large
volumes of sediment.
A river flowing in its channel is a source of energy which acts on the river channel to change its shape and form.
According to Brahm's law (sometimes called Airy's law), the mass of objects that may be carried away by a river is
proportional to the sixth power of the river flow speed. Thus, when the speed of flow increases two times, it can
transport 64 times larger (i.e., more massive) objects.[4] In mountainous torrential zones this can be seen as erosion
channels through hard rocks and the creation of sands and gravels from the destruction of larger rocks. In U-shaped
glaciated valleys, the subsequent river valley can often easily be identified by the V-shaped channel that it has
River 31

carved. In the middle reaches where the river may flow over flatter land, meanders may form through erosion of the
river banks and deposition on the inside of bends. Sometimes the river will cut off a loop, shortening the channel and
forming an oxbow lake or billabong. Rivers that carry large amounts of sediment may develop conspicuous deltas at
their mouths, if conditions permit. Rivers whose mouths are in saline tidal waters may form estuaries.
Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of
the free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that
underlie the river and its floodplain (called the hyporheic zone). For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen
component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow.

Subsurface streams
Most but not all rivers flow on the surface. Subterranean rivers flow underground in caves or caverns. Such rivers are
frequently found in regions with limestone geologic formations. Subglacial streams are the braided rivers that flow at
the beds of glaciers and ice sheets, permitting meltwater to be discharged at the front of the glacier. Because of the
gradient in pressure due to the overlying weight of the glacier, such streams can even flow uphill.

Permanence of flow
An intermittent river (or ephemeral river) only flows occasionally and can be dry for several years at a time. These
rivers are found in regions with limited or highly variable rainfall, or can occur because of geologic conditions such
as having a highly permeable river bed. Some ephemeral rivers flow during the summer months but not in the winter.
Such rivers are typically fed from chalk aquifers which recharge from winter rainfall. In the UK these rivers are
called Bournes and give their name to place such as Bournemouth and Eastbourne

Classification
River have been classified by many criteria including their topography, their biotic status, their relevance to white
water or canoeing activities.

Topographical classification
Rivers can generally be classified as either alluvial, bedrock, or some mix of the two. Alluvial rivers have channels
and floodplains that are self-formed in unconsolidated or weakly-consolidated sediments. They erode their banks and
deposit material on bars and their floodplains. Bedrock rivers form when the river downcuts through the modern
sediments and into the underlying bedrock. This occurs in regions that have experienced some kind of uplift (thereby
steepening river gradients) or in which a particular hard lithology causes a river to have a steepened reach that has
not been covered in modern alluvium. Bedrock rivers very often contain alluvium on their beds; this material is
important in eroding and sculpting the channel. Rivers that go through patches of bedrock and patches of deep
alluvial cover are classified as mixed bedrock-alluvial.
Alluvial rivers can be further classified by their channel pattern as meandering, braided, wandering, anastomose, or
straight. The morphology of an alluvial river reach is controlled by a combination of sediment supply, substrate
composition, discharge, vegetation, and bed aggradation.
The work of William Morris Davis at the turn of the 20th century used a classification based of river “age” as a way
to characterise rivers.
• Youthful river: A river with a steep gradient that has very few tributaries and flows quickly. Its channels erode
deeper rather than wider. Examples include the Brazos, Trinity and Ebro rivers.
• Mature river: A river with a gradient that is less steep than those of youthful rivers and flows more slowly. A
mature river is fed by many tributaries and has more discharge than a youthful river. Its channels erode wider
rather than deeper. Examples include the Mississippi, Saint Lawrence, Danube, Ohio, Thames and Paraná rivers.
River 32

• Old river: A river with a low gradient and low erosive energy. Old rivers are characterized by flood plains.
Examples include the Yellow, Ganges, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Nile rivers.
• Rejuvenated river: A river with a gradient that is raised by tectonic uplift.
The way in which a river's characteristics vary between the upper course and lower course of a river are summarized
by the Bradshaw model. Power-law relationships between channel slope, depth, and width are given as a function of
discharge by "river regime".

Biotic classification
There are very many systems of classification based on biotic conditions typically assigning classes from the most
oligotrophic or unpolluted through to the most eutrophic or polluted.[5] Other systems are based on a whole
eco-system approach such as developed by the New Zealand Ministry for the Environment.[6] In Europe, the
requirements of the Water Framework Directive has let to the development of a wide range of classification methods
including classifications based on fishery status [7] A system of river zonation used in francophone communities [8]
[9]
divides rivers into three primary zones:
• The crenon is the uppermost zone at the source of the river. It is further divided into the eucrenon (spring or boil
zone) and the hypocrenon (brook or headstream zone). These areas are characterized by low temperatures,
reduced oxygen content and slow moving water.
• The rhithron is the upstream portion of the river that follows the crenon. It is characterized by relatively cool
temperatures, high oxygen levels, and fast, turbulent flow.
• The potamon is the remaining downstream stretch of river. It is characterized by warmer temperatures, lower
oxygen levels, slow flow and sandier bottoms.

Whitewater classification
The International Scale of River Difficulty is used to rate the challenges of navigation—particularly those with
rapids. Class I is the easiest and Class VI is the hardest.

Stream order classification

The Strahler Stream Order ranks rivers based on the connectivity and hierarchy of contributing tributaries.
Headwaters are first order while the Amazon River is twelfth order. Approximately 80% of the rivers and streams in
the world are of the first and second order.

Uses
Rivers have been used as a source of water, for obtaining food, for
transport, as a defensive measure, as a source of hydropower to drive
machinery, for bathing, and as a means of disposing of waste.
Rivers have been used for navigation for thousands of years. The
earliest evidence of navigation is found in the Indus Valley
Civilization, which existed in northwestern Pakistan around 3300
BC.[10] Riverine navigation provides a cheap means of transport, and is
still used extensively on most major rivers of the world like the
Amazon, the Ganges, the Nile, the Mississippi, and the Indus. Since Leisure activities on the River Avon at Avon
Valley Country Park, Keynsham, United
river boats are often not regulated, they contribute a large amount to
Kingdom. A boat giving trips to the public passes
global greenhouse gas emissions, and to local cancer due to inhaling of a moored private boat.
particulates emitted by the transports.[11] [12]
River 33

In some heavily forested regions such as Scandinavia and Canada, lumberjacks use the river to float felled trees
downstream to lumber camps for further processing, saving much effort and cost by transporting the huge heavy logs
by natural means.
Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history.[13] They can provide a rich source of fish and other edible
aquatic life, and are a major source of fresh water, which can be used for drinking and irrigation. It is therefore no
surprise to find most of the major cities of the world situated on the banks of rivers. Rivers help to determine the
urban form of cities and neighbourhoods and their corridors often present opportunities for urban renewal through
the development of foreshoreways such as Riverwalks. Rivers also provide an easy means of disposing of
waste-water and, in much of the less developed world, other wastes.
Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy, via watermills and hydroelectric plants.
Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many hundreds of years such as in Orkney at Dounby click mill. Prior
to the invention of steam power, water-mills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and other textiles were
common across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were established at
places such as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been a significant increase in the
development of large scale power generation from water, especially in wet mountainous regions such as Norway
The coarse sediments, gravel and sand, generated and moved by rivers are extensively used in construction. In parts
of the world this can generate extensive new lake habitats as gravel pits re-fill with water. In other circumstances it
can destabilise the river bed and the course of the river and cause severe damage to spawning fish populations which
rely on stable gravel formations for egg laying.
In upland rivers, rapids with whitewater or even waterfalls occur. Rapids are often used for recreation, such as
whitewater kayaking.
Rivers have been important in determining political boundaries and defending countries. For example, the Danube
was a long-standing border of the Roman Empire, and today it forms most of the border between Bulgaria and
Romania. The Mississippi in North America and the Rhine in Europe are major east-west boundaries in those
continents. The Orange and Limpopo Rivers in southern Africa form the boundaries between provinces and
countries along their routes.

Ecosystem
The organisms in the riparian zone respond to changes in river channel location and patterns of flow. The ecosystem
of rivers is generally described by the River continuum concept, which has some additions and refinements to allow
for spatial (dams, waterfalls) and temporal (extensive flooding). The basic idea is that the river can be described as a
system that is continuously changing along its length in the physical parameters, the availability of food particles and
the composition of the ecosystem. The food (energy) that is the leftover of the upstream part is being utilized
downstream.
The general pattern is that the first order streams contain particulate matter (decaying leaves from the surrounding
forests), which is processed there by shredders like Plecoptera larvae. The leftovers of the shredders are utilized by
collectors as Hydropsyche and furter downstream algae that create the primary production become the main
foodsource of the organisms. All changes are gradual and the distribution of each species can be described as a
normal curve with the highest density where the conditions are optimal. In rivers succession is virtually absent and
the composition of the ecosystem stays fixed in time.
River 34

Chemistry
The chemistry of rivers is complex and depends on inputs from the atmosphere, the geology through which it travels
and the inputs from man's activities. The chemistry of the water has a large impact on the ecology of that water for
both plants and animals and it also affects the uses that may be made of the river water. Understanding and
characterising river water chemistry requires a well designed and managed programme of sampling and analysis
Like many other Aquatic ecosystems, rivers too are under increasing threat of pollution. According to a study of the
WWF's Global Freshwater Programme, the 10 most polluted rivers are: Ganges, Indus, Yangtze, Salween-Nu,
Mekong-Lancang, Rio Grande/Rio Bravo, La Plata, Danube, Nile-Lake Victoria, and the Murray-Darling.[14]

Brackish water
Some rivers generate brackish water by having their river mouth in the
ocean. This, in effect creates a unique environment in which certain
species are found.

Flooding
Flooding is a natural part of a river's cycle. The majority of the erosion
of river channels and the erosion and deposition on the associated
floodplains occur during flood stage. In many developed areas, human
activity has changed river channel form, altering different magnitudes
and frequencies of flooding. Some examples of this are the building of
levees, the straightening of channels, and the draining of natural
wetlands. In many cases human activities in rivers and floodplains
have dramatically increased the risk of flooding. Straightening rivers Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The
allows water to flow more rapidly downstream increasing the risk of Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta
that has the classic Greek delta (Δ) shape after
flooding places further downstream. Building on flood plains removes
which River deltas were named.
flood storage which again exacerbates downstream flooding. The
building of levees may only protect the area behind the levees and not
those further downstream. Levees and flood-banks can also increase flooding upstream because of back-water
pressure as the upstream water has to squeeze between the levees.
River 35

Flow
Studying the flows of rivers is one aspect of hydrology.[15]

Direction
Rivers flowing downhill, from river source to river mouth, do not
necessarily take the shortest path. For alluvial streams, straight and
braided rivers have very low sinuosity and flow directly down hill,
while meandering rivers flow from side to side across a valley.
Bedrock rivers typically flow in either a fractal pattern, or a pattern that
is determined by weaknesses in the bedrock, such as faults, fractures,
or more erodible layers.

Rate
Volumetric flow rate, also called discharge, volume flow rate, and rate
of water flow, is the volume of water which passes through a given
cross-section of the river channel per unit time. It is typically measured
in cubic meters per second (cumec) or cubic feet per second (cfs),
where 1 m³/s = 35.51 ft³/s; it is sometimes also measured in litres or
gallons per second.

Volumetric flow rate can be thought of as the mean velocity of the

flow through a given cross-section, times that cross-sectional area.
Mean velocity can be approximated through the use of the Law of the
Wall. In general, velocity increases with the depth (or hydraulic radius)
River meandering course
and slope of the river channel, while the cross-sectional area scales
with the depth and the width: the double-counting of depth shows the
importance of this variable in determining the discharge through the channel.

Management
Rivers are often managed or controlled to make them more useful, or less disruptive, to human activity.
• Dams or weirs may be built to control the flow, store water, or extract energy.
• Levees, known as dikes in Europe, may be built to prevent river water from flowing on floodplains or floodways.
• Canals connect rivers to one another for water transfer or navigation.
• River courses may be modified to improve navigation, or straightened to increase the flow rate.
River management is a continuous activity as rivers tend to 'undo' the modifications made by people. Dredged
channels silt up, sluice mechanisms deteriorate with age, levees and dams may suffer seepage or catastrophic failure.
The benefits sought through managing rivers may often be offset by the social and economic costs of mitigating the
bad effects of such management. As an example, in parts of the developed world, rivers have been confined within
channels to free up flat flood-plain land for development. Floods can inundate such development at high financial
cost and often with loss of life.
Rivers are increasingly managed for habitat conservation, as they are critical for many aquatic and riparian plants,
resident and migratory fishes, waterfowl, birds of prey, migrating birds, and many mammals.
River 36

References
[1] River {definition} (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ river) from Merriam-Webster. Accessed February 2010.
[2] "WordNet Search: River" (http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=river& sub=Search+ WordNet& o2=& o0=1& o7=& o5=&
o1=1& o6=& o4=& o3=& h=). The Trustees of Princeton University. . Retrieved 2009-10-02.
[3] "Domestic Names: Frequently Asked Question (FAQs), #17" (http:/ / geonames. usgs. gov/ domestic/ faqs. htm). United States Geological
Survey. . Retrieved 2009-10-02.
[4] Garde, R. J. (1995). History of fluvial hydraulics. New Age Publishers. pp. 19. ISBN 812240815X. OCLC 34628134.
[5] SEPA – River Classification scheme (http:/ / www. sepa. org. uk/ science_and_research/ classification_schemes/
river_classifications_scheme. aspx)
[6] NZ’s River Environment Classification system (REC) (http:/ / www. maf. govt. nz/ mafnet/ publications/ rmupdate/ rm14/ rm14-04. htm)
[7] Compilation and harmonisation of fish species classification (http:/ / fame. boku. ac. at/ downloads/ D1_2_typology_and
species_classification. pdf)
[8] J. Illies & L. Botosaneanu (1963). "Problémes et méthodes de la classification et de la zonation éologique des eaux courantes, considerées
surtout du point de vue faunistique.". Mitt. int. Ver. theor. angew. Limnol. 12: 1–57.
[9] Hawkes, H.A. (1975). River zonation and classification. Blackwell. pp. 312–374.
[10] Panda.org (http:/ / www. panda. org/ about_our_earth/ about_freshwater/ rivers/ )
[11] Michel Meybeck (1993). "Riverine transport of atmospheric carbon: Sources, global typology and budget". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 70
(1–4): 443–463. doi:10.1007/BF01105015.
[12] Achim Albrecht (2003). "Validating riverine transport and speciation models using nuclear reactor-derived radiocobalt". Journal of
Environmental Radioactivity (Elsevier Science Ltd) 66 (3): 295–307. doi:10.1016/S0265-931X(02)00133-9. PMID 12600761.
[13] NMP.org (http:/ / en. nmp. gov. tw/ park01-2. html)
[14] Top 10 most polluted rivers (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ news/ ganges-is-one-of-worlds-10-most-polluted-rivers/ 194554/ )
[15] Cristi Cave. "How a River Flows" (http:/ / chamisa. freeshell. org/ flow. htm). Stream Biology and Ecology. .

Further reading
• Jeffrey W. Jacobs. "Rivers, Major World" (http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Re-St/Rivers-Major-World.
html). Water Encyclopaedia.
• Luna B. Leopold (1994). A View of the River. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674937325. OCLC 28889034.
ISBN. — a non-technical primer on the geomorphology and hydraulics of water.
River delta 37

River delta
A delta is a landform that is formed at the mouth of a river where that
river flows into an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, flat arid area, or
another river. Deltas are formed from the deposition of the sediment
carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the river. Over long
periods of time, this deposition builds the characteristic geographic
pattern of a river delta.

The Greek historian Herodotus coined the term delta for the Nile River
delta because the sediment deposited at its mouth had the shape of the
upper-case Greek letter Delta: Δ.

Formation
River deltas form when a river carrying sediment reaches a body of
standing water,such as a lake, ocean, or reservoir. When the flow
enters the standing water, it is no longer confined to its channel and
expands in width. This flow expansion results in a decrease in the flow
velocity, which diminishes the ability of the flow to transport sediment.
Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The
Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta
that has the classic Greek delta (Δ) shape after
which River deltas were named. Photo courtesy
of NASA.

As a result, sediment drops out of the flow and deposits. Over time,
this single channel will build a deltaic lobe (such as the bird's-foot of the Mississippi or Ural River deltas), pushing
its mouth further into the standing water. As the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient of the river channel becomes
lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation (see slope). As the slope of the river
channel decreases, it becomes unstable for two reasons. First, water under the force of gravity will tend to flow in the
most direct course down slope. If the river could breach its natural levees (i.e., during a flood), it would spill out onto
a new course with a shorter route to the ocean, thereby obtaining a more stable steeper slope.[1] Second, as its slope
gets lower, the amount of shear stress on the bed will decrease, which will result in deposition of sediment within the
channel and for the channel bed to rise relative to the floodplain. This will make it easier for the river to breach its
levees and cut a new channel that enters the body of standing water at a steeper slope. Often when the channel does
this, some of its flow can remain in the abandoned channel. When these channel switching events a mature delta will
gain a distributary network.

Another way in which these distributary networks may form is from the deposition of mouth bars (mid-channel sand
and/or gravel bars at the mouth of a river). When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth of a river, the flow is
routed around it. This results in additional deposition on the upstream end of the mouth-bar, which splits the river
into two distributary channels. A good example of the result of this process is the Wax Lake Delta in Louisiana.
In both of these cases, depositional processes force redistribution of deposition from areas of high deposition to areas
of low deposition. This results in the smoothing of the planform (or map-view) shape of the delta as the channels
move across its surface and deposit sediment. Because the sediment is laid down in this fashion, the shape of these
deltas approximates a fan. It is closer to an ideal fan the more often the flow changes course because more rapid
changes in channel position results in more uniform deposition of sediment on the delta front. The Mississippi and
Ural River deltas, with their bird's-feet, are examples of rivers that do not avulse often enough to form a symmetrical
fan shape. Alluvial fan deltas, as seen in their name, avulse frequently and more closely approximate an ideal fan
shape.
River delta 38

Types of deltas
Deltas are typically classified according to the main control on
deposition, which is usually either a river, waves, or tides.[2] These
controls have a large effect on the shape of the resulting delta.

Lower Mississippi River landloss over time

Delta lobe switching in the Mississippi Delta,

4600 yrs BP, 3500 yrs BP, 2800 yrs BP, 1000 yrs
BP, 300 yrs BP, 500 yrs BP, current

Wave-dominated deltas
In wave dominated deltas, wave erosion controls the shape of the delta, although deposition still outweighs the
amount of erosion and the delta is able to advance into the sea. Deltas of this form, such as the Nile Delta, tend to
have a characteristic Greek-capital-delta shape .

Tide-dominated deltas
Erosion is also an important control in tide dominated deltas, such as
the Ganges Delta, which may be mainly submarine, with prominent
sand bars and ridges. This tends to produce a "dendritic" structure.[2]
Tidal deltas behave differently from river- and wave-dominated deltas,
which tend to have a few main distributaries. Once a wave- or river-
distributary silts up, it is abandoned, and a new channel forms
elsewhere. In a tidal delta, new distributaries are formed during times
when there's a lot of water around – such as floods or storm surges.
These distributaries slowly silt up at a pretty constant rate until they
fizzle out.[2]
The Ganges Delta in India and Bangladesh is the
largest delta in the world and it is also one of the
most fertile regions in the world.

Gilbert deltas
River delta 39

A Gilbert delta (named after Grove Karl Gilbert) is a specific type of delta that is formed by coarse sediments, as
opposed to gently-sloping muddy deltas such as that of the Mississippi. For example, a mountain river depositing
sediment into a freshwater lake would form this kind of delta.[3] [4] While some authors describe both lacustrine and
marine locations of Gilbert deltas,[3] others note that their formation is more characteristic of the freshwater lakes,
where it is easier for the river water to mix with the lakewater faster (as opposed to the case of a river falling into the
sea or a salt lake, where less dense fresh water brought by the river stays on top longer).[5]
G.K. Gilbert himself first described this type of delta on Lake Bonneville in 1885.[5] Elsewhere, similar structures
can be found e.g. at the mouths of several creeks flowing into Okanagan Lake in British Columbia and forming
prominent peninsulas at Naramata (49°35′30″N 119°35′30″W), Summerland (49°34′23″N 119°37′45″W), or
Peachland (49°47′00″N 119°42′45″W)

Estuaries
Other rivers, particularly those located on coasts with significant tidal range, do not form a delta but enter into the
sea in the form of an estuary. Notable examples include the Saint Lawrence River and the Tagus estuary.

Inland deltas
In rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called
an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river will divide into multiple
branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea; such
an area is known as an inland delta, and often occur on former lake
beds. The Inner Niger Delta is the most notable example. The Amazon
has also an inland delta before the island of Marajó.

In some cases a river flowing into a flat arid area splits into channels
which then evaporates as it progresses into the desert. Okavango Delta
in Botswana is one well-known example.
Okavango Delta

Sedimentary structure
The formation of a delta consists of three main forms: the topset, foreset/frontset, and bottomset.[3]
• The bottomset beds are created from the suspended sediment that settles out of the water as the river flows into
the body of water and loses energy. The suspended load is carried out the furthest into the body of water than all
other types of sediment creating a turbidite. These beds are laid down in horizontal layers and consist of smaller
grains.
• The foreset beds in turn build over the bottomset beds as the main delta form advances. The foreset beds consist
of the bed load that the river is moving along which consists of larger sediments that roll along the main channel.
When it reaches the edge of the form, the bed load rolls over the edge, and builds up in steeply angled layers over
the top of the bottomset beds. The angle of the outermost edge of the delta is created by the sediments angle of
repose. As the forsets build outward (which make up the majority of the delta) they pile up and miniature
landslides occur. This slope is created in this fashion as the bedload continues to be deposited and the delta moves
outward. In cross section, one would see the foresets lying in angled, parallel bands, showing each stage of the
creation of the delta.
• The topset beds in turn overlay the foresets, and are horizontal layers of smaller sediment size that form as the
main channel of the river shifts elsewhere and the larger particles of the bed load no longer are deposited. As the
channels move across the top of the delta, the suspended load settles out in horizontal beds over the top.
River delta 40

Deltas and alluvial fans

Deltas are differentiated from alluvial fans in that deltas have a shallow slope, contain fine-grained sediment (sand
and mud), and always flow into a body of water. Alluvial fans, on the other hand, are steep, have coarse-grained
sediments (including boulders), and are dominated by debris flows and large floods; these floods are often flash
floods. They can either flow onto a land surface, or into a body of water; in the latter case, they are called alluvial fan
deltas.

Examples of notable deltas

The most famous delta is that of the Nile River, and it is this delta from which the term is derived. The
Ganges/Brahmaputra combination delta spans most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, empties into the Bay of Bengal
and is the world's largest delta. Other rivers with notable deltas include, the Fly River, the Niger River, the
Tigris-Euphrates, the Rhine, the Po, the Rhône, the Danube, the Ebro, the Volga, the Lena, the Indus, the
Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy), the Mekong, the Huanghe, the Yangtze, the Sacramento-San Joaquin, the Mississippi, the
Orinoco, and the Paraná.

Ecological threats to deltas

Human activities, including diversion of water and the creation of dams for hydroelectric power or to create
reservoirs can radically alter delta ecosystems. Dams block sedimentation which can cause the delta to erode away.
The use of water upstream can greatly increase salinity levels as less fresh water flows to meet the salty ocean water.
While nearly all deltas have been impacted to some degree by humans, the Nile Delta and Colorado River Delta are
some of the most extreme examples of the ecological devastation caused to deltas by damming and diversion of
water.

Deltas on Mars
Researchers have found a number of examples of deltas that formed in Martian lakes. Finding deltas is a major sign
that Mars once had a lot of water. Deltas have been found over a wide geographical range. Below are pictures of a
few.[6]

Delta in Ismenius Lacus
quadrangle, as seen by THEMIS.
Delta in Lunae Palus Delta in Margaritifer Sinus Probable delta in a
quadrangle, as seen by quadrangle as seen by crater to the NE of
THEMIS. THEMIS. Holden Crater, as
seen by Mars Global
Surveyor. Image in
Margaritifer Sinus
quadrangle.
River delta 41

References
[1] Slingerland, R. and N. D. Smith (1998), Necessary conditions for a meandering-river avulsion, Geology (Boulder), 26, 435–438.
[2] Fagherazzi, S (Dec 2008). "Self-organization of tidal deltas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 105 (48): 18692–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806668105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2596246. PMID 19033190.
[3] Characteristics of deltas (http:/ / www. maine. gov/ doc/ nrimc/ mgs/ explore/ surficial/ facts/ dec03. htm). (Available archived at (http:/ /
web. archive. org/ web/ 20061012185632/ http:/ / www. maine. gov/ doc/ nrimc/ mgs/ explore/ surficial/ facts/ dec03. htm) – checked Dec
2008.)
[4] Bernard Biju-Duval, J. Edwin Swezey. "Sedimentary Geology". Page 183. ISBN 2710808021. Editions TECHNIP, 2002. Partial text (http:/ /
books. google. com. au/ books?id=2txTeLt5MXgC) on Google Books.
[5] "Geological and Petrophysical Characterization of the Ferron Sandstone for 3-D Simulation of a Fluvial-deltaic Reservoir". By Thomas C.
Chidsey, Thomas C. Chidsey, Jr (ed), Utah Geological Survey, 2002. ISBN 1557916683. Pages 2–17. Partial text (http:/ / books. google. com.
au/ books?id=jacORXGQG9AC) on Google Books.
[6] Irwin III, R. et al. 2005. An intense terminal epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 2. Increased runoff and paleolake
development. Journal of Geophysical Research: 10. E12S15

External links
• Louisiana State University Geology (http://www.geol.lsu.edu/WDD/DELTA_LISTS/continents.htm) –
World Deltas

Lake
A lake is a body of relatively still fresh or
salt water of considerable size, localized in a
basin that is surrounded by land. Lakes are
inland and not part of the ocean, and are
larger and deeper than ponds.[1] [2] Lakes
can be contrasted with rivers or streams,
which are usually flowing. However most
lakes are fed and drained by rivers and
streams.

Natural lakes are generally found in

mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas
with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are
found in endorheic basins or along the Oeschinen Lake in the Swiss Alps
courses of mature rivers. In some parts of
the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are
temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing
them.

Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use, for hydro-electric power generation or
domestic water supply, or for aesthetic or recreational purposes.
Lake 42

Etymology, meaning, and usage of "lake"

The word lake comes from Middle English lake ("lake, pond,
waterway"), from Old English lacu ("pond, pool, stream"), from
Proto-Germanic *lakō ("pond, ditch, slow moving stream"), from the
Proto-Indo-European root *leg'- ("to leak, drain"). Cognates include
Dutch laak ("lake, pond, ditch"), Middle Low German lāke ("water
pooled in a riverbed, puddle"), German Lache ("pool, puddle"), and
Icelandic lækur ("slow flowing stream"). Also related are the English
words leak and leach.

There is considerable uncertainty about defining the difference Blowdown Lake in the mountains near
between lakes and ponds, and no current internationally accepted Pemberton, British Columbia
definition of either term across scientific disciplines or political
boundaries exists. For example, limnologists have defined lakes as
water bodies which are simply a larger version of a pond, which have
wave action on the shoreline or where wind-induced turbulence plays a
major role in mixing the water column. None of these definitions
completely excludes ponds and all are difficult to measure. For this
reason there has been increasing use made of simple size-based
definitions to separate ponds and lakes. One definition of lake is a body
of water of 2 hectares (5 acres) or more in area,[4] :331[5] however
others have defined lakes as waterbodies of 5 hectares (12 acres) and
above, or 8 hectares (20 acres) and above (see also the definition of Lake Tahoe on the border of California and
"pond"). Charles Elton, one of the founders of ecology, regarded lakes Nevada
as waterbodies of 40 hectares (99 acres) or more.[6] The term lake is
also used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre, which is a dry basin
most of the time but may become filled under seasonal conditions of
heavy rainfall. In common usage many lakes bear names ending with
the word pond, and a lesser number of names ending with lake are in
quasi-technical fact, ponds.

In lake ecology the environment of a lake is referred to as lacustrine.

Large lakes are occasionally referred to as "inland seas," and small seas
are occasionally referred to as lakes, such as Lake Maracaibo, which is
actually a bay. Larger lakes often invert the word order, as in the
names of each of the Great Lakes,in North America.
Only one lake in the English Lake District is actually called a lake;
other than Bassenthwaite Lake, the others are all meres or waters. Only
six bodies of water in Scotland are known as lakes (the others are
lochs): the Lake of Menteith, the Lake of the Hirsel, Pressmennan
The Caspian Sea is either the world's largest lake
Lake, Cally Lake near Gatehouse of Fleet, the saltwater Manxman's [3]
or a full-fledged sea.
Lake at Kirkcudbright Bay and The Lake at Fochabers. Of these only
the Lake of Menteith and Cally Lake are natural bodies of fresh water.
Lake 43

Distribution of lakes
The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the
Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes. More than 60 percent of the
world's lakes are in Canada; this is because of the deranged drainage
system that dominates the country.
The Seven Rila Lakes are a group of glacial lakes
Finland is known as The Land of the Thousand Lakes, (actually there in the Bulgarian Rila mountains.
are 187,888 lakes in Finland, of which 60,000 are large),[7] and the
U.S. state of Minnesota is known as The Land of Ten Thousand Lakes. The license plates of the Canadian province
of Manitoba used to claim 100,000 lakes[8] as one-upmanship on Minnesota, whose license plates boast of its 10,000
lakes.[9]
Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a river or stream, which maintain a lakes's average level
by allowing the drainage of excess water.[10] Some do not and lose water solely by evaporation or underground
seepage or both. They are termed endorheic lakes (see below).
Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for hydro-electric power generation, aestetic purposes, recreational
purposes, industrial use, agricultural use or domestic water supply.
Evidence of extraterrestrial lakes exists; "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane" was announced by NASA
as returned by the Cassini Probe observing the moon Titan, which orbits the planet Saturn.
Globally, lakes are greatly outnumbered by ponds: of an estimated 304-million standing water bodies worldwide, 91
percent are 1 hectare (2.5 acres) or less in area (see definition of ponds).[11] Small lakes are also much more
numerous than big lakes: in terms of area, one-third of the world's standing water is represented by lakes and ponds
of 10 hectares (25 acres) or less. However, large lakes contribute disproportionately to the area of standing water
with 122 large lakes of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi, 100,000 ha, 247,000 acres) or more representing about
29 percent of the total global area of standing inland water.

Origin of natural lakes

There are a number of natural processes that can form lakes. A recent
tectonic uplift of a mountain range can create bowl-shaped depressions
that accumulate water and form lakes. The advance and retreat of
glaciers can scrape depressions in the surface where water
accumulates; such lakes are common in Scandinavia, Patagonia,
Siberia and Canada. The most notable examples are probably the Great
Lakes of North America.

Lakes can also form by means of landslides or by glacial blockages.

A portion of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, United
An example of the latter occurred during the last ice age in the U.S. States
state of Washington, when a huge lake formed behind a glacial flow;
when the ice retreated, the result was an immense flood that created the Dry Falls at Sun Lakes, Washington.
Salt lakes (also called saline lakes) can form where there is no natural outlet or where the water evaporates rapidly
and the drainage surface of the water table has a higher-than-normal salt content. Examples of salt lakes include
Great Salt Lake, the Aral Sea and the Dead Sea.
Lake 44

Small, crescent-shaped lakes called oxbow lakes can form in river

valleys as a result of meandering. The slow-moving river forms a
sinuous shape as the outer side of bends are eroded away more rapidly
than the inner side. Eventually a horseshoe bend is formed and the
river cuts through the narrow neck. This new passage then forms the
main passage for the river and the ends of the bend become silted up,
thus forming a bow-shaped lake.

Crater lakes are formed in volcanic craters and calderas which fill up
Salt crystals, on the shore of Lake Urmia, Iran
with precipitation more rapidly than they empty via evaporation.
Sometimes the latter are called caldera lakes, although often no
distinction is made. An example is Crater Lake in Oregon, located within the caldera of Mount Mazama. The caldera
was created in a massive volcanic eruption that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama around 4860 BC.
Gloe Lakes are freshwater lakes that have emerged when the water they consists of has been separated, not
considerably long before, from the sea as a consequence of post-glacial rebound.
Some lakes, such as Lake Jackson in Florida, USA, come into existence as a result of sinkhole activity.
Lake Vostok is a subglacial lake in Antarctica, possibly the largest in the world. The pressure from the ice atop it and
its internal chemical composition mean that, if the lake were drilled into, a fissure could result that would spray
somewhat like a geyser.
Most lakes are geologically young and shrinking since the natural results of erosion will tend to wear away the sides
and fill the basin. Exceptions are those such as Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika that lie along continental rift zones
and are created by the crust's subsidence as two plates are pulled apart. These lakes are the oldest and deepest in the
world. Lake Baikal, which is 25-30 million years old, is deepening at a faster rate than it is being filled by erosion
and may be destined over millions of years to become attached to the global ocean. The Red Sea, for example, is
thought to have originated as a rift valley lake.

Types of lakes
• Periglacial lake: Part of the lake's margin is formed by an ice sheet,
ice cap or glacier, the ice having obstructed the natural drainage of
the land.
• Subglacial lake: A lake which is permanently covered by ice. They
can occur under glaciers, ice caps or ice sheets. There are many
such lakes, but Lake Vostok in Antarctica is by far the largest. They
are kept liquid because the overlying ice acts as a thermal insulator
retaining energy introduced to its underside by friction, by water
percolating through crevasses, by the pressure from the mass of the
One of the many artificial lakes in Arizona at
ice sheet above or by geothermal heating below.
sunset.
• Glacial lake: a lake with origins in a melted glacier, such as a kettle
lake.
• Artificial lake: A lake created by flooding land behind a dam, called an impoundment or reservoir, by deliberate
human excavation, or by the flooding of an excavation incident to a mineral-extraction operation such as an open
pit mine or quarry. Some of the world's largest lakes are reservoirs like Hirakud Dam in India.
Lake 45

• Endorheic lake, terminal or closed: A lake which has no significant

outflow, either through rivers or underground diffusion. Any water
within an endorheic basin leaves the system only through
evaporation or seepage. These lakes, such as Lake Eyre in central
Australia or the Aral Sea in central Asia, are most common in desert
locations.
• Meromictic lake: A lake which has layers of water which do not
intermix. The deepest layer of water in such a lake does not contain
any dissolved oxygen. The layers of sediment at the bottom of a
The crater lake of Volcán Irazú, Costa Rica.
meromictic lake remain relatively undisturbed because there are no
living aerobic organisms.
• Fjord lake: A lake in a glacially eroded valley that has been eroded
below sea level.
• Oxbow lake: A lake which is formed when a wide meander from a
stream or a river is cut off to form a lake. They are called "oxbow"
lakes due to the distinctive curved shape that results from this
process.
• Rift lake or sag pond: A lake which forms as a result of subsidence
along a geological fault in the Earth's tectonic plates. Examples
include the Rift Valley lakes of eastern Africa and Lake Baikal in
These kettle lakes in Alaska were formed by a
Siberia. retreating glacier.
• Underground lake: A lake which is formed under the surface of the
Earth's crust. Such a lake may be associated with caves, aquifers or
springs.
• Crater lake: A lake which forms in a volcanic caldera or crater after
the volcano has been inactive for some time. Water in this type of
lake may be fresh or highly acidic, and may contain various
dissolved minerals. Some also have geothermal activity, especially
if the volcano is merely dormant rather than extinct.
• Lava lake: A pool of molten lava contained in a volcanic crater or
other depression. Lava lakes that have partly or completely
solidified are also referred to as lava lakes. Ephemeral 'Lake Badwater', a lake only noted
after heavy winter and spring rainfall, Badwater
• Former: A lake which is no longer in existence. Such lakes include
Basin, Death Valley National Park.
prehistoric lakes and lakes which have permanently dried up
through evaporation or human intervention. Owens Lake in California, USA, is an example of a former lake.
Former lakes are a common feature of the Basin and Range area of southwestern North America.
• Ephemeral lake: A seasonal lake that exists as a body of water during only part of the year.
• Intermittent lake: A lake with no water during a part of the year.
• Shrunken: Closely related to former lakes, a shrunken lake is one which has drastically decreased in size over
geological time. Lake Agassiz, which once covered much of central North America, is a good example of a
shrunken lake. Two notable remnants of this lake are Lake Winnipeg and Lake Winnipegosis.
• Eolic lake: A lake which forms in a depression created by the activity of the winds.
• Vlei, in South Africa, shallow lakes which vary considerably with seasons
Lake 46

Characteristics
Lakes have numerous features in addition to lake type, such as
drainage basin (also known as catchment area), inflow and outflow,
nutrient content, dissolved oxygen, pollutants, pH, and sedimentation.
Changes in the level of a lake are controlled by the difference between
the input and output compared to the total volume of the lake.
Significant input sources are precipitation onto the lake, runoff carried
by streams and channels from the lake's catchment area, groundwater
channels and aquifers, and artificial sources from outside the
catchment area. Output sources are evaporation from the lake, surface
Lake Mapourika, New Zealand
and groundwater flows, and any extraction of lake water by humans.
As climate conditions and human water requirements vary, these will
create fluctuations in the lake level.

Lakes can be also categorized on the basis of their richness in nutrients, which typically affect plant growth.
Nutrient-poor lakes are said to be oligotrophic and are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life.
Mesotrophic lakes have good clarity and an average level of nutrients. Eutrophic lakes are enriched with nutrients,
resulting in good plant growth and possible algal blooms. Hypertrophic lakes are bodies of water that have been
excessively enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to devastating algal
blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake
catchment area. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poor ecosystem due to decreased dissolved oxygen.
Due to the unusual relationship between water's temperature and its density, lakes form layers called thermoclines,
layers of drastically varying temperature relative to depth. Fresh water is most dense at about 4 degrees Celsius
(39.2 °F) at sea level. When the temperature of the water at the surface of a lake reaches the same temperature as
deeper water, as it does during the cooler months in temperate climates, the water in the lake can mix, bringing
oxygen-starved water up from the depths and bringing oxygen down to decomposing sediments. Deep temperate
lakes can maintain a reservoir of cold water year-round, which allows some cities to tap that reservoir for deep lake
water cooling.
Since the surface water of deep tropical lakes never reaches the
temperature of maximum density, there is no process that makes the
water mix. The deeper layer becomes oxygen starved and can become
saturated with carbon dioxide, or other gases such as sulfur dioxide if
there is even a trace of volcanic activity. Exceptional events, such as
earthquakes or landslides, can cause mixing which rapidly brings the
deep layers up to the surface and release a vast cloud of gas which lay
trapped in solution in the colder water at the bottom of the lake. This is
called a limnic eruption. An example is the disaster at Lake Nyos in
Lake Teletskoye, Siberia
Cameroon. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in water is directly
related to pressure. As deep water surfaces, the pressure drops and a
vast amount of gas comes out of solution. Under these circumstances carbon dioxide is hazardous because it is
heavier than air and displaces it, so it may flow down a river valley to human settlements and cause mass
asphyxiation.

The material at the bottom of a lake, or lake bed, may be composed of a wide variety of inorganics, such as silt or
sand, and organic material, such as decaying plant or animal matter. The composition of the lake bed has a
significant impact on the flora and fauna found within the lake's environs by contributing to the amounts and the
types of nutrients available.
Lake 47

A paired (black and white) layer of the varved lake sediments correspond to a year. During winter, when organisms
die, carbon is deposited down, resulting to a black layer. At the same year, during summer, only few organic
materials are deposited, resulting to a white layer at the lake bed. These are commonly used to track past
paleontological events.

Limnology
Limnology is the study of inland bodies of water and related
ecosystems. Limnology divides lakes into three zones: the littoral zone,
a sloped area close to land; the photic or open-water zone, where
sunlight is abundant; and the deep-water profundal or benthic zone,
where little sunlight can reach. The depth to which light can reach in
lakes depends on turbidity, determined by the density and size of
suspended particles. A particle is in suspension if its weight is less than
the random turbidity forces acting upon it. These particles can be
Lake Billy Chinook, Deschutes National Forest,
sedimentary or biological in origin and are responsible for the color of
Oregon.
the water. Decaying plant matter, for instance, may be responsible for a
yellow or brown color, while algae may cause greenish water. In very
shallow water bodies, iron oxides make water reddish brown. Biological particles include algae and detritus.
Bottom-dwelling detritivorous fish can be responsible for turbid waters, because they stir the mud in search of food.
Piscivorous fish contribute to turbidity by eating plant-eating (planktonivorous) fish, thus increasing the amount of
algae (see aquatic trophic cascade). The light depth or transparency is measured by using a Secchi disk, a 20-cm
(8 in) disk with alternating white and black quadrants. The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is the Secchi
depth, a measure of transparency. The Secchi disk is commonly used to test for eutrophication. For a detailed look at
these processes, see lentic ecosystems.

A lake moderates the surrounding region's temperature and climate because water has a very high specific heat
capacity (4,186 J·kg−1·K−1). In the daytime a lake can cool the land beside it with local winds, resulting in a sea
breeze; in the night it can warm it with a land breeze.
Lake 48

How lakes disappear

The lake may be infilled with deposited sediment and gradually
become a wetland such as a swamp or marsh. Large water plants,
typically totos, accelerate this closing process significantly
because they partially decompose to form peat soils that fill the
shallows. Conversely, peat soils in a marsh can naturally burn and
reverse this process to recreate a shallow lake. Turbid lakes and
lakes with many plant-eating fish tend to disappear more slowly. A
"disappearing" lake (barely noticeable on a human timescale)
typically has extensive plant mats at the water's edge. These
become a new habitat for other plants, like peat moss when
conditions are right, and animals, many of which are very rare.
Gradually the lake closes and young peat may form, forming a fen.
In lowland river valleys where a river can meander, the presence
of peat is explained by the infilling of historical oxbow lakes. In Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image, with the actual
the very last stages of succession, trees can grow in, eventually lake in blue, and vegetation on top of the old lake bed
in green.
turning the wetland into a forest.

Some lakes can disappear seasonally. These are called intermittent

lakes and can be found in karstic terrain. A prime example of an
intermittent lake is Lake Cerknica in Slovenia. Other intermittent
lakes are only the result of above-average precipitation in a closed,
or endorheic basin, usually filling dry lake beds. This can occur in
some of the driest places on earth, like Death Valley. This
occurred in the spring of 2005, after unusually heavy rains.[12] The
lake did not last into the summer, and was quickly evaporated (see
photos to right). A more commonly filled lake of this type is
Sevier Lake of west-central Utah. Lake Badwater, February 9, 2005. Landsat 5 satellite
photo.
Sometimes a lake will disappear quickly. On 3 June 2005, in
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, a lake called Lake Beloye
vanished in a matter of minutes. News sources reported that
government officials theorized that this strange phenomenon may
have been caused by a shift in the soil underneath the lake that
allowed its water to drain through channels leading to the Oka
River.[13]

The presence of ground permafrost is important to the persistence

of some lakes. According to research published in the journal
Science ("Disappearing Arctic Lakes", June 2005), thawing
permafrost may explain the shrinking or disappearance of Badwater Basin dry lake, February 15, 2007. Landsat 5
hundreds of large Arctic lakes across western Siberia. The idea satellite photo.

here is that rising air and soil temperatures thaw permafrost,

allowing the lakes to drain away into the ground.

Some lakes disappear because of human development factors. The shrinking Aral Sea is described as being
"murdered" by the diversion for irrigation of the rivers feeding it.
Lake 49

Extraterrestrial lakes
At present the surface of the planet Mars is too cold and has too little
atmospheric pressure to permit the pooling of liquid water on the
surface. Geologic evidence appears to confirm, however, that ancient
lakes once formed on the surface. It is also possible that volcanic
activity on Mars will occasionally melt subsurface ice, creating large
lakes. Under current conditions this water would quickly freeze and
evaporate unless insulated in some manner, such as by a coating of
volcanic ash.

Only one world other than Earth is known to harbor lakes, Saturn's
Titan's north polar hydrocarbon seas and lakes as
largest moon, Titan. Photographs and spectroscopic analysis by the
seen in a false-color Cassini synthetic aperture
Cassini-Huygens spacecraft show liquid ethane on the surface, which radar mosaic.
is thought to be mixed with liquid methane.
Jupiter's small moon Io is volcanically active due to tidal stresses, and as a result sulfur deposits have accumulated
on the surface. Some photographs taken during the Galileo mission appear to show lakes of liquid sulfur on the
surface.[14]
There are dark basaltic plains on the Moon, similar to lunar maria but smaller, that are called lacus (singular lacus,
Latin for "lake") because they were thought by early astronomers to be lakes of water.

Notable lakes
• Lake Michigan-Huron is the largest lake by surface area:
117,350 km². It also has the longest lake coastline in the world:
8,790 km. If Huron and Michigan are considered two lakes, Lake
Superior is the largest lake, with 82,414 km². However, Huron still
has the longest coastline at 6,157 km (2980 km excluding the
coastlines of its many inner islands). The world's smallest
geological ocean, the Caspian Sea, at 394,299 km² has a surface
area greater than the six largest freshwater lakes combined, and it's
frequently cited as the world's largest lake.
Round Tangle Lake, one of the Tangle Lakes,
• The deepest lake is Lake Baikal in Siberia, with a bottom at located 2,864 feet (873 m) above sea level in
1,637 m. Its mean depth is also the greatest in the world (749 m). interior Alaska
It is also the world's largest lake by volume (23,600 km³, though
smaller than the Caspian Sea at 78,200 km³), and the second longest (about 630 km from tip to tip).
• The longest lake is Lake Tanganyika, with a length of about 660 km (measured along the lake's center line).
It is also the second largest by volume and second deepest (1,470 m) in the world, after lake Baikal.
• The world's oldest lake is Lake Baikal, followed by Lake Tanganyika (Tanzania).
• The world's highest lake is the crater lake of Ojos del Salado, at 6390 metres (20965 ft).[15] The Lhagba Pool in
Tibet at 6368 m (20892 ft) comes second.[16]
• The highest large freshwater lake in the world is Lake Manasarovar in Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
• The world's highest commercially navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia at 3812 m (12507 ft). It is
also the largest freshwater (and second largest overall) lake in South America.
• The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 m (1,371 ft) below sea level. It is also
one of the lakes with highest salt concentration.
Lake 50

• Lake Huron has the longest lake coastline in the world: about 2980 km, excluding the coastline of its many inner
islands.
• The largest island in a freshwater lake is Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron, with a surface area of 2,766 km². Lake
Manitou, located on Manitoulin Island, is the largest lake on an island in a freshwater lake.
• The largest lake located on an island is Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island, with an area of 5,542 km² and a
maximum length of 123 km.[17]
• The largest lake in the world that drains naturally in two directions is Wollaston Lake.
• Lake Toba on the island of Sumatra is located in what is probably the largest resurgent caldera on Earth.
• The largest lake located completely within the boundaries of a single city is Lake Wanapitei in the city of
Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Before the current city boundaries came into effect in 2001, this status was held by
Lake Ramsey, also in Sudbury.
• Lake Enriquillo in Dominican Republic is the only saltwater lake in the world inhabited by crocodiles.
• Lake Bernard, Ontario, Canada, is the largest freshwater lake in the world with no islands.
• The largest lake in one country is Lake Michigan, in the U.S.A. However, it is sometimes considered part of Lake
Michigan-Huron, making the record go to Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, in Canada, the largest lake
within one jurisdiction.
• The largest lake on an island in a lake on an island is Crater Lake on Vulcano Island in Lake Taal on the island
of Luzon, The Philippines.

Largest by continent
The largest lakes (surface area) by continent are:
• Australia - Lake Eyre (salt lake)
• Africa - Lake Victoria, also the third-largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one of the Great Lakes of Africa.
• Antarctica - Lake Vostok (subglacial)
• Asia - Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is considered a lake, it is the largest in Eurasia, but is divided between the
two geographic continents)
• Oceania - Lake Eyre when filled; the largest permanent (and freshwater) lake in Oceania is Lake Taupo.
• Europe - Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both located in northwestern Russia.
• North America - Lake Michigan-Huron, which is hydrologically a single lake. However, lakes Huron and
Michigan are often considered separate lakes, in which case Lake Superior would be the largest.
• South America - Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest navigable body of water on Earth at 3,821 m above sea
level. The much larger Lake Maracaibo is considered by some to be the second-oldest lake on Earth, but since it
lies at sea level and nowadays is a contiguous body of water with the sea, others consider that it has turned into a
bay.

References
[1] Britannica online. "Lake (physical feature)" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 328083/ lake). . Retrieved 2008-06-25. "[a
Lake is] any relatively large body of slowly moving or standing water that occupies an inland basin of appreciable size. Definitions that
precisely distinguish lakes, ponds, swamps, and even rivers and other bodies of nonoceanic water are not well established. It may be said,
however, that rivers and streams are relatively fast moving; marshes and swamps contain relatively large quantities of grasses, trees or shrubs;
and ponds are relatively small in comparison to lakes. Geologically defined, lakes are temporary bodies of water."
[2] "Dictionary.com definition" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ lake). . Retrieved 2008-06-25.
[3] The Caspian Sea is generally regarded by geographers, biologists and limnologists as a huge inland salt lake. However, the Caspian large size
means that for some purposes it is better modeled as a sea. Geologically, the Caspian, Black and Mediterranean seas are remnants of the
ancient Tethys Ocean. Politically, the distinction between a sea and a lake may affect how the Caspian is treated by international law.
[4] Williams, Penny; Whitfield, Mericia; Biggs, Jeremy; Bray, Simon; Fox, Gill; Nicolet, Pascale; Sear, David (2004). "Comparative biodiversity
of rivers, streams, ditches and ponds in an agricultural landscape in Southern England" (http:/ / www. seaturtle. org/ PDF/
Williams_2003_BiolConserv. pdf). Biological Conservation 115 (2): 329–341. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00153-8. . Retrieved 2009-06-16.
Lake 51

[5] Moss, Brian; Johnes, Penny; Phillips, Geoffrey (1996). "The monitoring of ecological quality and the classification of standing waters in
temperate regions:" (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 119958386/ abstract). Biological Reviews 71 (2): 301–339.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1996.tb00750.x. . Retrieved 2009-06-16.
[6] Elton, Charles Sutherland; Miller, Richard S. (1954). "The Ecological Survey of Animal Communities: With a Practical System of
Classifying Habitats by Structural Characters" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2256872). The Journal of Ecology (British Ecological Society)
42 (2): 460–496. doi:10.2307/2256872. . Retrieved 2009-06-16.
[7] Statistics Finland (http:/ / www. stat. fi/ index_en. html)
[8] Licence Plates of the World (http:/ / worldlicenseplates. com/ world/ CN_MANI. html)
[9] Minnesota Driver and Vehicle Services (http:/ / www. dps. state. mn. us/ dvs/ PlBrochure/ PlateFrame. htm)
[10] Carreck, Rosalind, ed (1982). The Family Encyclopedia of Natural History. The Hamlyn Publishing Group. pp. 205. ISBN 011202257.
[11] Downing JA, Prairie YT, Cole JJ, Duarte CM, Tranvick LJ, Striegel RG, McDowell WH, Kortelainen P, Melack JM, Middleburg JJ (2006).
The global abundance and size distribution of lakes, ponds and impoundments. Limnology and Oceanography, 51: 2388-2397.
[12] NPR.org (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=4521310)
[13] The Montana Standard (http:/ / www. mtstandard. com/ articles/ 2005/ 06/ 04/ newsnationworld/ hjjejdjghhjejd. txt)
[14] The Nine Planets Solar System Tour. "Io" (http:/ / www. nineplanets. org/ io. html). . Retrieved 2008-08-07.
[15] Andes Website - Information about Ojos del Salado volcano, a high mountain in South America and the world's highest volcano (http:/ /
www. andes. org. uk/ peak-info-6000/ ojos-del-salado-info. asp)
[16] Highest Lake (http:/ / www. highestlake. com/ )
[17] The Lake and Island Combination (http:/ / www. elbruz. org/ islands/ Islands and Lakes. htm)

External links
• Lakes Database (http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/index/idx-lakes.html)
• Lake Classification Systems (http://www.mlswa.org/lkclassif1.htm)
• World's Most Beautiful Lakes (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/10/06/most-beautiful-lakes_n_751662.
html#s150822) - slideshow by The Huffington Post

Meander
A meander in general is a bend in a sinuous
watercourse. A meander is formed when the
moving water in a stream erodes the outer
banks and widens its valley. A stream of any
volume may assume a meandering course,
alternatively eroding sediments from the
outside of a bend and depositing them on the
inside. The result is a snaking pattern as the
stream meanders back and forth across its
down-valley axis. When a meander gets cut
off from the main stream, an oxbow lake is
A hypothetical stream bed following a tilted valley. The maximum gradient is
formed. Over time meanders migrate
along the down-valley axis represented by a hypothetical straight channel.
downstream, sometimes in such a short time Meanders develop, which lengthen the course of the stream, decreasing the
as to create civil engineering problems for gradient.
local municipalities attempting to maintain
stable roads and bridges.

There is not yet full consistency or standardization of scientific terminology used to describe watercourses. A variety
of
Meander 52

symbols and schemes exist. Parameters based on mathematical

formulae or numerical data vary as well, depending on the database
used by the theorist. Unless otherwise defined in a specific scheme
"meandering" and "sinuosity" here are synonymous and mean any
repetitious pattern of bends, or waveforms. In some schemes,
"meandering" applies only to rivers with exaggerated circular loops or
secondary meanders; that is, meanders on meanders.
Sinuosity is one of the channel types that a stream may assume over all
or part of its course. All streams are sinuous at some time in their
Meanders of the Rio Cauto at Guamo
geologic history over some part of their length. Embarcadero, Cuba.

Origin of term
The term derives from a river, located in present-day Turkey, and
known to the ancient Greeks as (Μαίανδρος) Maiandros or Maeander,
characterised by a very convoluted path along the lower reach. As
such, even in Classical Greece the name of the river had become a
common noun meaning anything convoluted and winding, such as
decorative patterns or speech and ideas, as well as the
geomorphological feature. Strabo said: "... its course is so exceedingly
winding that everything winding is called meandering."[1]

White River (Washington)

The Meander River is located, south of Izmir, east of the ancient Greek town of Miletus, now, Milet, Turkey. It
flows through a graben in the Menderes Massif, but has a flood plain much wider than the meander zone in its lower
reach. In the Turkish name, the Büyük Menderes River, Menderes is from "Meander". Meanders are also formed as a
result of deposition and erosion.

Meander geometry
The technical description of a meandering watercourse is termed
meander geometry or meander planform geometry.[2] It is
characterized as an irregular waveform. Ideal waveforms, such as a
sine wave, are one line thick, but in the case of a stream the width must
be taken into consideration. The bankfull width is the distance across
the bed at an average cross-section at the full-stream level, typically
estimated by the line of lowest vegetation.

As a waveform the meandering stream follows the down-valley axis, a

Meanders of the Potomac River at Little Orleans,
Maryland straight line fitted to the curve such that the sum of all the amplitudes
measured from it is zero. This axis represents the overall direction of
the stream.
Meander 53

At any cross-section the River/stream is following the sinuous axis, the centerline of the bed. Two consecutive
crossing points of sinuous and down-valley axes define a meander loop. The meander is two consecutive loops
pointing in opposite transverse directions. The distance of one meander along the down-valley axis is the meander
length or wavelength. The maximum distance from the down-valley axis to the sinuous axis of a loop is the meander
width or amplitude. The course at that point is the apex.
In contrast to sine waves, the loops of a meandering stream are more nearly circular. The curvature varies from a
maximum at the apex to zero at a crossing point (straight line), also called an inflection, because the curvature
changes direction in that vicinity. The radius of the loop is considered to be the straight line perpendicular to the
down-valley axis intersecting the sinuous axis at the apex. As the loop is not ideal, additional information is needed
to characterize it. The orientation angle is the angle between sinuous axis and down-valley axis at any point on the
sinuous axis.
A loop at the apex has an outer or convex bank and an inner or concave
bank. The meander belt is defined by an average meander width
measured from outer bank to outer bank instead of from centerline to
centerline. If there is a flood plain it extends beyond the meander belt.
The meander is then said to be free - it can be found anywhere in the
flood plain. If there is no flood plain the meanders are fixed.

Various mathematical formulae relate the variables of the meander

geometry. As it turns out some numerical parameters can be
Concave bank and convex bank, Great Ouse
established, which appear in the formulae. The waveform depends
Relief Channel, England. ultimately on the characteristics of the flow but the parameters are
independent of it and apparently are caused by geologic factors. In
general the meander length is 10-14 times, with an average 11 times, the fullbank channel width and 3 to 5 times,
with an average of 4.7 times, the radius of curvature at the apex. This radius is 2-3 times the channel width.

A meander has a depth pattern as well. The cross-overs are marked by

riffles, or shallow beds, while at the apices are pools. In a pool
direction of flow is downward, scouring the bed material. The major
volume, however, flows more slowly on the inside of the bend where,
due to decreased velocity, it deposits sediment.
The line of maximum depth, or channel, is the thalweg or thalweg line.
It is typically designated the borderline when rivers are used as
political borders. The thalweg hugs the outer banks and returns to Meander of the River Cuckmere in Southern
center over the riffles. The meander arc length is the distance along the England
thalweg over one meander. The river length is the length along the
centerline.
Meander 54

Formation
Meander formation is a result of natural factors and processes. The
waveform configuration of a stream is constantly changing. Once a
channel begins to follow a sinusoidal path the amplitude and concavity
of the loops increase dramatically due to the effect of helical flow
sweeping dense eroded material towards the inside of the bend, and
leaving the outside of the bend unprotected and therefore vulnerable to
accelerated erosion, forming a positive feedback loop. In the words of
Elizabeth A. Wood:[3]

... this process of making meanders seems to be a

self-intensifying process ... in which greater curvature
results in more erosion of the bank, which results in
greater curvature ...
Flow of a fluid around a bend is vortex flow in order to conserve
angular momentum. The speed of flow on the outside of the bend is
fastest, and on the inside of the bend is slowest. The water surface is
also super-elevated towards the outside of the bend, so on the floor of
the channel the water pressure is greater on the outside of the bend than
on the inside of the bend. This pressure gradient drives a cross-current
towards the inside of the bend.[4] The cross-current along the floor of
the channel is part of the secondary flow and sweeps dense eroded
material towards the inside of the bend. The cross-current then rises to
the surface near the inside of the bend and, moving near the surface,
flows towards the outside of the bend, forming a helical flow. The Life history of a meander

greater the curvature of the bend, and the faster the flow, the stronger is
the cross-current and the stronger the sweeping of dense eroded
material along the floor of the channel towards the inside bank.[5] [6]

The question of formation is why streams of any size become sinuous

in the first place. There are a number theories, not necessarily mutually
exclusive.

Stochastic theory
The stochastic theory can take many forms but one of the most general Spectacular meander scars, oxbow lakes and

statements is that of Scheidegger:[7] abandoned meanders in the broad flood plain of

the Rio Negro, Argentina. 2010 astronaut photo
The meander train is assumed to be the result of the from ISS.
stochastic fluctuations of the direction of flow due to the
random presence of direction-changing obstacles in the river path.
Given a flat smooth, tilted artificial surface, rainfall runs off it in sheets, but even in that case adhesion of water to
the surface and cohesion of drops produce rivulets at random. Natural surfaces are rough and erodible to different
degrees. The result of all the physical factors acting at random is channels that are not straight, which then
progressively become sinuous. Even channels that appear to be straight have a sinuous thalweg that leads eventually
to a sinuous channel.

Equilibrium theory
Meander 55

In the equilibrium theory, meanders decrease the stream gradient until an equilibrium between the erodibility of the
terrain and the transport capacity of the stream is reached.[8] A mass of water descending must give up potential
energy, which, given the same velocity at the end of the drop as at the beginning, is removed by interaction with the
material of the stream bed. The shortest distance; that is, a straight channel, results in the highest energy per unit of
length, disrupting the banks more, creating more sediment and aggrading the stream. The presence of meanders
allows the stream to adjust the length to an equilibrium energy per unit length in which the stream carries away all
the sediment that it produces.

Geomorphic/Morphotectonic theory
Geomorphic refers to the surface structure of the terrain. Morphotectonic means having to do with the deeper, or
tectonic (plate) structure of the rock. The features included under these categories are not random and guide streams
into non-random paths. They are predictable obstacles that instigate meander formation by deflecting the stream. For
example, the stream might be guided into a fault line (morphotectonic)..

Associated landforms

Erosion Mechanics
Most meanders occur in the region of a river channel with shallow
gradients, a well-developed floodplain, and cohesive floodplain
material. Deposition of sediment occurs on the inner edge, because the
secondary flow of the river[9] sweeps and rolls sand, rocks and other
submerged objects across the bed of the river towards the inside radius
of the river bend, creating a slip-off slope called a point bar. Erosion is
greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by
deposits of sand and rocks. The current on the outside bend is more
effective in eroding the unprotected soil, and the inside bend receives
The depositional slip off slope is on the left
steadily increasing deposits of sand and rocks, and the meander tends
whilst there is a small river cliff to the right.
to grow in the direction of the outside bend, forming a small cliff River Ashes Hollow, UK.
called a cut bank. This can be seen in areas where willows grow on the
banks of rivers; on the inside of meanders, willows are often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend, the
roots of the willows are often exposed and undercut, eventually leading the trees to fall into the river. This
demonstrates the river's movement. Slumping usually occurs on the concave sides of the banks resulting in mass
movements such as slides.

Deposits

Incised meanders

If the slope of an established meandering stream is suddenly increased

it will resume downward erosion – this happens when the base level of
the stream is reduced, for example due to tectonic uplift of the region, a
global fall in sea-level, collapse of a moraine-dammed lake
downstream, or by capture of the stream by a steeper one. As the
stream erodes downwards, its established meandering pattern will Glen Canyon, USA
remain as a deep valley known as an incised meander or entrenched
meander. Rivers in the Colorado Plateau and streams in the Ozark Plateau are noted for these incised meanders.
Meander 56

Oxbow lakes

Oxbow lakes are created when growing meanders intersect each other
and cut off a meander loop, leaving it without an active cutting stream.
Over a period of time, these oxbow lakes tend to dry out or fill in with
sediments.

Abandoned meander

Sometimes an incised meander is cut off, similar to an oxbow lake. Goosenecks of the San Juan River, SE Utah. Note
The resulting landform is known as an abandoned meander. In the cut-off meander at right center.

southwest United States it is also known as a rincon. One dramatic

example, on Lake Powell, is called "The Rincon."

Scroll-bars

Scroll-bars are a result of continuous lateral migration of a meander

loop that creates an asymmetrical ridge and swale topography[10] on
the inside of the bends. The topography is generally parallel to the
meander and is related to migrating bar forms and back bar chutes[11]
which carve sediment out from the outside of the curve and deposit
sediment in the slower flowing water on the inside of the loop, in a
process called lateral accretion. Scroll-bar sediments are characterized
by cross-bedding and a pattern of fining upward.[12] These
characteristics are a result of the dynamic river system, where larger
grains are transported during high energy flood events and then
gradually die down, depositing smaller material with time (Batty
2006). Deposits for meandering rivers are generally homogeneous and
laterally extensive unlike the more heterogeneous braided river
deposits.[13] There are two distinct patterns of scroll-bar depositions;
the eddy accretion scroll bar pattern and the point-bar scroll pattern.
Meanders, scroll-bars and oxbow lakes in the
When looking down the river valley they can be distinguished because Songhua River
the point-bar scroll patterns are convex and the eddy accretion scroll
bar patterns are concave.[14] Scroll bars often look lighter at the tops of the ridges and darker in the swales. This is
because the tops can be shaped by wind, either adding fine grains or by keeping the area unvegetated, while the
darkness in the swales can be attributed to silts and clays washing in during high water periods. This added sediment
in addition to water that catches in the swales is in turn is a favorable environment for vegetation that will also
accumulate in the swales.
Meander 57

Derived quantities
The meander ratio[15] or sinuosity index[16] is a means of quantifying how much a river or stream meanders (how
much its course deviates from the shortest possible path). It is calculated as the length of the stream divided by the
length of the valley. A perfectly straight river would have a meander ratio of 1 (it would be the same length as its
valley), while the higher this ratio is above 1, the more the river meanders.
Sinuosity indices are calculated from the map or from an aerial photograph measured over a distance called the
reach, which should be at least 20 times the average fullbank channel width. The length of the stream is measured by
channel, or thalweg, length over the reach, while the bottom value of the ratio is the downvalley length or air
distance of the stream between two points on it defining the reach.
The sinuosity index plays a part in mathematical descriptions of streams. The index may need to be elaborated
because the valley may meander as well; i.e., the downvalley length is not identical to the reach. In that case the
valley index is the meander ratio of the valley while the channel index is the meander ratio of the channel. The
channel sinuosity index is the channel length divided by the valley length and the standard sinuosity index is the
channel index divided by the valley index. Distinctions may become even more subtle.[17]
Sinuosity Index has a non-mathematical utility as well. Streams can be placed in categories arranged by it; for
example, when the index is between 1 to 1.5 the river is sinuous, but if between 1.5 and 4, then meandering. The
index is a measure also of stream velocity and sediment load, those quantities being maximized at an index of 1
(straight).

References and notes

[1] Strabo, Geography, Book 12 Chapter 8 Section 15.
[2] The technical definitions of this section rely heavily on Julien, Pierre Y. (2002). River Mechanics. Cambridge University press. pp. 179–184.
ISBN 0521529700. In addition concepts are utilized from Graf, Walter (1984). Hydraulics of Sediment Transport. Water Resources
Publications. pp. 261–265. ISBN 0-918334-56-X.
[3] Wood, Elizabeth A. (1975). Science from Your Airplane Window: 2nd Revised Edition. New York: Courier Dover Publications. p. 45.
ISBN 0486232050.

Near the bed, where velocity and thus the centrifugal effects are lowest, the balance of forces is
dominated by the inward hydraulic gradient of the super-elevated water surface and secondary flow
moves toward the inner bank.
Hickin, Edward J. (2003). "Meandering Channels". In Middleton, Gerard V.. Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks. New York:
Springer. pp. 432. ISBN 1 402 008724

One of the important consequences of helical flow in meanders is that sediment eroded from the outside
of a meander bend tends to be moved to the inner bank or point bar of the next downstream bend.
Hickin, Edward J. (2003). "Meandering Channels". In Middleton, Gerard V.. Encyclopedia of Sediments and
Sedimentary Rocks. New York: Springer. pp. 432. ISBN 1 402 008724
[6] Hickin, Edward J. (2003). "Meandering Channels". In Middleton, Gerard V.. Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks. Dordrecht,
Boston, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 434–435. ISBN 1-4020-0872-4.
[7] Scheidegger, Adrien E. (2004). Morphotectonics. Berlin, New York: Springer. p. 113. ISBN 3540200177.
[8] Riley, Ann L. (1998). Restoring Streams in Cities: A Guide for Planners, Policymakers and Citizens. Washington DC: Island Press. p. 137.
ISBN 1559630426.
[9] Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 107 (2002) (http:/ / www. agu. org/ pubs/ crossref/ 2002/ 2001JC001082. shtml)
[10] Woolfe and Purdon; Purdon, Richard (1996). "Deposits of a rapidly eroding meandering river: terrace cut and fill in the Taupo Volcanic
Zone". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 39: 243–249. doi:10.1080/00288306.1996.9514708.
[11] K. Whipple (September 2004). "Alluvial channels and their landforms". Surface Processes and Landscape Evolution.
[12] Sam Boggs, Jr. (2003). Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (4 ed.). NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130996963.
[13] G. Wasser (2005). "A Comparison Of Meandering River Deposits From The Middle Belly River And Horsefly With Recent Milk River
Valley Deposits; Central And Southern Alberta". Calgary, Alberta.
[14] Norman D. Smith and John Rogers (1999). Fluvial Sedimentology (6 ed.). blackwell publishing. ISBN 0632053542.
[15] Shaw, Lewis C. (1984). Pennsylvania Gazetteer of Streams Part II. Bulletin No. 16. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of
Environmental Resources. p. 8. OCLC 17150333.
Meander 58

[16] Gordon, Nancy D.; Thomas A. McMahon; Christopher J. Gippel; Rory J. Nathan (2005). Stream Hydrology: an Introduction for Ecologists:
Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons:date=2004. pp. 183–184. ISBN 0470843578.
[17] Singh, R.Y. (2005). "Interface drainage analysis of a water divide". In Jansky, Libor; Haigh, Martin J.; Prasad, Hushila. Sustainable
Management of Headwater Resources: Research from Africa and India. Tokyo, New York: United Nations University Press. pp. 87–106.
ISBN 92-808-1108-8.

• Luna B. Leopold & W.B. Langbein, River Meanders, Scientific American, June 1966, page 60

External links
• Movshovitz, Nitsa; Hadar Alla Shmuklar (2006-01-01). "River Meandering and a Mathematical Model of this
Phenomenon" (http://physicaplus.org.il/zope/home/en/1124811264/1141060775rivers_en). Physicalplus
(Israel Physical Society (IPS)) (7). Retrieved 2008-02-23.

Waterfall
A waterfall is a place where flowing water rapidly drops in elevation
as it flows over a steep region or a cliff.

Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world's tallest

waterfall at 979 m (3,212 ft).

Frozen waterfall in southeast New York

Waterfall 59

Formation
Waterfalls are most commonly formed when a river is young.[1] At
these times the channel is often narrow and deep. When the river
courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly, while
downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly.[1] [2] As the watercourse
increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it plucks material
from the riverbed. Whirlpools created in the turbulence as well as sand
and stones carried by the watercourse increase the erosion capacity.[1]
Formation of a waterfall
This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede
upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a
canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it.[3] The rate of
retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one and half meters per year.[1]

Often, the rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to
splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave-like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the
waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to
the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide
with each other, and they also erode the base of the waterfall by abrasion, creating a deep plunge pool or gorge.
Streams become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to
flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below
the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the
bottom. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After
a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will
retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall.
Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be
replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed.[1] In addition to
gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by
earthquakes or mudslides or volcanoes can cause a differential in land
heights which interfere with the natural course of a water flow, and
result in waterfalls.

A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have
been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a
glacial trough, whereby a stream or river flowing into a glacier
Baatara gorge waterfall near Tannurin, Lebanon
continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted.
The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this
phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley. Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers
join and one is flowing faster than the other.[1] Waterfalls can be grouped into ten broad classes based on the average
volume of water present on the fall (which depends on both the waterfall's average flow and its height) using a
logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls.

Classes of other well-known waterfalls include Victoria Falls and Kaieteur Falls (Class 9); Rhine Falls and Gullfoss
(Class 8); Angel Falls and Dettifoss (Class 7); Yosemite Falls, Lower Yellowstone Falls and Umphang Thee Lor Sue
Waterfall (Class 6); Sutherland Falls (Class 5).[4]
Waterfall 60

Types
• Block: Water descends from a relatively wide stream or river.[2] [5]
• Cascade: Water descends a series of rock steps.[2] [5]
• Cataract: A large, powerful waterfall.[5]
• Chute: A large quantity of water forced through a narrow, vertical
passage.[5]
• Fan: Water spreads horizontally as it descends while remaining in
contact with bedrock.[5]
• Frozen: Any waterfall which has some element of ice.[5]
• Horsetail: Descending water maintains some contact with
Dark Hollow Falls, near Skyline Drive, Virginia,
bedrock.[5] is an example of a cascade waterfall
• Plunge: Water descends vertically, losing contact with the bedrock
surface.[5]
• Punchbowl: Water descends in a constricted form and then spreads out in a wider pool.[5]
• Segmented: Distinctly separate flows of water form as it descends.[5]
• Tiered: Water drops in a series of distinct steps or falls.[5]
• Multi-step: A series of waterfalls one after another of roughly the same size each with its own sunken plunge
pool.[5]

Examples of large waterfalls

Significant waterfalls,[6] listed alphabetically:
• Angel Falls is the world's tallest at 979 metres (3212 ft) in
Venezuela.
• Bambarakanda Falls is Sri Lanka's tallest waterfall at 263 m.
• Detian - Ban Gioc Falls is the 4th largest international waterfall in
the world between the Sino-Vietnamese border.
• Bridalveil Fall in Yosemite Valley is 189 m (620 ft) high with a
sheer drop when flowing.
• Cascata delle Marmore in Italy is the tallest man-made waterfall in
the world.
• Cautley Spout, at 175 m (580 ft), is the tallest waterfall in England.
• Colonial Creek Falls, the second tallest waterfall in North America
at 2,584 ft (788 m), is located in the North Cascades National Park,
Washington, United States.
• Dettifoss, Northeast Iceland is the largest waterfall in Europe in
terms of volume discharge, having an average water flow of
200 m³/s.The falls are 100 m wide and have a drop of 44 m down to Havasu Falls, near Supai, Arizona, is an example
the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon. of a plunge waterfall

• Eas a' Chual Aluinn, at 200 m (658 ft), is the tallest waterfall in both
Scotland and the United Kingdom.
• Gocta is the fifth tallest in the world at 771 m (2532 ft) and located in the province Chachapoyas, Peru.
• Hannoki Falls is the tallest waterfall in Asia at 1,640 ft (500 m) and located in Tateyama, Japan.
Waterfall 61

• Jiao Lung Waterfall is the tallest waterfall in East Asia at 2,000 ft

(600 m) and located in Alishan, Chiayi, Taiwan.
• High Force on the River Tees is one of the tallest waterfalls in
England.
• Huangguoshu Waterfall in Anshun, Guizhou, China, is the largest
waterfall in East Asia.
• Iguazu Falls is a tall and extremely wide waterfall located in South
America on the Argentina/Brazil border.
• James Bruce Falls, the tallest waterfall in North America at 840 m,
Powerscourt Waterfall, near Enniskerry, Wicklow
is located in the Princess Louisa Marine Provincial Park, British County, Ireland, is an example of a horsetail
Columbia, Canada. waterfall
• Jog Falls is India's tallest (listed as 314 ranking on the World
Waterfall Database), located in Karnataka state, India.
• Jurong Falls in Singapore is an artificial waterfall.
• Kaieteur Falls (Potaro River in central Guyana), located in the
Kaieteur National Park, is 226 m (741 ft).
• Krimmler Wasserfälle, at 380 m, is Austria's second tallest waterfall
and located in Krimml, Salzburg, Austria.
• Multnomah Falls is 611 feet (186 m) high and 30 ft wide.
• Niagara Falls are the most powerful falls in North America.
• Pissing Mare Falls, at 350 m (1148 ft), is the tallest in eastern North
Aerial view of Niagara Falls in the state of New
America.
York, US, and province of Ontario, Canada
• Pistyll Rhaeadr, a 240 ft (73m) waterfall in Wales.
• Ramnefjellsfossen is the world's third tallest at 808 m (2685 ft), at
Stryn, Nesdalen, Norway.
• Rhine Falls is Europe's widest and is located in Switzerland.
• ShirAbad Waterfall is located in Iran, Golestan, Khanbebin,
Shirabad.
• Shoshone Falls the "Niagara of the West" in Idaho
• St.Clair's Falls is Sri Lanka's widest waterfall 265 ft high.
• Silver Falls is a waterfall and is located in Silverton, Oregon.
• Takakkaw Falls is a 384 m (1260 ft) in Yoho National Park in
Canada. Duruitoarea waterfall in Ceahlău, Romania
• Tequendama Falls is a 132 m high waterfall on the Bogotá River,
about 30 km southwest of Bogotá in Colombia.
• Tugela Falls is the world's second tallest at 947 m (3110 ft) in KwaZulu-Natal province, Republic of South
Africa.
• Victoria Falls is the largest waterfall in the world and is more than a mile long. It is located on the Zambezi river
on the border of Zimbabwe and Zambia.
• Virginia Falls (Northwest Territories) on South Nahanni River, Northwest Territories, Canada. World's 14th
largest waterfall located in Nahanni National Park Reserve a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Waihilau Falls, at 2,600 ft (792 m), is located in the Waimanu Valley, Hawaii, United States.
Waterfall 62

• Yosemite Falls, the fourth tallest waterfall in North America at

2,425 ft (739 m), is located in Yosemite National Park, United
States.
• Yumbilla Falls is the world's fifth tallest waterfall and located in
Peru.

Plitvice lakes, Croatia

The largest indoor waterfall in the Whangarei Falls in New Zealand is an example of a plunge waterfall.
world, at the International center, in
Detroit.

Some waterfalls are constructed by artificial means indoors. The largest of these is in the lobby of the International
Center, in Detroit.[7]
Waterfall 63

References
[1] Carreck, Rosalind, ed (1982). The Family Encyclopedia of Natural History. The Hamlyn Publishing Group. pp. 246–248. ISBN 011202257.
[2] http:/ / geography. howstuffworks. com/ terms-and-associations/ waterfall. htm/ printable
[3] http:/ / www. classzone. com/ books/ earth_science/ terc/ content/ visualizations/ es1305/ es1305page01. cfm?chapter_no=visualization
[4] Richard H. Beisel Jr., International Waterfall Classification System, Outskirts Press, 2006 ISBN 1-59800-340-2
[5] http:/ / worldwaterfalls. com/ waterfall_types. php
[6] World Waterfall Database (http:/ / www. world-waterfalls. com/ )
[7] Scholastic Book of World Records 2009. Scholastic. 2008. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-545-08211-2.

Rapid
A rapid is a section of a river where the river bed has a relatively steep
gradient causing an increase in water velocity and turbulence. A rapid
is a hydrological feature between a run (a smoothly flowing part of a
stream) and a cascade. A rapid is characterised by the river becoming
shallower and having some rocks exposed above the flow surface. As
flowing water splashes over and around the rocks, air bubbles become
mixed in with it and portions of the surface acquire a white colour,
forming what is called "whitewater". Rapids occur where the bed
material is highly resistant to the erosive power of the stream in
Rapids featuring whitewater, close to the Rhine
comparison with the bed downstream of the rapids. Very young
Falls
streams flowing across solid rock may be rapids for much of their
length.

Rapids are categorized in classes, generally running from I to VI. A

Class 5 rapid may be categorized as Class 5.1-5.9. While class I rapids
are easy to negotiate and require no maneuvering, class VI rapids pose
threat to life with little or no chance for rescue.

References
• Mason, Bill. Path of the Paddle, 1984, Northword Press, Minoqua,
WI. Violent water below Niagara Falls

Rapids on the Mississippi River, Pakehnham,

Ontario, Canada
Canyon 64

Canyon
A canyon (occasionally spelled cañon) or gorge is a deep ravine
between cliffs often carved from the landscape by a river. Rivers have
a natural tendency to reach a baseline elevation, which is the same
elevation as the body of water it will eventually drain into. This forms
a canyon.[1] Most canyons were formed by a process of long-time
erosion from a plateau level. The cliffs form because harder rock strata
that are resistant to erosion and weathering remain exposed on the
valley walls. Canyons are much more common in arid areas than in wet
areas because physical weathering has a greater effect in arid zones.
The wind and water from the river combine to erode and cut away less
resistant materials such as shales. The freezing and expansion of water
also serves to help form canyons. Water seeps into cracks between the
rocks and freezes, pushing the rocks apart and eventually causing large
chunks to break off the canyon walls.[2] Canyon walls are often formed
of resistant sandstones or granite. Submarine canyons form Grand Canyon, Arizona
underwater, generally at the mouths of rivers. The word canyon is
Spanish in origin (cañón). The word canyon is generally used in the
United States, while the word gorge is more common in Europe and
Oceania, though it is also used in some parts of the United States and
Canada. The military derived word defile is occasionally used in the
United Kingdom.

A famous example is the Grand Canyon in Arizona with an average

depth of one mile and a volume of 4.17 trillion cubic meters.[3] In the
southwestern United States, canyons are important archeologically
Noravank Monastery complex and canyon in
because of the many cliff-dwellings built there, largely by the earlier Armenia.
inhabitants, Ancient Pueblo Peoples.
The Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon (or Tsangpo Canyon), along the
Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet, China, is regarded by some as the
deepest canyon in the world at 18,000 feet,[4] and is slightly longer
than Grand Canyon making it one of the world's largest.[5] The Kali
Gandaki Gorge in midwest Nepal is seen by others to be the deepest
canyon, with a 21,000 foot difference between the level of the river
and the peaks surrounding it.

Sometimes large rivers run through canyons as the result of gradual

geological uplift. These are called entrenched rivers, because they are
unable to easily alter their course. The Colorado River in the
Southwest and the Snake River in the Northwest are two examples of
tectonic uplift.
Canyons often form in areas of limestone rock. Limestone is to a
certain extent soluble, so cave systems form in the rock. When these
collapse a canyon is left, for example in the Mendip Hills in Somerset
Aerial view of canyons in western United States.
and Yorkshire Dales in Yorkshire, England.
Canyon 65

A canyon may also refer to a rift between two mountain peaks such as those in ranges such as the Rocky Mountains,
the Alps, the Himalayas or the Andes. Usually a river or stream and erosion carve out such splits between mountains.
Examples of mountain type canyons are Provo Canyon in Utah or Yosemite National Park in California's Sierra
Nevada. Canyons within mountains or gorges that only have an opening on one side are called box canyons. Slot
canyons are very narrow canyons, often with smooth walls.

Largest canyons
• Tsangpo Canyon in Tibet, China
• Grand Canyon in Arizona, United States
• Copper Canyon in Chihuahua, Mexico
The definition of "largest canyon" is rather imprecise, as a canyon
can be large by its depth, length, or the total area of the canyon
system. Also the inaccessibility of the major canyons in the
Himalaya contributes to their not being regarded as candidates for
the biggest canyon. The definition of "deepest canyon" is similarly
imprecise, especially if one includes mountain canyons as well as
canyons cut through relatively flat plateaus (which have a
somewhat well-defined rim elevation).

Lists View of Grand Canyon from Space Shuttle Challenger.

List of canyons
• Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Colorado, USA
• Blyde River Canyon, Mpumalanga, South Africa
• Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, USA
• Canyon Sainte-Anne, Quebec, Canada
• Charyn Canyon, Kazakhstan
• Chicamocha Canyon, Santander, Colombia
• Colca Canyon, Arequipa, Peru
• Cotahuasi Canyon, Arequipa, Peru
• Fish River Canyon, Namibia Gorges of Ak-Shur.
• Fraser Canyon, British Columbia, Canada
• Grand Canyon of Torotoro, Torotoro, Potosi Department, Bolivia
• Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Wyoming, USA
• Guartelá Canyon, Paraná, Brazil
• Hells Canyon, Idaho and Oregon, USA
• Horseshoe Canyon, Alberta, Canada
• Huasteca Canyon, Monterrey, Mexico
• Kanionet e Skraparit, Albania
• Kings Canyon (Northern Territory), Australia
• Little River Canyon, Alabama, USA
• Matka Canyon, Republic of Macedonia Bicaz Canyon, Romania
• Nfeye Canyon, Portugal
Canyon 66

• Nine Mile Canyon, Utah, USA

• Ouimet Canyon, Ontario, Canada
• Palo Duro Canyon, Texas, USA
• Rugova Canyon, Kosovo, Europe
• Saturban canyon, Santander, Colombia
• Somoto Canyon, Somoto, Madriz, Nicaragua
• Shnizow Canyon, Uşak, Turkey
• Sumidero Canyon, Chiapas, Mexico
• Tara River Canyon, Montenegro, Europe
• Valla Canyon, Kure,Turkey
• Waimea Canyon, Hawaii, USA
• Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon, Tibet Autonomous Region, China

List of gorges
• Aragvi River Gorge, Georgia (country)
• Avon Gorge, Bristol, England
• Bog Walk Gorge, Saint Catherine Parish, Jamaica
• Bued Gorge, Benguet, Philippines
• Cataract Gorge, Launceston, Australia
• Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, England
• Columbia River Gorge, Oregon/Washington USA
• Corrieshalloch Gorge, Ullapool, Scotland
• Galston Gorge, NSW, Australia
Swaan gorge
• Gorropu, Sardinia, Italy
• Ironbridge Gorge, Shropshire, England
• Kloof, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (The word Kloof means 'gorge'
in Afrikaans)
• Komati Gorge, South Africa
• Lanner Gorge, South Africa
• Letchworth State Park (Genesee River Gorge), New York, USA
• Linville Gorge Wilderness, North Carolina, USA
• Manawatu Gorge, Manawatu, North Island, New Zealand
• Montalban Gorge, Philippines
• New River Gorge, West Virginia, USA
• Niagara Gorge, Canada/USA
• North and South Gorges of North Stradbroke Island, QLD,
Australia
• Katherine Gorge of Nitmiluk National Park in Australia
• Pankisi Gorge, Georgia (country)
• Pine Creek Gorge, Pennsylvania, USA
Aragvi River Gorge
• Quechee Gorge, Vermont, USA
• Red River Gorge, Kentucky, USA
• Rio Grande Gorge, New Mexico, USA
• Royal Gorge, Colorado, USA
• Samaria Gorge, Crete, Greece
• Siq, Petra, Jordan
Canyon 67

• Talari Gorges, Mali

• Tallulah Gorge, Georgia, USA
• Gorges du Tarn, France
• Taroko Gorge of Taroko National Park, Taiwan
• Three Gorges, Hubei, China
• Tiger Leaping Gorge, Yunnan, China
• Verdon Gorge, Provence, France
• Viamala, Graubünden, Switzerland
• Vikos Gorge, Vikos–Aoös National Park, Greece

List of other features causing gorges or canyons

• Ardèche River, France
• Bued River, Philippines
• Danube River, Europe, including the Iron Gate
• Ruinaulta, cutting Flims Rockslide, Switzerland
• Kings River of the Kings Canyon National Park, California, USA
• South Nahanni River in Canada [6]
• Steall Waterfall of Glen Nevis, Lochaber, Scotland

Canyons on other planetary bodies

• Valles Marineris on Mars, the largest known canyon in the solar system
• Ithaca Chasma on Saturn's moon Tethys
Venus has many craters and canyons on its surface. The troughs on the planet are part of a system of canyons that is
more than 6 400 km long.

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. mountainnature. com/ Geology/ Canyons. htm
[2] http:/ / www. bobspixels. com/ kaibab. org/ geology/ gc_geol. htm
[3] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ grca/ parkmgmt/ statistics. htm
[4] http:/ / www. snagfilms. com/ films/ title/ into_the_tsangpo_gorge/
[5] http:/ / www. kepu. net. cn/ english/ canyon/ hiking/ hik301. html
[6] http:/ / www. chrs. ca/ Rivers/ SouthNahanni/ SouthNahanni-F_e. htm
Channel (geography) 68

Channel (geography)
In physical geography, a channel is the physical
confine of a river, slough or ocean strait consisting of
a bed and banks.
A channel is also the natural or human-made deeper
course through a reef, sand bar, bay, or any shallow
body of water. It is especially used as a Nautical term
to mean the dredged and mar (See: Buoy) lane of
safe travel which a cognizant governmental entity
guarantees to have a minimum depth across its
specified minimum width to all vessels transiting a
body of water. The term not only includes the
deep-dredged ship-navigable parts of an estuary or
river leading to port facilities, but also to lesser Wooden pilings mark the navigable channel for vessels entering Lake
George from the St. Johns River in Florida.
channels accessing boat port-facilities such as
marinas. When dredged channels traverse bay mud or
sandy bottoms, repeated dredging is often necessary
because of the unstable subsequent movement of
benthic soils. [1]

Responsibility for monitoring navigability conditions

of navigation channels to various port facilities
varies, and the actual maintenance work is frequently
performed by a third party. Storms, sea-states,
flooding, and seasonal sedimentation adversely affect
navigability. In the U.S., navigation channels are
monitored and maintained by the United States Army Vivari Channel in Albania links Lake Butrint with the Straits of Corfu.
Corps of Engineers (USACE), although dredging
operations are often carried out by private contractors (under USACE supervision). USACE also monitors water
quality and some remediation. This was first established under the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 and modified
under acts of 1913, 1935, and 1938, which are contained in chapter 33 of the US Code, "Navigation and Navigable
Waters." For example, the USACE developed the Intracoastal Waterway, and has the Mississippi Valley Division
responsible for the Mississippi River from the Gulf to Cairo, Illinois, the North Atlantic Division for New York
Harbor and Port of Boston, and the South Pacific Division for Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach.
Waterways policing as well as some emergency spill response falls under United States Coast Guard jurisdiction,
including inland channels serving ports like Saint Louis hundreds of miles from any coast. The various state or local
governments maintain lesser channels, for example former Erie Canal.

In a larger nautical context, as a geographical place name, the term channel is another word for strait, which is
defined as a relatively narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water. In this nautical context, the
terms strait, channel, sound, and passage are synonymous and usually interchangeable. For example, in an
archipelago, the water between islands is typically called a channel or passage. The English Channel is the strait
between England and France.
Channel (geography) 69

Notes
[1] History of the Waterways of the Atlantic Coast of the United States (http:/ / www. usace. army. mil/ publications/ misc/ nws83-10/ entire.
pdf), USACE, January 1983

Alluvial fan
An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit formed where a fast flowing
stream flattens, slows, and spreads typically at the exit of a canyon
onto a flatter plain. A convergence of neighboring alluvial fans into a
single apron of deposits against a slope is called a bajada, or
compound alluvial fan.[1]

Formation
Owing to the flow as stream gradient decreases, coarse-grained solid
material carried by the water is dropped. As this reduces the capacity
of the channel, the channel will change direction over time, gradually
building up a slightly mounded or shallow conical fan shape. The
deposits are usually poorly-sorted.[1] [2] This fan shape can also be A vast alluvial fan blossoms across the desolate
explained with a thermodynamic justification: the system of sediment landscape between the Kunlun and Altun
introduced at the apex of the fan will tend to a state which minimizes mountain ranges that form the southern border of
the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang. The left side
the sum of the transport energy involved in moving the sediment and
is the active part of the fan, and appears blue from
the gravitational potential of material in the cone. There will be water flowing in the many small streams Credit:
iso-transport energy lines forming concentric arcs about the discharge NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS/ASTER
point at the apex of the fan. Thus the material will tend to be deposited
equally about these lines, forming the characteristic cone shape.

In arid climates
Alluvial fans are often found in desert areas subject to periodic flash
floods from nearby thunderstorms in local hills. They are common
around the margins of the sedimentary basins of the Basin and Range
province of southwestern North America. The typical watercourse in Alluvial fan in Death Valley

an arid climate has a large, funnel-shaped basin at the top, leading to a

narrow defile, which opens out into an alluvial fan at the bottom.
Multiple braided streams are usually present and active during water
flows.

Phreatophytes are plants that are often concentrated at the base of

alluvial fans, which have long tap roots 30 to 50 feet (9.1 to 15 m) to
reach water. The water at this level is derived from water that has
seeped through the fan and hit an impermeable layer that funneled the
water to the base of the fan where it is concentrated and sometimes
forms springs and seeps if the water is close enough to the surface.
Alluvial fan in the French Pyrenees
These stands of shrubs cling onto the soil at their bases and over time
Alluvial fan 70

wind action often blows away sand around the bushes which form
islands of habitat for many animals.

In humid climates
Alluvial fans also develop in wetter climates. In Nepal the Koshi River
has built a megafan covering some 150000 km2 (58000 sq mi) below
its exit from Himalayan foothills onto the nearly level plains the river
traverses into India before joining the Ganges. Along the upper Koshi
tributaries, tectonic forces elevate the Himalayas several millimeters Alluvial fan above Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada.

annually. Uplift is approximately in equilibrium with erosion, so the

river annually carries some 100 million cubic meters (3.5 billion cu ft) of sediment as it exits the mountains.
Deposition of this magnitude over millions of years is more than sufficient to account for the megafan.[3]

In North America, streams flowing into California's Central Valley have deposited smaller but still extensive alluvial
fans. That of the Kings River flowing out of the Sierra Nevada creates a low divide, turning the south end of the San
Joaquin Valley into an Endorheic basin without a connection to the ocean.

Flood hazards
Alluvial fans are subject to flooding[4] [5] and can be even more dangerous than the upstream canyons that feed them.
Their slightly convex perpendicular surfaces cause water to spread widely until there is no zone of refuge. If the
gradient is steep, active transport of materials down the fan creates a moving substrate that is inhospitable to travel
on foot or wheels. But as the gradient diminishes downslope, water comes down from above faster than it can flow
away downstream, and may pond to hazardous depths.
In the case of the Koshi River, the huge sediment load and megafan's slightly convex transverse surface conspire
against engineering efforts to contain peak flows inside manmade embankments. In August 2008 high monsoon
flows breached the embankment, diverting most of the river into an unprotected ancient channel and across
surrounding lands with high population density. Over a million people were rendered homeless, about a thousand
lost their lives and thousands of hectares of crops were destroyed. The Koshi is known as the Sorrow of Bihar for
contributing disproportionately to India's death tolls in flooding, which exceed those of all countries except
Bangladesh.

Gallery

Fault scarp cuts alluvial fan, Death Valley Mini alluvial fan, Death Valley Alluvial Fan in Southern Iran. Image from
NASA's Terra satellite
Alluvial fan 71

References and notes

[1] American Geological Institute. Dictionary of Geological Terms. New York: Dolphin Books, 1962.
[2] To clarify, solids are sorted as usual, with coarse sediment dropped out first -- but the sorting of an individual flood event is then "jumbled"
by the next flood, leaving the overall fan sediment package poorly-sorted.
[3] National Aeronautics and Space Administration. "Geomorphology from Space; Fluvial Landforms, Chapter 4: Plate F-19" (http:/ / daac. gsfc.
nasa. gov/ geomorphology/ GEO_4/ GEO_PLATE_F-19. shtml). . Retrieved 2009-04-18.
[4] Cazanacli, Dan; Paola, Chris; Parker, Gary (2002). "Experimental Steep, Braided Flow: Application to Flooding Risk on Fans". Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering 128: 322. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2002)128:3(322).
[5] Committee on Alluvial Fan Flooding, Water Science and Technology Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources,
National Research Council. (1996). Alluvial fan flooding. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-05542-3.

External links
• Howard, J.M., Moore, A.D. (2005). "Large alluvial fans on Mars" (http://erode.evsc.virginia.edu/papers/
moore_fans_2004JE002352.pdf). Journal of Geophysical Research 110: E04005. doi:10.1029/2004JE002352.
• (http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/punata.pdf) Irrigation in the alluvial fan of Punata, Bolivia
• (http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/garmsar.pdf) Irrigation in the alluvial fan of Garmsar, Iran
• (http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf) Flood recession cropping in the alluvial fan of Okavango,
Botswana
• (http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/baluchistan.pdf) Irrigation in alluvial fans in Baluchistan
• Irrigation of alluvial fans (http://waterwiki.net/index.php/Irrigation_of_alluvial_fans)

Beach
A beach is a geological landform along the
shoreline of an ocean or lake. It usually
consists of loose particles which are often
composed of rock, such as sand, gravel,
shingle, pebbles, waves or cobblestones.
The particles of which the beach is
composed can sometimes instead have
biological origins, such as shell fragments or
coralline algae fragments.

Wild beaches are beaches which do not have

lifeguards or trappings of modernity nearby,
such as resorts and hotels. They are
sometimes called undeclared, undeveloped
or undiscovered beaches. Wild beaches can
be valued for their untouched beauty and
preserved nature. They are most commonly
found in less developed areas such as Puerto A sand and shingle beach at Man O’War Cove, Dorset, England
Rico, Philippines, Thailand or Indonesia.

Beaches often occur along coastal areas where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments.
Beach 72

Overview
Although the seashore is most commonly associated with the word
"beach", beaches are found by the sea, oceans, or lakes.
he term 'beach' may refer to:
• small systems in which the rock material moves onshore, offshore,
or alongshore by the forces of waves and currents; or
• geological units of considerable size.
The former are described in detail below; the larger geological units
are discussed elsewhere under bars. Four Mile Beach, Port Douglas, Queensland,
Australia
There are several conspicuous parts to a beach which relate to the
processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water
(depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the
waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is
the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a
crest (top) and a face — the latter being the slope leading down
towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there
may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars:
slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first
start to break.

The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where Waikiki in Hawaii, USA at sunset.
there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach)
resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the
normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm
waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles
are small enough (sand size or smaller) , winds shape the feature.
Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit
behind the beach becomes a dune.

These geomorphic features compose what is called the beach profile.

The beach profile changes seasonally due to the change in wave energy
experienced during summer and winter months. The beach profile is
higher during the summer due to the gentle wave action during this Bondi Beach, Sydney, Australia
season. The lower energy waves deposit sediment on the beach berm
and dune, adding to the beach profile. Conversely, the beach profile is lower in the winter due to the increased wave
energy associated with storms. Higher energy waves erode sediment from the beach berm and dune, and deposit it
off shore, forming longshore bars. The removal of sediment from the beach berm and dune decreases the beach
profile.

The line between beach and dune is difficult to define in the field. Over any significant period of time, sand is always
being exchanged between them. The drift line (the high point of material deposited by waves) is one potential
demarcation. This would be the point at which significant wind movement of sand could occur, since the normal
waves do not wet the sand beyond this area. However, the drift line is likely to move inland under assault by storm
waves.
Beach
Beach formation
Sand from Kalalau Beach, Hawaii (Field width =
5.5 mm). We see a few grains of olivine, which is
the green sand of some beaches of Hawaii.
Classic Caribbean beach on the island of
Martinique - Les Salines
Sand from Pismo Beach, California including
quartz, shell and rock fragments.
73
Beaches are the result of wave action by which waves or currents move
sand or other loose sediments of which the beach is made as these
particles are held in suspension. Alternatively, sand may be moved by
saltation (a bouncing movement of large particles). Beach materials
come from erosion of rocks offshore, as well as from headland erosion
and slumping producing deposits of scree. Some of the whitest sand in
the world, along Florida's Emerald Coast, comes from the erosion of
quartz in the Appalachian Mountains. A coral reef offshore is a
significant source of sand particles.
The shape of a beach depends on whether or not the waves are
constructive or destructive, and whether the material is sand or shingle.
Constructive waves move material up the beach while destructive
waves move the material down the beach. On sandy beaches, the
backwash of the waves removes material forming a gently sloping
beach. On shingle beaches the swash is dissipated because the large
particle size allows percolation, so the backwash is not very powerful,
and the beach remains steep. Cusps and horns form where incoming
waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form
cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines.
There are several beaches which are claimed to be the "World's
longest", including Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh (120 km (75 mi)
unbroken), Praia do Cassino (254 km (158 mi)), Fraser Island beach
(120 km (75 mi)), 90 Mile Beach in Australia (151 km (94 mi)), 90
Mile Beach in New Zealand (88 km (55 mi)), Tróia Peninsula
Troia-Sines Beach in Portugal (63 km (39 mi)), and Long Beach,
Washington (which is about 40 km (25 mi)).
Beach 74

Beaches and recreation

Many beaches are very popular on warm sunny days. In the Victorian
era, many popular beach resorts were equipped with bathing machines
because even the all-covering beachwear of the period was considered
immodest. This social standard still prevails in many Muslim countries.
At the other end of the spectrum are topfree beaches and nude beaches
where clothing is optional or not allowed. In most countries social
norms are significantly different on a beach in hot weather, compared
Recreation on a California beach in the first
to adjacent areas where similar behaviour might not be tolerated and decade of the 20th century.
might possibly be persecuted because of this action.

In more than thirty countries in Europe, South Africa, New Zealand,

Canada, Costa Rica, South America and the Caribbean, the best
recreational beaches are awarded Blue Flag status, based on such
criteria as water quality and safety provision. Subsequent loss of this
status can have a severe effect on tourism revenues.
Many beaches are very popular on warm sunny
Due to intense use by the expanding human population, beaches are days such as Joss Bay beach in southern England.
often dumping grounds for waste and litter, necessitating the use of
beach cleaners and other cleanup projects. More significantly, many beaches are a discharge zone for untreated
sewage in most underdeveloped countries; even in developed countries beach closure is an occasional circumstance
due to sanitary sewer overflow. In these cases of marine discharge, waterborne disease from fecal pathogens and
contamination of certain marine species is a frequent outcome.

Beach tokens
Beach tokens, a form of season pass admission ticket, may be required for entrance, for people and even pets.[1] [2]
They are made of metal etc. durable material, to enable them to withstand swimming, so the bearer can just carry
them around his neck or on his swimsuit. Goals may be:
• restricting to only community members
• user fees for lifeguards, clean up

Artificial beaches
Some beaches are artificial; they are either permanent or temporary
(For examples see Monaco, Paris, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Toronto,
Hong Kong and Singapore). Together with artificial beaches come the
phenomenon of Beach theft, in which part or all of the sand of a natural
beach is stolen to create an artificial one.
The soothing qualities of a beach and the pleasant environment offered
to the beachgoer are replicated in artificial beaches, such as "beach
style" pools with zero-depth entry and wave pools that recreate the
natural waves pounding upon a beach. In a zero-depth entry pool, the A combination of public carelessness and official
bottom surface slopes gradually from above water down to depth. negligence has turned this beach in Dar es Salaam
Another approach involves so-called urban beaches, a form of public into an open rubbish dump, posing a risk to
public health.
park becoming common in large cities. Urban beaches attempt to
mimic natural beaches with fountains that imitate surf and mask city
noises, and in some cases can be used as a play park.
Beach 75

Beach nourishment involves pumping sand onto beaches to improve their health. Beach nourishment is common for
major beach cities around the world; however the beaches that have been nourished can still appear quite natural and
often many visitors are unaware of the works undertaken to support the health of the beach. Such beaches are often
not recognized (by consumers) as artificial.
An artificial reef designed to enhance wave quality for surfing is another example of IENCE. The Surfrider
Foundation has debated the merits of artificial reefs with members torn between their desire to support natural
coastal environments and opportunities to enhance the quality of surfing waves. Similar debates surround Beach
nourishment and Snow cannon in sensitive environments.

Beaches as habitat
A beach is an unstable environment which exposes plants and animals
to changeable and potentially harsh conditions. Some small animals
burrow into the sand and feed on material deposited by the waves.
Crabs, insects and shorebirds feed on these beach dwellers. The
Voidokilia beach, southwest Greece
endangered Piping Plover and some tern species rely on beaches for
nesting. Sea turtles also lay their eggs on ocean beaches. Seagrasses
and other beach plants grow on undisturbed areas of the beach and
dunes.

Ocean beaches are habitats with organisms adapted to salt spray, tidal
overwash, and shifting sands. Some of these organisms are found only
Beach Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
on beaches. Examples of these beach organisms in the southeast US
include plants like sea oats, sea rocket, beach elder, beach morning
glory aka Ipomoea pes-caprae, and beach peanut, and animals such as
mole crabs aka Hippoidea, coquina clams aka Donax, ghost crabs, and
white beach tiger beetles.[3]

References
[1] "?" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080502161310/ http:/ / www. cityofevanston.
org/ departments/ parks/ beach_season. shtml). City of Evanston. Archived from the
original (http:/ / www. cityofevanston. org/ departments/ parks/ beach_season. shtml)
on May 2, 2008. . Retrieved 13 September 2010.
Jasybay lake beach, Kazakhstan
[2] "?" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080804073912/ http:/ / www. cityofevanston.
org/ departments/ parks/ beach_dog. shtml). City of Evanston. Archived from the
original (http:/ / www. cityofevanston. org/ departments/ parks/ beach_dog. shtml) on August 4, 2008. . Retrieved 13 September 2010.
[3] Blair and Dawn Witherington (2007), Florida's Living Beaches, A Guide for the Curious Beachcomber, (Pineapple Press)
Beach 76

Further reading
• Bascom, W. 1980. Waves and Beaches. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 366 p.

External links
• UNESCO beach erosion and formation (http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/source/ero9.htm)
• Beach habitats (http://www.nearctica.com/ecology/habitats/beaches.htm)
• Sea Foam: What Is It? -- Beaufort County Library (http://www.bcgov.net/bftlib/seafoam.htm)
• Seasonal beach profile (http://ux.brookdalecc.edu/staff/sandyhook/tripdata/beaches/profile.html)

Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large
enough for a human to enter. Some people suggest that
the term cave should only apply to natural cavities some
part of which is in total darkness; however, in popular
usage, the term includes smaller spaces like sea caves,
rock shelters, and grottos.

Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all

aspects of caves and the environment which surrounds
the caves. Exploring a cave for recreation or science may
be called caving, potholing, or, in Canada and the United
States, spelunking (see caving).

Types and formation

The formation and development of caves is known as
speleogenesis. Caves are formed by various geologic
processes. These may involve a combination of chemical
processes, erosion from water, tectonic forces,
microorganisms, pressure, atmospheric influences, and
even digging.

Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution.

Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico

Cave 77

Solutional cave
Solutional caves are the most frequently
occurring caves and such caves form in rock
that is soluble, such as limestone, but can also
form in other rocks, including chalk, dolomite,
marble, salt, and gypsum. Rock is dissolved by
natural acid in groundwater that seeps through
bedding-planes, faults, joints and so on. Over
geological epochs cracks expand to become
caves or cave systems.

The largest and most abundant solutional caves

are located in limestone. Limestone dissolves
under the action of rainwater and groundwater
charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and
naturally occurring organic acids. The
dissolution process produces a distinctive
landform known as karst, characterized by
sinkholes, and underground drainage.
Limestone caves are often adorned with
calcium carbonate formations produced through
slow precipitation. These include flowstones,
stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws
Speleothems in Hall of the Mountain King, Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, South
and columns. These secondary mineral deposits Wales.
in caves are called speleothems.

The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be
flooded.[1]
The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico.
Lechuguilla and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They
were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes. This
gas mixes with ground water and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid). The acid then dissolves the limestone from below,
rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface.
Cave 78

Primary cave
Some caves are formed at the same time as
the surrounding rock. These are sometimes
called primary caves.
Lava tubes are formed through volcanic
activity and are the most common 'primary'
caves. The lava flows downhill and the
surface cools and solidifies. The hotter lava
continues to flow under that crust, and if
most of the liquid lava beneath the crust
flows out, a hollow tube remains, thus
forming a cavity. Examples of such caves
can be found on the Canary Islands, Hawaii,
and many other places. Kazumura Cave near Exploring a lava tube in Hawaii.
Hilo is a remarkably long and deep lava
tube; it is 65.6 km long (40.8 mi).

Lava caves, include but are not limited to lava tubes. Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rift caves,
lava mold caves, open vertical volcanic conduits, and inflationary caves.

Sea cave or littoral cave

Sea caves are found along coasts around the
world. A special case is littoral caves, which
are formed by wave action in zones of
weakness in sea cliffs. Often these
weaknesses are faults, but they may also be
dykes or bedding-plane contacts. Some
wave-cut caves are now above sea level
because of later uplift. Elsewhere, in places
such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay,
solutional caves have been flooded by the
sea and are now subject to littoral erosion.
Sea caves are generally around 5 to 50
metres (16 to 160 ft) in length but may
exceed 300 metres (980 ft).
Painted Cave, a large sea cave, Santa Cruz Island, California

Corrasional cave or erosional cave

Corrasional or erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other
sediments. These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite. Generally there must be some
zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint. A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian
cave, carved by wind-born sediments. Many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a
subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them.
Cave 79

Glacier cave
Glacier caves occur in ice and under glaciers
and are formed by melting. They are also
influenced by the very slow flow of the ice,
which tends to close the caves again. (These
are sometimes called ice caves, though this
term is properly reserved for caves that
contain year-round ice formations).

Fracture cave
Fracture caves are formed when layers of
more soluble minerals, such as gypsum,
dissolve out from between layers of less Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, Big Four Mountain, Washington, ca. 1920.
soluble rock. These rocks fracture and
collapse in blocks of stone.

Talus cave
Talus caves are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs (called
"talus").

Anchihaline cave
Anchihaline caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water).
They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic faunas.

Physical patterns
• Branchwork caves resemble surface dentritic stream patterns; they are made up of passages that join downstream
as tributaries. Branchwork caves are the most common of cave patterns and are formed near sinkholes where
groundwater recharge occurs. Each passage or branch is fed by a separate recharge source and converges into
other higher order branches downstream.[2]
• Angular Network caves form from intersecting fissures of carbonate rock that have had fractures widened by
chemical erosion. These fractures form high, narrow, straight passages that persist in widespread closed loops.[2]
• Anastomotic caves largely resemble surface braided streams with their passages separating and then meeting
further down drainage. They usually form along one bed or structure, and only rarely cross into upper or lower
beds.[2]
• Spongework caves are formed as solution cavities are joined by mixing of chemically diverse water. The cavities
form a pattern that is three-dimensional and random, resembling a sponge.[2]
• Ramiform caves form as irregular large rooms, galleries, and passages. These randomized three-dimensional
rooms form from a rising water table that erodes the carbonate rock with hydrogen-sulfide enriched water.[2]
• Pit caves (vertical caves, potholes, or simply "pits") consist of a vertical shaft rather than a horizontal cave
passage. They may or may not be associated with one of the above structural patterns.
Cave 80

Geographic distribution
Caves are found throughout the world, but only a portion of them have been explored and documented by cavers.
The distribution of documented cave systems is widely skewed toward countries where caving has been popular for
many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK, the United States, and so on.). As a result, explored caves are
found widely in Europe, Asia, North America, and Oceania but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.
This is a great generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented caves, whereas
areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain many documented caves. As the
world’s expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the distribution of documented caves is likely to shift.
For example, China, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone - more than 1000000 square
kilometres ( sq mi) - has relatively few documented caves.

Records and superlatives

• The cave system with the greatest total
length of surveyed passage is Mammoth
Cave (Kentucky, USA) at 628 kilometres
(390 mi) in length. This record is
unlikely to be surpassed in the near
future, as the next most extensive known
cave is Jewel Cave near Custer, South
Dakota, at 242 kilometres (150 mi).[3]

• The longest surveyed underwater cave

is Sistema Sac Actun in Yucatán, Mexico
at 215 km (134 mi).[3] The record has
been exchanged several times with
Sistema Ox Bel Ha, currently at
182 kilometres (113 mi).

• The deepest known cave (measured

from its highest entrance to its lowest
point) is Voronya Cave (Abkhazia), with
a depth of unknown operator:
u',' metres ().[4] This was the first cave to
be explored to a depth of more than
2 kilometres (1.2 mi). (The first cave to
be descended below 1 kilometre Canyon passage in Mammoth Cave, the world's longest cave.
(0.62 mi) was the famous Gouffre Berger
in France.) The Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya cave in Abkhazia, (unknown operator: u',' metres or ) and the
Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht Weg Schacht in Austria (unknown operator: u',' metres or ) are the current
second- and third-deepest caves. The deepest cave record has changed several times in recent years.

• The deepest vertical shaft in a cave is 603 metres (1978 ft) in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia. The second deepest
is Patkov Gušt at 553 metres (1814 ft) in the Velebit mountain, Croatia.
• The largest room ever discovered is the Sarawak chamber, in the Gunung Mulu National Park (Miri, Sarawak,
Borneo, Malaysia), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of approximately 700 by 400 metres (2297 by
1312 ft) and a height of 80 metres (260 ft). The nearby Clearwater Cave System is believed to be the world's
largest cave by volume, with a calculated volume of 30,347,540 m3.
Cave 81

• The largest passage ever discovered is in the Son Doong Cave in Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Quang
Binh Province, Vietnam. Explored by joint Vietnamese-British cave scientists of the British Cave Research
Association, it is 4.6 km (2.9 mi) in length, 80 m (260 ft) high and wide over most of its length, but over 140 m
(460 ft) high and wide for part of its length.[5]

World's five longest surveyed caves

1. Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, USA[3]
2. Jewel Cave, South Dakota, USA[3]
3. Optymistychna Cave, Ukraine[3]
4. Wind Cave, South Dakota, USA[3]
5. Sistema Sac Actun, Mexico[3]

Ecology
Cave-inhabiting animals are often categorized
as troglobites (cave-limited species),
troglophiles (species that can live their entire
lives in caves, but also occur in other
environments), trogloxenes (species that use
caves, but cannot complete their life cycle
wholly in caves) and accidentals (animals not in
one of the previous categories). Some authors
use separate terminology for aquatic forms (for
example,, stygobites, stygophiles, and
stygoxenes).

Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the

most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species
often show a number of characteristics, termed
troglomorphies, associated with their adaptation
to subterranean life. These characteristics may
include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a
pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at
least of optical functionality), an elongation of
appendages, and an enhancement of other
senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in
water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such
Townsend's Big-eared bats in a cave as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in
bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients
from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites
include cave fish, the Olm, and cave salamanders such as the Texas Blind Salamander.

Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching 1.7 millimetres
(0.067 in) in length. They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely. Most specimens are
female but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969.
Bats, such as the Gray bat and Mexican Free-tailed Bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage
outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day
and forage above ground at night.
Cave 82

Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosystem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one
another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave spider, Liphistiidae Liphistius
trapdoor spider, and the Gray bat.
Caves are visited by many surface-living animals, including humans. These are usually relatively short-lived
incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.
Cave entrances often have typical florae. For instance, in the eastern temperate United States, cave entrances are
most frequently (and often densely) populated by the bulblet fern, Cystopteris bulbifera.

Archaeological and cultural importance

Throughout history, primitive peoples have
made use of caves for shelter, burial, or as
religious sites. Since items placed in caves
are protected from the climate and
scavenging animals, this means caves are an
archaeological treasure house for learning
about these people. Cave paintings are of
particular interest. One example is the Great
Cave of Niah, in Malaysia, which contains
evidence of human habitation dating back
40,000 years.[6] Another, the Diepkloof
Rock Shelter in South Africa contains
evidence of human habitation and use of
symbols dating back 60,000 years.[7]

In the animal kingdom, caves offer shelter,

including uses such as maternity dens.
In Germany some experts found signs of
cannibalism in the caves at the Hönne.
Taino petroglyphs in a cave in Puerto Rico
Caves are also important for geological
research because they can reveal details of
past climatic conditions in speleothems and sedimentary rock layers.
Caves are frequently used today as sites for recreation. Caving, for example, is the popular sport of cave exploration.
For the less adventurous, a number of the world's prettier and more accessible caves have been converted into show
caves, where artificial lighting, floors, and other aids allow the casual visitor to experience the cave with minimal
inconvenience. Caves have also been used for BASE jumping and cave diving. The book Caverns of Magic by Hal
G. P. Colebatch surveys some of the instances of cave stories in literature and mythology.
Caves are also used for the preservation or aging of wine and cheese. The constant, slightly chilly temperature and
high humidity that most caves possess makes them ideal for such uses.
Cave 83

References
[1] John Burcham. "Learning about caves; how caves are formed" (http:/ / www. amazingcaves. com/ learn_formed. html). Journey into amazing
caves. Project Underground. . Retrieved September 8, 2009.
[2] Easterbrook, Don, 1999, Surface Processes and Landforms [2nd edition], New Jersey, Prentice Hall, pp. 207
[3] World’s Longest Caves List from The National Speleological Society (http:/ / www. caverbob. com/ wlong. htm)
[4] World's Deepest Caves List from The National Speleological Society (http:/ / www. caverbob. com/ wdeep. htm)
[5] Owen, James (2009-07-04). "World's Biggest Cave Found in Vietnam" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2009/ 07/
090724-biggest-cave-vietnam. html). National Geographic News (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ index. html). National
Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2009-07-29.
[6] National Geographic. James Shreeve. "The Greatest Journey". March 2006.
[7] Texier PJ, Porraz G, Parkington J, Rigaud JP, Poggenpoel C, Miller C, Tribolo C, Cartwright C, Coudenneau A, Klein R, Steele T, Verna C.
(2010). "A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South
Africa". Proceedings of the National Acadademy of Science U S A. 107: 6180–6185. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913047107 PMID 20194764

External links
• Australian Speleological Federation (ASF) (http://www.caves.org.au), AU
• British Caving Association (BCA) (http://www.british-caving.org.uk/), UK
• The Mulu Caves Project (http://www.mulucaves.org), A British-Malaysian collaboration to explore the caves
of the Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak
• Classification of Caves (http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Speleology/Classification.html) A list
of cave types with links to further information
• Journal of Cave and Karst Studies (http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/)
• National Speleological Society (NSS) (http://www.caves.org/), US
• International Union of Speleology (UIS) (http://www.uis-speleo.org/).
• Speleological Abstract (SA/BBS) (http://www.ssslib.ch/bbs/) An annual review of the world's speleological
literature.
• The Virtual Cave (http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave) Large educational site with numerous
photographs of various types of caves and cave formations and descriptions of how they form.
• cave-biology.org (http://www.cave-biology.org) Cave biology (biospeleology) in India.
• Biospeleology; The Biology of Caves, Karst, and Groundwater (http://www.utexas.edu/tmm/sponsored_sites/
biospeleology), by Texas Natural Science Center, The University of Texas at Austin and the Missouri Department
of Conservation.
• Tour Caves (http://discovercaves.com/tours.htm) A Google Map of Commercial Tour Caves in the US.
• French Caves (http://thetunnel.free.fr/francest/france-ste.php?var=7&n=1) List of Commercial Caves in
France.
• Caves of Croatia (http://public.carnet.hr/speleo/karta.html) List and details about longest and deepest caves
and pits in Croatia.
• Cathedral Cave Preserve (http://cathedralcave.org/) A privately owned speleological research and educational
park. US
• The latest news from the caving scene. (http://www.caverinfo.com)
• World Cave Database (http://www.caverbob.com/)
Cliff 84

Cliff
In geography and geology, a cliff is a significant vertical, or near
vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to
the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. Cliffs are
common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along
rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to erosion and
weathering. Sedimentary rocks are most likely to form sandstone,
limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks, such as granite and
basalt also often form cliffs.

An escarpment (or scarp) is a type of cliff, formed by the movement of

a geologic fault, or a landslide.
Most cliffs have some form of scree slope at their base. In arid areas or
under high cliffs, these are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock. In
areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many
cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters. Sometimes a
cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with tea tables or other types of
rock columns remaining.

The Ordnance Survey distinguishes between cliffs (continuous line The Trango Towers in Pakistan. Their vertical
along the top edge with projections down the face) and outcrops faces are the world's tallest cliffs. Trango Tower
(continuous lines along lower edge). center; Trango Monk center left; Trango II far
left; Great Trango right.

Europe's tallest cliff, Troll wall in Norway. A

famous BASE location for jumpers from around
the world.
Cliff 85

The far southwestern aspect of Nanga Parbat's

Rupal face, highest cliff (rock wall/mountain
face) in the world. The steepest part of the face
lies 2km to the northeast.

Large and famous cliffs

Given that a cliff need not be exactly vertical, there can be ambiguity
about whether a given slope is a cliff or not, and also about how much
of a certain slope to count as a cliff. For example, given a truly vertical
rock wall above a very steep slope, one could count only the rock wall,
or the combination. This makes listings of cliffs an inherently uncertain
endeavor.
Some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example,
an 8000-meter drop over a 4,250-meter span can be found at a ridge
sitting inside the Kermadec Trench.
The Cliffs of Moher in Ireland
The highest cliff (rock wall, mountain face) in the world, is Nanga
Parbat's Rupal Flank, which rises approximately 4600 meters, or
15,000 feet, above its base. According to other sources, the highest
cliff in the world, about 1340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango
in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. This uses a fairly
stringent notion of cliff, as the 1340 m figure refers to a nearly vertical
headwall; adding in a very steep approach brings the total height to
over 1600 m.

The location of the world's highest sea cliffs depends also on the
definition of 'cliff' that is used. The Guinness record books claim it is
Kalaupapa, Hawaii,[2] at 1010 m high. Another contender is the north Cliffs near Sortavala, Russia

face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1683 meters to Milford Sound, New
Zealand.[3] These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the
average slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding
to an angle of 60 degrees, and Mitre Peak is similar. A more vertical
drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia (also known as
the 'Thumbnail') which is situated in the Torssakutak fjord area at the
very tip of South Greenland and drops 1560m near-vertically.[4] [5]

Considering a truly vertical drop, Mount Thor on Baffin Island in

Arctic Canada is often considered the highest at 1370 m (4500 ft) high
The Matengai in Oki Islands, Japan
in total (the top 480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging), and is said to give it
the longest purely vertical drop on Earth at 1250 m (4,100 ft).
However, cliffs on Baffin Island, such as Polar Sun Spire, or others in remote areas of Greenland may be higher.
Cliff 86

The highest cliff in the solar system may be Verona Rupes, an

approximately 20 km (12 mile) high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of
Uranus.
The following is an incomplete list of cliffs of the world.

Asia
Cliffs along the north shore of Isfjord, Svalbard,
Above Sea Norway.

• The Cliff of Kurosakitakao, Mikurajima, Tokyo prefecture, Japan

480 m above Pacific Ocean
• Matengai, Oki Islands, Shimane prefecture, Japan 257 m above Sea
of Japan
• Senba-kaigai, Minami, Tokushima prefecture, Japan 250 m above
Pacific Ocean
• Chibu-sekiheki, Oki Islands, Shimane prefecture, Japan 200 m
above Sea of Japan
• Senzoku-dangai, Shinonsen, Hyogo prefecture, Japan 180 m above
Sea of Japan
• Yoroinosode, Kami, Hyogo prefecture, Japan 65 m above Sea of
Japan
• Sandanbeki, Shirahama, Wakayama prefecture, Japan 60 m above Close-up view of Verona Rupes, a 20 km high
[1]
fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus.
Pacific Ocean
• Tojinbo, Sakai, Fukui prefecture, Japan 25 m above Sea of Japan
Above Land
• Nanga Parbat, Rupal Face, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, 4600 m
• Ultar Sar southwest face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 3000 m
• Trango Towers: East Face Great Trango Tower, Baltoro Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1340 m (near
vertical)
• Uli Biaho Towers, Baltoro Glacier, Northern Areas, Pakistan
• Baintha Brakk (The Ogre), Panmah Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1600 m
• The Latok Group, Panmah Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1800 m
• Spantik northwest face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 2000 m
• Shispare Sar southwest face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 3200 m
• Skamri Sar north face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1500 m
• Hunza Peak south face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1700 m
• Amin Brakk southeast face, Karakoram, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1200 m (near vertical)
• Lhotse south face, Mahalangur Himal, Nepal, 2600 m
• Meru Peak, Uttarakhand, India, 1200 m
• Various cliffs in the Ak-Su Valley of Kyrgyzstan are high and steep.
Cliff 87

Europe
Above Sea
• Hornelen, Norway, 860 m above Frøysjøen
• Cape Enniberg, Faroe Islands, 750 m above North Atlantic
• Croaghaun, Achill Island, Ireland, 688 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Vixía Herbeira, Northern Galicia, Spain, 621 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Preikestolen, Norway, 604 m above Lysefjorden
• Slieve League, Ireland, 601 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Cabo Girão, Madeira, 589 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Jaizkibel, Spain, 547 m above the Bay of Biscay
• Beinisvørð, Faroe Islands, 470 m above North Atlantic
• Conachair, St Kilda, Scotland 427 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Cap Canaille, France, 394 m above Mediterranean sea is the highest sea cliff in France
• St John's Head (Hoy Orkney Islands Scotland) at 335 m is the most vertical sea cliff in the UK
• Hangman cliffs, Devon 318 m above Bristol Channel is the highest sea cliff in England
• Dingli Cliffs, Malta, 250 m above Mediterranean sea
• Benwee Head Cliffs, Erris, Co. Mayo, Ireland, 255 m above Atlantic Ocean
• High Cliff, between Boscastle and St Gennys, 223 meters above Celtic Sea[6]
• Cliffs of Moher, Ireland, 217 m above Atlantic Ocean
• Cap de la Nau, Spain, 200 m above Mediterranean sea
• Beachy Head, England, 162 m above the English Channel
• Møns Klint, Denmark, 143 m above Baltic Sea
• White cliffs of Dover, England, 100 m above the Strait of Dover
• Strunjan cliff, Slovenia, 80 m above the Adriatic Sea
• Snake Island, Ukraine, 41 m above the Black Sea
Above Land
• Troll Wall, Norway 1100 m above base
• Mięguszowiecki Szczyt north face rises to 1043 m above Morskie Oko lake level, High Tatras, Poland
• Kjerag, Norway 984 m.
• Mały Kieżmarski Szczyt (north face), Tatra Mountains, Slovakia about 900 m denivelation (vertical rise)
• Giewont (north face), Tatra Mountains, Poland, 852 m above Polana Strążyska glade
• Kazalnica Mięguszowiecka, Tatra Mountains, Poland 576 m above the Czarny Staw pod Rysami
• The six great north faces of the Alps (Cima Grande di Lavaredo 450 m, Eiger 1500 m, Grandes Jorasses 1100 m,
Matterhorn 1350 m, Petit Dru 1000 m, and Piz Badile 850 m)
Cliff 88

North America
Several big granite faces in the Arctic regions vie for the title of
'highest purely vertical drop on Earth', but reliable measurements are
not always available. The possible contenders include (measurements
are approximate):
• Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Canada; 1370 m (4500 ft) total; top
480 m (1600 ft) is overhanging. This is commonly regarded as
being the largest purely vertical drop on Earth at 1250 m (4100 ft).
• The sheer north face of Polar Sun Spire, in the Sam Ford fjord of
Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada,
Baffin Island, has been reported as exceeding Mount Thor's west commonly regarded as the highest purely vertical
face in height.[7] drop on Earth

• Ketil's west face in Tasermiut, Greenland (also known as God's

Thumbnail), has been reported as 1400 m – 1450 m high, (although
some doubt has been cast on this).[8] [9]
Other notable cliffs include:
• Mount Asgard, Baffin Island, Canada; vertical drop of about
1200 m (4000 ft).
• Vertical cliffs measured at approximately 1000 m (3280 ft) in height
can be found along the Sam Ford fjord in Baffin Island, such as
Walker Citadel, Kiguti Peak and Great Sail Peak, while there are
Southwest face of El Capitan from Yosemite
others in Querbitter Fjord, and in Tasermiut, Greenland.
Valley
• El Capitan, Yosemite Valley, Sierra Nevada, California, United
States; 900 m (3,000 ft)
• Painted Wall in Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park,
Colorado, United States; 685 m (2250 ft)
• Northwest Face of Half Dome, near El Capitan; 1340 m (4400 ft)
total, vertical portion about 610 m (2000 ft)
• The west face of Notch Peak in the House Range of southwestern
Utah, United States; a carbonate rock pure vertical drop of about
670 m (2200 ft), with 4450 feet (1356 m) from the top of the cliff to
valley floor (bottom of the canyon below the notch)
• East face of the West Temple in Zion National Park, believed to be The face of Notch Peak at sunset
the tallest sandstone cliff in the world,[10] 670 m
• All faces of Devil's Tower, Wyoming, United States, 195 m
• Faces of Shiprock, New Mexico, United States, 400 m
• The North Face of North Twin Peak, Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada, 1200 m
• All walls of the Stawamus Chief, Squamish, British Columbia, Canada, up to 500 m
• Calvert Cliffs along the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, 25 m
• Mt Siyeh, Glacier National Park north face, 1270 m
• Longs Peak Diamond, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, 400 m
• Royal Gorge cliffs, Colorado, 350 m
• Doublet Peak, southwest face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 370 m
• Pingora, southeast face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 360 m
• Warbonnet Peak, northeast face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 470 m
• Big Sandy Mountain, east face buttress, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 550 m
Cliff 89

• Temple Peak, east face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 400 m

• East Temple Peak, north face, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 450 m
• Lost Temple Spire, Wind River Range, Wyoming, 430 m
• Uncompahgre Peak, northeast face, San Juan Range, Colorado, 275 m (550 m rise above surrounding plateau)

South America
• Autana Tepui, Venezuela stands 1300 m above the forest floor.
• Auyan Tepui, Venezuela, about 1000 m (location of Angel Falls)
(the falls are 979 m, the highest in the world)
• Pared de Gocta, Peru, 771 m
• Fortaleza canyon, Serra Geral National Park, Brazil, about 720 m
• Itaimbezinho canyon, Aparados da Serra National Park, about 700
m
• Pedra Azul, Pedra Azul State Park, Espirito Santo, Brazil, 540 m
• Pão de Açúcar/Sugar Loaf, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 395 m
Salto Angel from Isla Ratón, Venezuela.
• Guarita Beach, Torres, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
• All faces of Cerro Torre, Patagonia, Chile-Argentina
• All faces of Cerro Chalten (Fitz Roy), Patagonia, Argentina-Chile, 1200 m
• Faces of the Torres del Paine group, Patagonia, Chile, up to 900 m

Africa
Above Sea
• Kogelberg, Western Cape, South Africa, 1289 m (4229 ft) above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
• Table Mountain, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 1086 m (3563 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Fountain Peak, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 1060 m (3480 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Risco de Faneque, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain, 1027 m (3369 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Blinkwater Peak, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 989 m (3245 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Grootkop Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 857 m (2812 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Valken Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 856 m (2808 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Barrier Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 856 m (2808 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Grotto Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 800 m (2600 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Jubilee Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 800 m (2600 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Kloof Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 800 m (2600 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Porcupine Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 800 m (2600 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Slangolie Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 788 m (2585 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Postern Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 783 m (2569 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Corridor Buttress / St Paul, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 768 m (2520 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Judas Peak, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 758 m (2487 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Separation Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 757 m (2484 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Spring Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 746 m (2448 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Wood Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 734 m (2408 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Guguy's Cliffs, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain, 725 m (2379 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Grove Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 713 m (2339 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• La Mérica, La Gomera, Canary Islands, Spain, 711 m (2333 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Victoria Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 707 m (2320 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Cairn Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 700 m (2300 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
Cliff 90

• Kleinkop Buttress, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 694 m (2277 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Andén Verde, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain, 690 m (2260 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Karbonkelberg, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 653 m (2142 ft) above Hout Bay, Atlantic Ocean
• La Peña's Cliffs, El Hierro, Canary Islands, Spain, 652 m (2139 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Los Gigantes, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 637 m (2090 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Chapman's Peak, Western Cape, South Africa, 596 m (1955 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Anaga's Cliffs, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 592 m (1942 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Risco de Famara, Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain, 580 m (1900 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Buenavista's Cliffs, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 546 m (1791 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• High Bluff, Prince Edward Island, South Africa, 490 m (1610 ft) above McNish Bay, Atlantic Ocean
• Cape Hangklip, Western Cape, South Africa, 453.1 m (1487 ft) above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
• Punta Gaviota's Cliff, La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain, 435 m (1427 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• Watertunnel cliffs, Marion Island, Prince Edward Islands, South Africa, ca. 350 m (1150 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
• The Sentinell, Western Cape, South Africa, 331 m (1086 ft) above Hout Bay, Atlantic Ocean
• Cape Point, Western Cape, South Africa, 249 m (817 ft) above Atlantic Ocean
Above Land
• Drakensberg Amphitheatre, South Africa 1200 m (3900 ft) above base, 5 km (3.1 mi) long. The Tugela Falls, the
world's second tallest waterfall, falls 948 m (3110 ft) over the edge of the cliff face.
• Mount Meru, Tanzania Caldera Cliffs, 1500 m (4900 ft)
• Klein Winterhoek, Western Cape, South Africa, 1220 m (4000 ft) above base.
• Wall of Fire, Swartberg, Western Cape, South Africa 700 m (2300 ft) cliff composed of vertically displaced
quartzite
• Tsaranoro, Madagascar, 700 m (2300 ft) above base
• Karambony, Madagascar, 380 m (1250 ft) above base.
• Innumerable peaks in the Drakensberg mountains of South Africa are spectacular cliff formations. The
Drakensberg Range is regarded, together with Ethiopia's Simien Mountains, as one of the two finest erosional
mountain ranges on Earth. Because of their near-unique geological formation, the range has an extraordinarily
high percentage of cliff faces making up its length, particularly along the highest portion of the range. This
portion of the range is virtually uninterrupted cliff faces, ranging from 600 m (2000 ft) to 1200 m (3900 ft) in
height for almost 250 km (160 mi). Of all, the "Drakensberg Amphitheatre" (mentioned above) is probably the
most impressive individual formation. Other notable cliffs include the Trojan Wall, Cleft Peak, Injisuthi Triplets,
Cathedral Peak, Monk's Cowl, Mnweni Buttress, etc. The cliff faces of the Blyde River Canyon, technically still
part of the Drakensberg, may be over 800 m (2600 ft), with the main face of the Swadini Buttress approximately
1000 m (3300 ft) tall.

Oceania
[[|thumb|right|Cliffsides near Beachlands, New Zealand in the Hauraki Gulf.]] Above Sea
• Mitre Peak, New Zealand, 1683 m above Milford Sound
• The Lion, New Zealand, 1302 m above Milford Sound (drops from approx 1280m to sea level in a very short
distance)
• The Elephant, New Zealand, has cliffs falling approx 1180m into Milford Sound, and a 900m drop in less than
300m horizontally
• Kalaupapa, Hawaii, 1010 m above Pacific Ocean
• Great Australian Bight
• Ball's Pyramid, a sea stack 562m high and only 200m across at its base
Cliff 91

• The Twelve Apostles (Victoria). A series of sea stacks in Australia, ranging from approximately 50 to 70 meters
above the Bass Strait

As habitat determinants
Cliff landforms provide unique habitat niches to a variety of plants and animals, whose preferences and needs are
suited by the vertical geometry of this landform type. For example, a number of birds have decided affinities for
choosing cliff locations for nesting,[11] often driven by the defensibility of these locations as well as absence of
certain predators.

References
[1] "Natural world: the solar system: highest cliffs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060521223224/ http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/
content_pages/ record. asp?recordid=54819). Guinness World Records. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/
content_pages/ record. asp?recordid=54819) on 2006-05-21. . Retrieved 2006-08-05.
[2] "Highest Cliffs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051127032740/ http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ content_pages/ record.
asp?recordid=47602). Guinness World Records. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ content_pages/ record.
asp?recordid=47602) on 2005-11-27. . Retrieved 2006-05-02.
[3] The Encyclopedia of Tourism and Recreation in Marine Environments By Michael Lück (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=Yuc2Aro6ukkC& pg=PA177& lpg=PA176& ots=ZM97kgqt8X). Google Books. . Retrieved 2009-08-01.
[4] "Planet Fear" (http:/ / www. planetfear. co. uk/ articles/ Greenland_New_Route_on_Thumbnail_926. html). . Retrieved 2009-08-04.
[5] "TS2 satellites (Expedition Sponsor)" (http:/ / www. ts2. pl/ en/ News/ 1/ 56). . Retrieved 2009-08-04.
[6] http:/ / www. southwestcoastpath. com/ main/ sections/ index. cfm?fsa=dspSectionDetail& w_id=147
[7] "Polar Sun Spire" (http:/ / www. summitpost. org/ mountain/ rock/ 152417/ polar-sun-spire. html). SummitPost.Org. . Retrieved 2008-07-31.
[8] "Climbing in Tasermiut" (http:/ / www. bigwall. dk/ galleri/ klatring/ tasermiu/ pages-uk/ uk05keti. htm). bigwall.dk. . Retrieved 2008-09-02.
[9] "The American Alpine Journal 1986" (http:/ / www. americanalpineclub. org/ AAJO/ pdfs/ 1986/ 175_canada_greenland_aaj1986. pdf). .
Retrieved 2008-09-02.
[10] "Geology Fieldnotes" (http:/ / www. nature. nps. gov/ geology/ parks/ zion/ index. cfm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2010-11-28.
[11] C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Abiotic factor. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds Emily Monosson and C. Cleveland. National Council for Science and
the Environment (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Abiotic_factor?topic=49461). Washington DC
Floodplain 92

Floodplain
A floodplain, or flood plain, is a flat or nearly flat land adjacent to a
stream or river that stretches from the banks of its channel to the base
of the enclosing valley walls and experiences flooding during periods
of high discharge.[1] It includes the floodway, which consists of the
stream channel and adjacent areas that carry flood flows, and the flood
fringe, which are areas covered by the flood, but which do not
experience a strong current. In other words, a floodplain is an area near
a river or a stream which floods easily.
View of the flood plain following a 1 in 10 year
flood on the Isle of Wight

Physical geography
Flood plains are made by a meander eroding sideways as it travels
downstream. When a river breaks its banks and floods, it leaves behind
layers of rock and mud. These gradually build up to create the floor of
the flood plain. Floodplains generally contain unconsolidated
sediments, often extending below the bed of the stream. These are
accumulations of sand, gravel, loam, silt, and/or clay, and are often
important aquifers, the water drawn from them being pre-filtered
compared to the water in the stream.

Geologically ancient floodplains are often represented in the landscape

by fluvial terraces. These are old floodplains that remain relatively Gravel floodplain of a glacial river near the Snow
Mountains in Alaska, 1902
high above the present floodplain and indicate former courses of a
stream.
Sections of the Missouri River floodplain taken by the United States
Geological Survey show a great variety of material of varying
coarseness, the stream bed having been scoured at one place and filled
at another by currents and floods of varying swiftness, so that
sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel, sometimes of fine sand or
of fine silt. It is probable that any section of such an alluvial plain
would show deposits of a similar character.

The floodplain during its formation is marked by meandering or

anastomotic streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant Entrenched river: The Virgin River at the upper
pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the end of Zion Canyon, Zion National Park, Utah,
has almost no floodplain at all.
drainage system has ceased to act or is entirely diverted for any reason,
the floodplain may become a level area of great fertility, similar in
appearance to the floor of an old lake. The floodplain differs, however, because it is not altogether flat. It has a gentle
slope down-stream, and often, for a distance, from the side towards the center.
Floodplain 93

Ecology
Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystems, both in quantity
and diversity. They are a category of riparian zones or systems. A
floodplain can contain 100 or even 1000 times as many species as a
river. Wetting of the floodplain soil releases an immediate surge of
nutrients: those left over from the last flood, and those that result from
the rapid decomposition of organic matter that has accumulated since
then. Microscopic organisms thrive and larger species enter a rapid
breeding cycle. Opportunistic feeders (particularly birds) move in to
Aggradation and plantation: The Laramie River
take advantage. The production of nutrients peaks and falls away
meanders across its floodplain in Albany County,
quickly; however the surge of new growth endures for some time. This Wyoming, 1949.
makes floodplains particularly valuable for agriculture.

Markedly different species grow in floodplains than grow outside of

floodplains. For instance, riparian trees (that grow in floodplains) tend
to be very tolerant of root disturbance and tend to be very
quick-growing, compared to non-riparian trees.

Interaction with society

Historically, many towns have been built on floodplain, where they are
highly susceptible to flooding, for a number of reasons:
Aggradational floodplain: This floodplain of a
• access to fresh water; small meandering stream in La Plata County,
• the fertility of floodplain land for farming; Colorado, is underlain by silt deposited above a
• cheap transportation, via rivers and railroads, which often followed dam formed by a terminal moraine left by the
Wisconsin Glacier.
rivers;
• ease of development of flat land
The extent of floodplain inundation depends in part on the flood
magnitude, defined by the return period.
In the United States the National Flood Insurance Program regulates
development in mapped floodplains based on the 100-year flood (1%
annual chance of a flood of this magnitude). The Flood Insurance Rate
Maps, typically depict both the 100-year floodplain and the 500-year
floodplains. Where a detailed study of a waterway has been done, the
100-year floodplain will also include the floodway, the critical portion
of the floodplain which includes the stream channel and any adjacent Riparian vegetation on the floodplain of the
areas that must be kept free of encroachments that might block flood Lynches River near Johnsonville, South Carolina.
flows or restrict storage of flood waters. When a floodway is shown on These tupelo and cypress trees show the high
water mark of flooding.
the Flood Insurance Rate Maps, the portion of the 100-year floodplain
outside of the floodway is known as the flood fringe. Another
commonly-encountered term is the Special Flood Hazard Area, which is any area subject to inundation by the
100-year flood.[2] A problem is that any alteration of the watershed upstream of the point in question can potentially
affect the ability of the watershed to handle water, and thus potentially affects the levels of the periodic floods. A
large shopping center and parking lot, for example, may raise the levels of the 5-year, 100-year, and other floods, but
the maps are rarely adjusted, and are frequently rendered obsolete by subsequent development.
Floodplain 94

In order for flood-prone property to qualify for government-subsidized insurance, a local community must adopt an
ordinance that protects the floodway and requires that new residential structures built in Special Flood Hazard Areas
be elevated to at least the level of the 100-year flood. Commercial structures can be elevated or floodproofed to or
above this level. In some areas without detailed study information, structures may be required to be elevated to at
least two feet above the surrounding grade.[3] Many State and local governments have, in addition, adopted
floodplain construction regulations which are more restrictive than those mandated by the NFIP. The U.S.
government also sponsors flood hazard mitigation efforts to reduce flood impacts. The Hazard Mitigation Program is
one funding source for mitigation projects. A number of whole towns such as English, Indiana, have been
completely relocated to remove them from the floodplain. Other smaller-scale mitigation efforts include acquiring
and demolishing flood-prone buildings or flood-proofing them.
In some tropical floodplain areas such as the Inner Niger Delta of Mali, annual flooding events are a natural part of
the local ecology and rural economy, allowing for the raising of crops through recessional agriculture. But in
Bangladesh, which occupies the Ganges Delta, the advantages provided by the richness of the alluvial soil of
floodplains are severely offset by frequent floods brought on by cyclones and annual monsoon rains, which cause
severe economic disruption and loss of human life in this densely-populated region.

References

Notes
[1] Goudie, A. S., 2004, Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, vol. 1. Routledge, New York. ISBN 0-415-32737-7
[2] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 44, Section 59.1 - Definitions (http:/ / ecfr. gpoaccess. gov/ cgi/ t/ text/ text-idx?c=ecfr&
sid=2269618b41910fc41fae578ff9ac1ec0& rgn=div8& view=text& node=44:1. 0. 1. 2. 26. 1. 25. 1& idno=44)
[3] Code of Federal Regulations, Title 44, Section 60.3 - Flood plain management criteria for flood-prone areas (http:/ / ecfr. gpoaccess. gov/ cgi/
t/ text/ text-idx?c=ecfr& sid=5419b04fdcd492a8db45d92248c9e074& rgn=div8& view=text& node=44:1. 0. 1. 2. 27. 1. 25. 3& idno=44)

Bibliography
• Powell, W. Gabe. 2009. Identifying Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Using National Agriculture Imagery Program
(NAIP) Data as a Hydrologic Model Input for Local Flood Plain Management. Applied Research Project, Texas
State University. http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/296/
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Levee 95

Levee
A levee, levée, dike (or dyke),
embankment, floodbank or stopbank
is a natural or artificial slope or wall to
regulate water levels. It is usually
earthen and often parallel to the course
of a river or the coast.[1]

Etymology

Levee
The word levee, from the French word
levée (from the feminine past participle
of the French verb lever, "to raise"), is The side of a levee in Sacramento, California
used in American English (notably in
the Midwest and Deep South); it came into English use in New Orleans circa 1720.[2] The French pronunciation is
[ləˈve], English English pronunciation: /ˈlɛviː/.

Dike
The modern word dike is most probably derived from the Dutch word "dijk", with the construction of dikes in the
Netherlands well attested since the 12th century. The 126 kilometres (78 mi) long Westfriese Omringdijk, for
instance, was completed by 1250, and was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus
however mentions the fact that the rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land and to protect their retreat (AD
70).[3] The Dutch word dijk meant originally both the trench or the bank. The word is closely related to the English
verb to dig (EWN). According to the 1911 encyclopedia Britannica:

“
Holland's chief protection against inundation is its long line of sand dunes, in which only two real breaches have been effected during the
centuries of erosion. These are represented by the famous sea dikes called the Westkapelle dike and the nl:Hondsbossche Zeewering, or
sea-defence, which were begun respectively in the first and second halves of the 15th century. The first extends for a distance of over 4000 yds.
between the villages of Westkapelle and Domburg in the island of Walcheren; the second is about 4900 yds. long, and extends from
Kamperduin to near Petten, whence it is continued for another 1100 yds. by the Pettemer dike. These two sea dikes were reconstructed by the
state at great expense between the year 1860 and 1884, having consisted before that time of little more than a protected sand dike. The
earthen dikes are protected by stone-slopes and by piles, and at the more dangerous points also by nl:zinkstukken (sinking pieces), artificial
structures of brushwood laden with stones, and measuring some 400 yds. in circuit, by means of which the current is to some extent turned
aside. The Westkapelle dike, 12,468 ft. long, has a seaward slope of 300 ft., and is protected by rows of piles and basalt blocks. On its ridge,
39 ft. broad, there is not only a roadway but a service railway. The cost of its upkeep is more than 6000 a year, and of the Hondsbossche
Zeewering 2000 a year. When it is remembered that the woodwork is infested by the pile worm (Teredo navalis), the ravages of which were
discovered in 1731, the labour and expense incurred in the construction and maintenance of the sea dikes now existing may be imagined. In
other parts of the coast the dunes, though not pierced through, have become so wasted by erosion as to require artificial strengthening. This is
afforded, either by means of a so-called sleeping dike (nl:slaperdijk) behind the weak spot, as, for instance, between Kadzand and Breskens in
Zeeland-Flanders, and again between 's-Gravenzande and Loosduinen; or by means of piers or breakwaters (hoofden, heads) projecting at
intervals into the sea and composed of piles, or brushwood and stones. The first of such breakwaters was that constructed in 1857 at the north
end of the island of Goeree, and extends over 100 yds. into the sea at low water. ”
[4]
—Encyclopedia Brittanica article on Holland, 1911,

In Anglo-Saxon, the word dic already existed and was pronounced with a hard c in northern England and as ditch in
the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a
Levee 96

bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or the bank. Thus
Offa's Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench though it once had raised banks as well. In the
midlands and north of England, and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary
marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as in Rippingale
Running Dike, which leads water from the catchwater drain, Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire
(TF1427). The Weir Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the River Glen,
Lincolnshire.

Artificial levees
The main purpose of an artificial levee is to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside; however, they also
confine the flow of the river, resulting in higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea,
where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders.
Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of empoldering, or as a boundary for an inundation area. The
latter can be a controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded
by levees. Levees have also been built as field boundaries and as military defences. More on this type of levee can be
found in the article on dry-stone walls.
Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions (often of sandbags) built hastily in a flood
emergency. When such an emergency bank is added on top of an existing levee it is known as a cradge.
Some of the earliest levees were constructed by the Indus Valley Civilization (in Pakistan and North India from circa
2600 BC) on which the agrarian life of the Harappan peoples depended.[5] Also levees were constructed over 3,000
years ago in ancient Egypt, where a system of levees was built along the left bank of the River Nile for more than
600 miles (970 km), stretching from modern Aswan to the Nile Delta on the shores of the Mediterranean. The
Mesopotamian civilizations and ancient China also built large levee systems. Because a levee is only as strong as its
weakest point, the height and standards of construction have to be consistent along its length. Some authorities have
argued that this requires a strong governing authority to guide the work, and may have been a catalyst for the
development of systems of governance in early civilizations. However others point to evidence of large scale
water-control earthen works such as canals and/or levees dating from before King Scorpion in Predynastic Egypt
during which governance was far less centralized.
Levees are usually built by piling earth on a cleared, level surface. Broad at the base, they taper to a level top, where
temporary embankments or sandbags can be placed. Because flood discharge intensity increases in levees on both
river banks, and because silt deposits raise the level of riverbeds, planning and auxiliary measures are vital. Sections
are often set back from the river to form a wider channel, and flood valley basins are divided by multiple levees to
prevent a single breach from flooding a large area. A levee made from stones laid in horizontal rows with a bed of
thin turf between each of them is known as a spetchel.
Artificial levees require substantial engineering. Their surface must be protected from erosion, so they are planted
with vegetation such as Bermuda grass in order to bind the earth together. On the land side of high levees, a low
terrace of earth known as a banquette is usually added as another anti-erosion measure. On the river side, erosion
from strong waves or currents presents an even greater threat to the integrity of the levee. The effects of erosion are
countered by planting with willows, weighted matting or concrete revetments. Separate ditches or drainage tiles are
constructed to ensure that the foundation does not become waterlogged.
Levee 97

River flood prevention

Prominent levee systems exist along the
Mississippi River and Sacramento River in
the United States, and the Po, Rhine, Meuse
River, Loire, Vistula, the delta formed by
the Rhine, Maas/Meuse and Scheldt in the
Netherlands and the Danube in Europe.

The Mississippi levee system represents one

of the largest such systems found anywhere
in the world. It comprises over 3500 miles
(5600 km) of levees extending some
1000 kilometres (620 mi) along the
Mississippi, stretching from Cape
Girardeau, Missouri to the Mississippi A levee keeps high water on the Mississippi River from flooding Gretna,
Delta. They were begun by French settlers Louisiana, in March 2005.
in Louisiana in the 18th century to protect
the city of New Orleans. The first Louisianan levees were about 3 feet (0.91 m) high and covered a distance of about
50 miles (80 km) along the riverside. By the mid-1980s, they had reached their present extent and averaged 24 feet
(7.3 m) in height; some Mississippi levees are as much as 50 feet (15 m) high. The Mississippi levees also include
some of the longest continuous individual levees in the world. One such levee extends southwards from Pine Bluff,
Arkansas for a distance of some 380 miles (610 km).

Coastal flood prevention

Levees are very common on the flatlands bordering the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Canada.
The Acadians who settled the area can be credited with construction of most of the levees in the area, created for the
purpose of farming the fertile tidal flatlands. These levees are referred to as "aboiteau". In the Lower Mainland
around the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, there are levees to protect low-lying land in the Fraser River delta,
particularly the city of Richmond on Lulu Island. There are also levees to protect other locations which have flooded
in the past, such as land adjacent to the Pitt River and other tributary rivers.

Spur dykes
These typically man-made hydraulic structures are situated to protect against erosion. They are typically placed in
alluvial rivers perpendicular, or at an angle, to the bank of the channel or the revetment,[6] and are used widely along
coastlines. Spur dykes are generally divided into two types: permeable and impermeable, depending on the materials
used.[7]

Natural levees
Levees are commonly thought of as man-made, but they can also be natural. The ability of a river to carry sediments
varies very strongly with its speed. When a river floods over its banks, the water spreads out, slows down, and
deposits its load of sediment. Over time, the river's banks are built up above the level of the rest of the floodplain.
The resulting ridges are called natural levees.
When the river is not in flood state it may deposit material within its channel, raising its level. The combination can
raise not just the surface, but even the bottom of the river above the surrounding country. Natural levees are
especially noted on the Yellow River in China near the sea where oceangoing ships appear to sail high above the
plain on the elevated river. Natural levees are a common feature of all meandering rivers in the world.
Levee 98

Levees in tidal waters

Natural levees may be formed along creek banks that are subject to periodic flooding due to oceanic tides. Levee
formation occurs as the incoming tide carries suspended sediment of all grades upstream to the limit imposed by the
energy of the tidal flow. As the tidal waters overflow the creek banks, the water flow spreads out to cover a wider
area than it did when confined to the stream's main channel. As the water spreads into the flood zone, its flow rate at
the brink rapidly slows and much of the sediment that had been carried upstream by the tidal current is deposited
along the bank. Over time, during the course of repeated tidal flooding, this sedimentation process forms a levee.
At the height of the tide, the water flow in flooded salt-marsh or flats is the most still and the finer particles slowly
settle, forming clay. In the early ebb, the water level in the creek falls leaving the broad expanse of water standing on
the marsh at a higher level. In an active system, the levee is always higher than the marsh. That is how it came to be
called "une rive levée", or raised shore.

Levee failures and breaches

Man-made levees can fail in a number of ways. The most frequent (and dangerous) form of levee failure is a levee
breach. A levee breach is when part of the levee actually breaks away, leaving a large opening for water to flood the
land protected by the levee. A breach can be a sudden or gradual failure that is caused either by surface erosion or by
a subsurface failure of the levee. Sometimes levees are said to fail when water overtops the crest of the levee.

References

Notes
[1] Henry Petroski (2006). Levees and Other Raised Ground. 94. American Scientist. pp. 7–11.
[2] " levee (http:/ / oed. com/ search?searchType=dictionary& q=levee)". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.
[3] Tacitus Histories V 19
[4] "Article on Holland" (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Holland). Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911. February 2011. .
[5] "Indus River Valley Civilizations" (http:/ / history-world. org/ indus_valley. htm). . Retrieved 2008-09-12.
[6] http:/ / www. dpri. kyoto-u. ac. jp/ nenpo/ no51/ ronbunB/ a51b0p64. pdf Hao Zhang, Hajime Nakagawa, 2008, Scour around Spur Dyke:
Recent Advances and Future Researches
[7] http:/ / hal. archives-ouvertes. fr/ hal-00545965_v1/

General references
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links
• "Well Diggers Trick", June 1951, Popular Science (http://books.google.com/books?id=ayEDAAAAMBAJ&
pg=RA1-PA24&dq=popular+science+1951+the+heart+of+a+modern&hl=en&
ei=BEHFTKyVEYTPnAetkdCFCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true) article on how flood control engineers were using an old method
to protect flood levees along rivers from seepage undermining the levvee - ie drawings and illustrations
Oasis 99

Oasis
In geography, an oasis (plural: oases) or cienega (Southwestern United
States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, typically
surrounding a spring or similar water source. Oases also provide
habitat for animals and even humans if the area is big enough.
The location of oases has been of critical importance for trade and
transportation routes in desert areas. Caravans must travel via oases so
that supplies of water and food can be replenished. Thus, political or
military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on
An oasis in the Negev Desert of Israel created by
a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames and
trees planted by the Jewish National Fund.
Kufra, situated in modern-day Libya, have at various times been vital
to both North-South and East-West trade in the Sahara. The word oasis
came into English via Greek ὄασις oasis, borrowed directly from Egyptian wḥ3t or Demotic wḥỉ. It was not
borrowed from Coptic ouaḥe (*/waħe/), as is sometimes suggested; the Greek word is attested several centuries
before Coptic existed as a written language.

Oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers such as an

artesian aquifer, where water can reach the surface naturally by
pressure or by man made wells. Occasional brief thunderstorms
provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat.
Substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in
pockets; or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water
can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is then
used by migrating birds who also pass seeds with their droppings
The Huacachina oasis in Ica, Peru
which will grow at the water's edge forming an oasis.

The lush Middle Springs, with the barren desert

around Fish Springs NWR
Oasis 100

Growing plants
People who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully;
fields must be irrigated to grow plants like dates, figs, olives, and
apricots. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm which
forms the upper layer. These palm trees provide shade for smaller trees
like peach trees, which form the middle layer. By growing plants in
different layers, the farmers make best use of the soil and water. Many
vegetables are also grown and some cereals, such as wheat, barley and
millet are grown where there is more moisture. [1]

Oasis in the Libyan part of the Sahara

Notable oases

Africa
• Nile River valley and delta, Egypt, is claimed as the world's biggest oasis by the 2007 edition of The Guinness
Book of World Records with a stated area of 22,000 square kilometres.
• Bahariya Oasis, Egypt
• Farafra Oasis, Egypt
• Gaberoun, Libya
• Kufra Oasis, Libya
• M'Zab Valley, Algeria
• Ouargla, Algeria
• Siwa Oasis, Egypt
• Tafilalt, Morocco
• Timimoun, Algeria
• Tozeur, Tunisia
• Tuat, Algeria

Americas
• Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, United States
• Huacachina, Peru
• La Cienega, New Mexico, a paraje on El Camino Real de Tierra
Adentro, United States
• Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, United States, what was once an oasis in
the vast Mojave desert has over the years grown into a metropolitan
area. [2]
• Mulege, Baja California Sur, Mexico
• San Ignacio, Baja California Sur, Mexico
Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, Utah.
• San Pedro de Atacama, Chile
• Twentynine Palms, California, United States
• Warm Springs Natural Area, United States
Oasis 101

Asia
• Al Ahsa,The largest in Asia, Saudi Arabia.
• Al-Qatif, Saudi Arabia, large oasis on the coast of the Persian Gulf.
• Azraq, Jordan
• Ein Gedi, Israel
• Liwa Oasis, United Arab Emirates
• Loulan, China
• Miran, China
• Niya, China
• Tabas, Iran
• Turpan, China
• Yarkand, China

Australia
• Palm Valley, Northern Territory, Australia
Ein Gedi, Israel
Europe
• Herðubreiðarlindir, a so-called oasis-like area in the frozen Highlands of Iceland

Bibliography
• (French) référence: Jardins au désert (Vincent Battesti)|Battesti (Vincent), Jardins au désert, Evolution des
pratiques et savoirs oasiens, Jérid tunisien, Paris, Éditions IRD, coll. À travers champs, 2005, 440 p. ISBN
2-7099-1564-2 Open Archives: book in free access / in French [3]

References
[1] http:/ / library. eb. co. uk/ eb/ article-9056610
[2] (http:/ / www. lvol. com/ lvoleg/ hist/ lvhist. html), http:/ / www. lvol. com/ lvoleg/ hist/ lvhist. html.
[3] http:/ / halshs. archives-ouvertes. fr/ halshs-00004609/
Swamp 102

Swamp
A swamp is a wetland with some flooding of large areas of land by
shallow bodies of water. A swamp generally has a large number of
hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or
vegetation that tolerates periodical inundation.[1] The two main types
of swamp are "true" or swamp forests and "transitional" or shrub
swamps. The water of a swamp may be fresh water, brackish water or
seawater.

In North America, swamps are usually regarded as including a large

amount of woody vegetation, but elsewhere this may not necessarily
apply, such as in African swamps dominated by papyrus. By contrast, a
marsh in North America is a wetland without woody vegetation, or
elsewhere, a wetland without woody vegetation which is shallower and
has less open water surface than a swamp. A mire (or quagmire) is a
low-lying wetland of deep, soft soil or mud that sinks underfoot with
large algae covering the water's surface.
A freshwater swamp in Florida
A common feature of swamps is water stagnation.

Geology
Swamps are characterized by very slow-moving waters. They are
usually associated with adjacent rivers or lakes. In some cases, rivers
become swamps for a distance. Swamps are features of areas with very
low topographic relief.

Draining
Belarus
Swamps were historically often drained to provide additional land for
agriculture, and to reduce the threat of diseases born by swamp insects
and similar animals. Swamps were generally seen as useless and even dangerous. This practice of swamp draining is
nowadays seen as a destruction of a very valuable ecological habitat type of which large tracts have already
disappeared in many countries.
Swamp 103

Famous examples

Russian Federation
The Vasyugan Swamp is a large swamp in the western Siberia area of the Russian Federation. This is one of the
largest swamps in the world, covering an area larger than Switzerland.

Africa
The Sudd and the Okavango Delta are Africa's best known marshland areas.

Asia
The Tigris-Euphrates river system is a large swamp and river system in southern Iraq, traditionally inhabited in part
by the Marsh Arabs.

United States of America

Atchafalaya Swamp is the largest swamp in the United States. Other famous swamps in the United States are the
Everglades, Okefenokee Swamp, Barley Barber Swamp and the Great Dismal Swamp. The Okefenokee is located in
extreme southeastern Georgia and extends slightly into northeastern Florida. The Great Dismal Swamp lies in
extreme southeastern Virginia and extreme northeastern North Carolina. Both are National Wildlife Refuges.
Another swamp area, Reelfoot Lake of extreme western Tennessee and Kentucky, was created by the New Madrid
earthquake of 1812. Caddo Lake, the Great Dismal and Reelfoot are swamps that are centered at large lakes.
Swamps are often called bayous in the southeastern United States, especially in the Gulf Coast region.

Land value and productivity

Swamps and other wetlands have traditionally held a very low property value compared to fields, prairies, or
woodlands. They have a reputation as being unproductive land that can't be easily utilized for human activities, other
than perhaps hunting and trapping. Farmers for example typically drained swamps next to their fields so as to gain
more land usable for planting crops.
Societies now generally understand that swamps are critically important in the processes of providing fresh water
and oxygen to all life, and are often breeding grounds for a wide variety of life. Government environmental agencies
(such as the Department of Natural Resources in the United States) are taking steps to protect and preserve swamps
and other wetlands.
However, the generally messy nature of swamps, with their diffuse boundaries and lack of enclosure, prevents
humans from being able to collect and capitalize on their precious natural resources. Generally swamps are assessed
as having low land value even while they are being protected from damage.

List of major swamps

Africa
• Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia
• Okavango Swamp, Botswana
• Sudd, Sudan
• Niger Delta, Nigeria
A small swamp in the Padstow, New South Wales.
Swamp 104

Asia
• Asmat Swamp, Indonesia
• Vasyugan Swamp, Russia
• Candaba Swamp in Apalit, Batangas,
Candaba in Pampanga and Pulilan,
Bulacan, Philippines
• Mangrove Swamp in Karachi, Inside the Mangrove canopy, Salt Pan Creek, New South Wales
Pakistan

North America
• Atchafalaya National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana, United States
• Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida, United States
• Barley Barber Swamp, Florida, United States
• Everglades, Florida, United States
• Great Black Swamp, Indiana/Ohio, United States
• Great Cypress Swamp, Maryland, United States, also known as Great Pocomoke Swamp
• Great Dismal Swamp, North Carolina/Virginia, United States
• Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, New Jersey, United States
• Green Swamp, Florida, United States
• Green Swamp, North Carolina, United States
• Honey Island Swamp, Louisiana, United States
• Hudson Bay Lowlands, Ontario, Canada
• Limberlost, Indiana, United States
• Louisiana swamplands, Louisiana, United States
• Mingo National Wildlife Refuge, Puxico, Missouri, United States
• Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia/Florida, United States
• Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee/Kentucky, United States
• Shu Swamp, New York, United States

South America
• Lahuen Ñadi, Chile
• Pantanal, Brazil
• Paraná Delta, Argentina

References
[1] Swamp (http:/ / www. nwrc. usgs. gov/ fringe/ glossary. html) (from glossary web page of the United States Geological Survey)

Wetlands

Swamp · Freshwater swamp forest · Coniferous swamp · Marsh · Salt marsh · Bog · Peat swamp forest · Fen · Vernal pool · Flooded grasslands and
savannas · Constructed wetland · Riparian zone
Pond 105

Pond
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is
usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of
water are classified as ponds, including water gardens, water features
and koi ponds; all designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or
architectural features, while fish ponds are designed for commercial
fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.

Standing bodies of water such as puddles, ponds and lakes are A pond in Swarzynice, Poland
distinguished from a water course, such as a brook, creek or stream via
current speed. While currents in streams are more easily observed,
ponds and lakes possess thermally driven microcurrents and moderate
wind driven currents. These features distinguish a pond from many
other aquatic terrain features, such as stream pools and tide pools.

Some mills use the kinetic energy of the moving water in the pond to
generate electricity.

Technical definitions
The technical distinction between a pond and a lake has not been
universally standardized. Limnologists and freshwater biologists have
proposed formal definitions for pond, in part to include 'bodies of
water where light penetrates to the bottom of the waterbody,' 'bodies of A small man-made garden pond at the Taj Lake
Palace in Udaipur, India
water shallow enough for rooted water plants to grow throughout,' and
'bodies of water which lack wave action on the shoreline.' Each of
these definitions have met with resistance or disapproval, as the
defining characteristics are each difficult to measure or verify.
Accordingly, some organizations and researchers have settled on
technical definitions of pond and lake which rely on size alone.[1]

Even among organizations and researchers who distinguish lakes from

ponds by size alone, there is no universally recognised standard for the
maximum size of a pond. The international Ramsar wetland
convention sets the upper limit for pond size as 8 hectares (19.768
acres),[2] but biologists have not universally adopted this convention. Formal rock garden pond with waterfall.
Researchers for the British charity Pond Conservation have defined a
pond to be 'a man-made or natural waterbody which is between 1 m2 and 20,000 m2 in area (~2 ha or ~5 acres),
which holds water for four months of the year or more.'[3] Other European biologists have set the upper size limit at
5 ha (12.355 acres).[4] In North America, even larger bodies of water have been called ponds; for example, Walden
Pond in Concord, Massachusetts measures 61 acres (~25 ha).
Pond 106

Formation
Ponds can result from a wide range of natural processes, although in
many parts of the world these are now severely constrained by human
activity. Any depression in the ground which collects and retains a
sufficient amount of precipitation can be considered a pond, and such
depressions can be formed by a variety of geological and ecological
events.

Pond in winter
Nomenclature
In origin, pond is a variant form of the word pound, meaning a
confining enclosure.[5] As straying cattle are enclosed in a pound so
water is enclosed in a pond. In earlier times, ponds were man-made
and utilitarian; as stew ponds, mill ponds and so on. The significance
of this feature seems, in some cases, to have been lost when the word
was carried abroad with emigrants. In the United States, natural pools
are often called ponds.

A pond is sometimes characterized as being a small body of water that

is shallow enough for sunlight to reach the bottom, permitting the
growth of rooted plants at its deepest point.[6] 338 acre Long Pond in the Saint Regis Canoe
Area in the Adirondack Mountains
Pond usually implies a quite small body of water, generally smaller
than one would require a boat to cross. Another definition is that a
pond is a body of water where even its deepest areas are reached by sunlight or where a human can walk across the
entire body of water without being submerged. In some dialects of English, pond normally refers to small artificially
created bodies of water.
Some regions of the United States define a pond as a body of water with a surface area of less than 10 acres (40,000
m²).
Regional differences include the use of the word pond in New England, and Maine in particular, for relatively large
water bodies. For example a Great Pond in Maine is considered to be at least 10 acres (41,240 m²) in area.[7]
In areas which were covered by glaciers in the past, some ponds were created when the glaciers retreated. These
ponds are known as kettle ponds. Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts, is a well known example. Kettle ponds
are usually quite deep and clean because they are fed by underground aquifers rather than surface streams.
The term is also used for temporary accumulation of water from surface runoff (ponded water).
There are various regional names for naturally occurring ponds. In Scotland, one of the terms is lochan, which may
also apply to a large body of water such as a lake.
The word "pond" is sometimes also used to refer to the Atlantic Ocean in the expression "across the pond", and the
expression "big pond" similarly is sometimes used for the Pacific. These uses are deliberate idiomatic
understatements.
Ponds' calm waters are ideal for insects and other water dwelling invertebrates. This includes the pondskater, the
water boatman, the diving beetle, the whirligig beetle and the water scorpion.
Pond 107

Characteristics
Some ponds have no surface outflow draining off water and ponds are often spring-fed. Hence, because of the closed
environment of ponds, such small bodies of water normally develop self contained ecosystems.

Uses
In the Indian subcontinent, Hindu temples usually have a pond nearby so that pilgrims can take baths. These ponds
are considered sacred. In medieval times in Europe, it was typical for many monastery and castles (small, partly
self-sufficient communities) to have fish ponds. These are still common in Europe and in East Asia (notably Japan),
where koi may be kept.
Another use is in agriculture. In agriculture, treatment ponds combined with irrigation reservoirs are used as a
self-purifying irrigation reservoir to allow irrigation at times of drought.
Tobha is Punjabi name for village pond. Every village in Punjab (India) essentially has a pond, into which the
drainage of village is forced. Buffalos and other village animals take bath in village pond during summers. Tobha is
really an object of entertainment for village people, where children also learn to swim and play.
The small pond in (bog) or mountain is called "池塘" (chitō) in [Japan] and is discriminate from the pond in the
plain and widely recognized by mountaineers.

Examples
Thousands of examples worldwide are available to illustrate the pond; a few of these are:
• Antonelli Pond, California, USA
• Big Pond, Nova Scotia
• Bullough's Pond, Massachusetts, USA
• Christian Pond, Wyoming, USA
• Hampstead Ponds, England
• Milicz Ponds, Poland
• Oguni-numa Pond, Japan
• Pete's Pond, Botswana
• Rožmberk Pond, Czech Republic

References
[1] Biggs J., Williams P., Whitfield M., Nicolet P. and Weatherby, A. (2005). 15 years of pond assessment in Britain: results and lessons learned
from the work of Pond Conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15: 693-714.
[2] Ramsar.org (http:/ / www. ramsar. org/ ris/ key_ris_e. htm)
[3] Biggs J., Williams P., Whitfield M., Nicolet P. and Weatherby, A. (2005). 15 years of pond assessment in Britain: results and lessons learned
from the work of Pond Conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15: 693-714.
[4] Céréghino, R., J. Biggs, B. Oertli, and S. Declerck. 2008. The ecology of European ponds: Defining the characteristics of a neglected
freshwater habitat. Hydrobiologia 597:1-6.
[5] Oxford English Dictionary
[6] But mere may be thought a better term for this.
[7] Mainelegislature.org (http:/ / www. mainelegislature. org/ legis/ statutes/ 38/ title38sec436-a. html)
Pond 108

Further reading
• W.H. MacKenzie and J.R. Moran (2004). "Wetlands of British Columbia: A Guide to Identification. Ministry of
Forests, Land Management Handbook 52.

Arête
An arête is a thin, almost knife-like, ridge of rock which is typically
formed when two glaciers erode parallel U-shaped valleys. The arête is
a thin ridge of rock that is left separating the two valleys. Arêtes can
also form when two glacial cirques erode headwards towards one
another, although frequently this results in a saddle-shaped pass, called
a col.[1] The edge is then sharpened by freeze-thaw weathering. The
word "arête" is actually French for edge or ridge; similar features in the
Alps are described with the German equivalent term Grat or Kamm
(comb).

Where three or more cirques meet, a pyramidal peak is created.

Cleaver
A cleaver is a type of arête that separates a unified flow of glacial ice Striding Edge, an arête viewed from Helvellyn
from its uphill side into two glaciers flanking, and flowing parallel to, with the corrie Red Tarn to the left and
Nethermost Cove to the right
the ridge. Cleaver gets its name from the way it resembles a meat
cleaver slicing meat into two parts. A cleaver may be thought of as
analogous to an island in a river. A common situation has the two
flanking glaciers melting to their respective ends before their courses
can bring them back together; the exceedingly rare analogy is a
situation of the two branches of a river drying up, before the
downstream tip of the island, by evaporation or absorption into the
ground.

The location of a cleaver is often an important factor in the choice

among routes for glacier flow. For example, following a cleaver up or
down a mountain may avoid travelling on or under an unstable glacial, Clouds Rest in Yosemite National Park is an
snow, or rock area. This is usually the case on those summer routes to arete.
the summit whose lower portions are on the south face of Mount
Rainier: climbers traverse the "flats" of Ingraham Glacier, but ascend
Disappointment Cleaver and follow its ridgeline rather than ascending
the headwall either of that glacier or (on the other side of the cleaver)
of Emmons Glacier.

Crib Goch, Snowdonia is an arête

Arête 109

Examples
Notable examples of arêtes include:
• Knife Edge, on Mount Katahdin, Maine
• Clouds Rest, in the Sierra Nevada, California
• The Minarets, in the Sierra Nevada, California
• The Garden Wall, in Glacier National Park, Montana (image to
right)
• The Sawtooth, in the Colorado Rockies
The Garden Wall, an arête in Glacier National
• La Peineta, in the Andes of Los Ríos Region, Chile
Park.
• Crib Goch, in Snowdonia National Park, Wales
• Striding Edge in the English Lake District
• The Catwalk, in the Olympic National Park, state of Washington
• The Carn Mor Dearg arête on to Ben Nevis, Scotland.

References
• Tarbuck, Edward J.; Frederick K. Lutgens (2002). Earth: An
Introduction to Physical Geography. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 341–342. ISBN 0-13-092025-8.
The arête between Big Cottonwood Canyon and
[1] BBC bitesize (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ scotland/ education/ bitesize/ higher/ Little Cottonwood Canyon, Utah, including
geography/ physical/ coastal_landscapes5_rev. shtml) Boundary Peak.

External links
• Diagram (http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/glaciation1.html#upfeat)
• Details on Mt Oberlin (http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/alpine_glacial_glossary/landforms/arete.
html)
Cirque 110

Cirque
A cirque (French for "circus") or corrie (from Scottish
Gaelic coire meaning a "kettle") is an amphitheatre-like
valley head, formed at the head of a valley glacier by
erosion. The concave amphitheatre shape is open on the
downhill side corresponding to the flatter area of the
stage, while the cupped seating section is generally
steep cliff-like slopes down which ice and glaciated
debris combine and converge from the three or more
higher sides. The floor of the cirque ends up bowl
shaped as it is the complex convergence zone of
combining ice flows from multiple directions and their
accompanying rock burdens, hence experiences
somewhat greater erosion forces, and is most often
scooped out somewhat below the level of cirque's
low-side outlet (stage) and its down slope (backstage) Two cirques with semi-permanent snowpatches in Abisko National
valley. If the cirque is subject to seasonal melting, the Park, Sweden.
floor of the cirque most often forms a tarn (small lake)
behind the moraine and glacial till damming the outlet.

Upper Thornton Lake Cirque in North Cascades

National Park, U.S..

Formation
A cirque is a landform found among
mountains as a result of alpine glaciers.
They may be up to a square kilometre in
size, situated high on a mountainside near
the firn line, and typically are partially
surrounded on three sides by steep cliffs.
The highest cliff often is called a headwall.
The fourth side is the lip, threshold or sill,[1]
the side at which the glacier flowed away
from the cirque. Many glacial cirques
Formation of cirque and resulting tarn
Cirque 111

contain tarns dammed by either till (debris) or a bedrock threshold. When enough snow accumulates it can flow out
the opening of the bowl and form valley glaciers which may be several kilometers long.
Cirques form in conditions which are favorable; in the northern hemisphere the conditions include the north-east
slope where they are protected from the majority of the sun’s energy and from the prevailing winds. These areas are
sheltered from heat, encouraging the accumulation of snow; if the accumulation of snow increases, the snow turns
into glacial ice. The process of nivation follows, whereby a hollow in a slope may be enlarged by freeze-thaw
weathering and glacial erosion. The freeze-thaw cycle erodes at the lower rocks and causes it to disintegrate, which
may result in an avalanche bringing down more snow and rock to add to the growing glacier. Eventually, this hollow
may become large enough that glacial erosion intensifies. Debris (or till) in the ice also may abrade (glacial abrasion)
the bed surface; should ice move down a slope it would have a ‘sandpaper effect’ on the bedrock beneath, on which it
scrapes.
Eventually, the hollow may become a large bowl shape in the side of
the mountain, with the headwall being weathered by constant freezing
and thawing, and as well as being eroded by plucking. The basin will
become deeper if it continues to become eroded by abrasion. Should
plucking and abrasion continue, the dimensions of the cirque will
increase, but the proportion of the landform would remain roughly the
same. A bergschrund forms when the movement of the glacier
separates the moving ice from the stationary ice forming a crevasse.
The method of erosion of the headwall lying between the surface of the
The Lower Curtis Glacier in North Cascades
glacier and the cirque’s floor has been attributed to freeze-thaw
National Park is a well-developed cirque glacier;
mechanisms. The temperature within the bergschrund changes very if the glacier continues to retreat and melt away, a
little, however, studies have shown that frost shattering may happen lake may form in the basin
with only small changes in temperature. Water that flows into the
bergschrund can be cooled to freezing temperatures by the surrounding ice allowing freeze-thaw mechanisms to
occur.

If two adjacent cirques erode toward one another, an arête, or steep

Lake Seal, Mt. Field National Park, Tasmania - a
cirque formed from a glacier is visible in the
[2]
walls around Lake Seal
sided ridge, forms. When three or more cirques erode toward one
another, a pyramidal peak is created. In some cases, this peak will be
made accessible by one or more arêtes. The Matterhorn in the
European Alps is an example of such a peak.
As glaciers can only originate above the snowline, studying the
location of present day cirques provides information on past glaciations
patterns and climate change.

Notable cirques
• Australia
• Blue Lake Cirque, New South Wales, Australia
• Asia
• Chandra Taal, Himachal Pradesh, India
• Cirque Valley, Hindu Kush, Pakistan
• Western Cwm, Khumbu Himal, Nepal
• Europe
• Circo de Gredos, Sierra de Gredos, Spain
• Cirque de Gavarnie, Pyrenees, France
Cirque 112

• Cirque d'Estaubé, Pyrenees, France

• Cirque du Fer à Cheval, Savoy Alps, France
• Coire an t-Sneachda, Grampian Mountains in the Scottish Highlands
• Śnieżne Kotły, Karkonosze, Poland
• North America
• Cirque of the Towers, Wyoming, United States
• Iceberg Cirque, Montana, United States
• Summit Lake cirque, and others on Mount Evans, Colorado, United States
• Great Basin and others on Mount Katahdin, Maine, United States
• Great Gulf, New Hampshire, United States
• Tuckerman Ravine, New Hampshire, United States

References
[1] Evans, I.S. (1971). "8.11(i) The geomorphology and Morphometry of Glacial and Nival Areas" (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/
books?id=X_ENAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA157& dq=cirque+ geomorphology& ei=yCxcS5HRE4iGygTv7sWCCQ& cd=4#v=onepage&
q=cirque geomorphology& f=false). In Chorley R.J. & Carson M.A.. Introduction to fluvial processes. University paperbacks. 407. Routledge.
pp. 218. ISBN 0416688209, 9780416688207. . Retrieved 2010-01-24.
[2] "Mt Field National Park: Landforms, Flora and Fauna" (http:/ / www. parks. tas. gov. au/ file. aspx?id=6757). Parks and Wildlife Service
Tasmania. . Retrieved 2009-05-12.

External links
• Photographs and case study of corrie glaciers (http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical/glaciers/
corrie.html)

Esker
An esker is a long winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel,
examples of which occur in glaciated and formerly glaciated
regions of Europe and North America. Eskers are frequently
several kilometres long and, because of their peculiar uniform
shape, are somewhat like railroad embankments.

Geology
Most eskers are believed to form in ice-walled tunnels by streams
which flowed within (englacial) and under (subglacial) glaciers.
They tended to form around the time of the glacial maximum
when the glacier was slow and sluggish. After the retaining ice
walls melted away, stream deposits remained as long winding
ridges. (Water can flow uphill if it is under pressure in an enclosed
pipe, such as a natural tunnel in ice.)

Eskers may also form above glaciers by accumulation of sediment

in supraglacial channels, in crevasses, in linear zones between
stagnant blocks, or in narrow embayments at glacier margins.
Eskers form near the terminal zone of glaciers, where the ice is not
moving as fast and is relatively thin (Easterbrook, 1999).
Esker 113

Plastic flow and melting of the basal ice

determines the size and shape of the
subglacial tunnel. This in turn determines
the shape, composition and structure of an
esker. Eskers may exist as a single channel,
or may be part of a branching system with
tributary eskers. They are not often found as
continuous ridges, but have gaps that
separate the winding segments. The ridge
crests of eskers are not usually level for very
long, and are generally knobby. Eskers may
Esker in Sims Corner Eskers and Kames National Natural Landmark, Washington,
USA. Note trees at the edge of the esker and the single lane road crossing the esker be broad-crested or sharp-crested with steep
to the right of the photo which provide scale. sides (Easterbrook, 1999). They can reach
hundreds of kilometers in length and are
generally 20–30 metres in height.

The path of an esker is governed by its water pressure in relation to the overlying ice. Generally the pressure of the
ice was at such a point that it would allow eskers to run in the direction of glacial flow, but force them into the
lowest possible points such as valleys or river beds, which may deviate from the direct path of the glacier. This
process is what produces the wide eskers upon which roads and highways can be built. Less pressure, occurring in
areas closer to the glacial maximum, can cause ice to melt over the stream flow and create steep-walled,
sharply-arched tunnels.[1]

The concentration of rock debris in the ice and the rate at which sediment is delivered to the tunnel by melting and
from upstream transport determines the amount of sediment in an esker. The sediment generally consists of
coarse-grained, water-laid sand and gravel, although gravelly loam may be found where the rock debris is rich in
clay. This sediment is stratified and sorted, and usually consists of pebble/cobble-sized material with occasional
boulders. Bedding may be irregular but is almost always present, and cross-bedding is common (Easterbrook, 1999).

Etymology
The name Esker is derived from the Irish word eiscir (Old Irish:
escir), which means: "a ridge or elevation, especially one
separating two plains or depressed surfaces" (Dictionary of the
Irish Language). The term was used particularly to describe long
sinuous ridges, which are now known to be deposits of
fluvio-glacial material. The best-known example of such an eiscir
is the Eiscir Riada, which runs nearly the whole width of Ireland
from Dublin to Galway, a distance of 200 km, and is still closely
followed by the main road from Dublin to Galway.

Portions of the Denali Highway in Alaska are built on

eskers
Esker 114

Examples of eskers
In Sweden Uppsalaåsen stretches for 250 km (156 miles) and
passes through Uppsala city.
Pispala in Tampere, Finland is on an esker between two lakes
carved by glaciers.
The village of Kemnay in Aberdeenshire, Scotland has an
excellent 5 km esker locally called the Kemb Hills.
The Mason Esker, about 22 miles long, is one of the longest eskers
in the USA. [2] It is in Mason, Michigan. It stretches from DeWitt
through Lansing and Holt, ending in Mason. Esker systems in the
U.S. state of Maine can be traced for up to 100 miles. [3] A part of the Mason Esker

The Thelon Esker runs for 800 kilometers and straddles the border
between Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada. [4]
Ovayok or Mount Pelly in Ovayok Territorial Park, Kitikmeot,
Nunavut in Canada.
Roads are sometimes built along eskers to save expense. Examples
include the Denali Highway in Alaska, the Trans-Taiga Road in
Quebec, and the "Airline" segment of Maine State Route 9
between Bangor and Calais. [5] There are numerous long eskers in
the Adirondack State Park in upstate New York.
Mount Pelly or Ovayok

References
• Quin, E. G. (gen. ed.) (1983). Dictionary of the Irish Language. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. pp. 281. ISBN 0
901714 29 1.
• Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 352. ISBN 0 13
860958 6.
• Trenhaile, Alan (2007). Geomorphology: A Canadian Perspective. Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press.
pp. 188–191. ISBN 0-19-542474-3.
[1] Shreve, R.L., 1985, Esker characteristics in terms of glacier physics, Katahdin esker system, Maine: GSA Bulletin, v. 96, p. 639-646.
[2] http:/ / www. cacvoices. org/ main. asp?a=2& b=0& pageid=670& view=
[3] http:/ / www. maine. gov/ doc/ nrimc/ mgs/ explore/ surficial/ facts/ surficial. htm
[4] Charlotte Gray 'The Museum Called Canada: 25 Rooms of Wonder' Random House, 2004
[5] http:/ / www. downeastregion. com/ way_downeast. php
Esker 115

External links
• Oblique aerial photo of an esker in Waterford, Maine (http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/explore/
surficial/facts/surf-10.htm)
• Larry Gedney, " Eskers: The Upside-Down Riverbeds (http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF6/674.
html)," Alaska Science Forum Article #674, August 1, 1984.
• Esker Riada Webpage (http://homepage.eircom.net/~williamfinnerty/chaplefinnerty/esker/riada1.htm)
• Diagram illustrating (i) tunnel in glacier before retreat of ice, forming (ii) meandering esker in The Ice Melts:
Deposition (http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/topogeo/education/es6/es6.pdf) on page 6 of "Pennsylvania and
the Ice Age" published 1999 by PA DCNR Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey (http://www.dcnr.
state.pa.us/topogo)
• The Bridgenorth Esker: geomorphology and sedimentology (http://www.bridgenorthesker.ca)

Fjord
Geologically, a fjord ( /Fiːɔrd.oggˈfjɔrd/ or /ˈfiː.ɔrd/) is a long,
narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created in a valley carved by
glacial activity.

Formation
A fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by abrasion of
the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by rebound
of Earth's crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also
called isostasy or glacial rebound). In some cases this rebound is faster
than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea;
Sognefjord, Norway, reaches as much as 1300 m (4265 ft) below sea
level. Fjords generally have a sill or rise at their mouth caused by the
previous glacier's terminal moraine, in many cases causing extreme
currents and large saltwater rapids (see skookumchuck). Saltstraumen
in Norway is often described as the world's strongest tidal current.
These characteristics distinguish fjords from rias (e.g. the Bay of
Geirangerfjord, Norway
Kotor), which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea.

Hardangerfjord in Hordaland, Norway.

Fjord 116

Fjord features and variations

Coral reefs
As late as 2000, some coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the Norwegian fjords.[1] These reefs were
found in fjords from the north of Norway to the south. The marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most
important reasons why the Norwegian coastline is such a generous fishing ground. Since this discovery is fairly new,
little research has been done. The reefs are host to thousands of lifeforms such as plankton, coral, anemones, fish,
several species of shark, and many more. Most are specially adapted to life under the greater pressure of the water
column above it, and the total darkness of the deep sea.
New Zealand's fjords are also host to deep sea corals, but a surface layer of dark fresh water allows these corals to
grow in much shallower water than usual. An underwater observatory in Milford Sound allows tourists to view them
without diving.[2]

Skerries
In some places near the seaward margins of areas with fjords, the ice-scoured channels are so numerous and varied in
direction that the rocky coast is divided into thousands of island blocks, some large and mountainous while others
are merely rocky points or rock reefs, menacing navigation. These are called skerries. The term skerry is derived
from the Old Norse sker, which means a rock in the sea.
Skerries most commonly formed at the outlet of fjords where submerged glacially formed valleys perpendicular to
the coast join with other cross valleys in a complex array. The island fringe of Norway is such a group of skerries
(called a skjærgård); many of the cross fjords are so arranged that they parallel the coast and provide a protected
channel behind an almost unbroken succession of mountainous islands and skerries. By this channel one can travel
through a protected passage almost the entire 1601 km (995 mi) route from Stavanger to North Cape, Norway. The
Blindleia is a skerry-protected waterway that starts near Kristiansand in southern Norway, and continues past
Lillesand. The Swedish coast along Bohuslän is likewise skerry guarded. The Inside Passage provides a similar route
from Seattle, Washington, and Vancouver, British Columbia, to Skagway, Alaska. Yet another such skerry protected
passage extends from the Straits of Magellan north for 800 km (500 mi).
Fjord 117

Etymology
With Indo European origin (*prtús from *por- or *per) in the
verb fara (travelling/ferrying), the Norse noun substantive
fjǫrðr means a "lake-like" waterbody used for passage and
ferrying.
The Scandinavian fjord, Proto-Scandinavian *ferþuz, is the
origin for similar European words: Icelandic fjörður, Swedish
fjärd (for Baltic waterbodies), Scottish firth. The Danish even
use fjord for shallow lagoons as well as minor bodies of water
cut into land; compare Scottish loch. The Germans call the
narrow long bays of Schleswig-Holstein Förde but the
Norwegian bays Fjord. The word is also related to English
ford (in German Furt, Low German Ford or Vörde, in Dutch
names voorde, cf. Vilvoorde), Greek poros, and Latin portus.
Fjord/firth/Förde as well as ford/Furt/Vörde/voorde refer to a
Germanic verb for to travel: Swedish fara, Dutch varen,
German fahren; English to fare has lost that meaning. The one
geographic object is a waterbody that allows the traveller to
enter the land by boat, the other one is the shallow site in a
waterbody that allows the traveller to cross the water on foot,
horse or wheels.

As a loanword from Norwegian, it is one of the few words in

the English language to start with the digraph fj,[3] although the
Important fjords and lakes in Norway. Note: The part of the
word was for a long time normally rendered fiord,[4] a spelling
map showing the northern fjords has a considerably smaller
preserved in place names such as Grise Fiord, but now scale. Blurred costlines = skerries
generally only current in New Zealand English.

Scandinavian usage
Use of the word fjord (including the eastern Scandinavian form fjärd) is more general in the Scandinavian languages
than in English. In Scandinavia, fjord is used for a narrow inlet of the sea in Norway, Denmark and western Sweden,
but this is not its only application. In Norway, the usage is closest to the Old Norse, with fjord used for both a firth
and for a long, narrow inlet. In eastern Norway, the term is also applied to long narrow freshwater lakes (for instance
Mjøsa [commonly referred to as fjorden], Randsfjorden and Tyrifjorden) and sometimes even to rivers (in local
usage, for instance in Flå in Hallingdal, the Hallingdal river is referred to as fjorden). In east Sweden, the name fjärd
is used in a synonymous manner for bays, bights and narrow inlets on the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, and in most
Swedish lakes. This latter term is also used for bodies of water off the coast of Finland where Finland Swedish is
spoken. In Danish, the word may even apply to shallow lagoons. In modern Icelandic, fjörður is still used with the
broader meaning of firth or inlet. In the Finnish language, a word vuono is used although there is only one fjord in
Finland.

The German use of the word Förde for long narrow bays on their Baltic Sea coastline, indicates a common Germanic
origin of the word. The landscape consists mainly of moraine heaps. The "Förden" and some "fjords" on the east side
of Denmark are also of glacial origin. But while the glaciers digging "real" fjords moved from the mountains to the
sea, in Denmark and Germany they were tongues of a huge glacier covering the basin of which is now the Baltic Sea.
See Förden and East Jutland Fjorde.
Fjord 118

Whereas fjord names mostly describe bays (though not always geological fjords), straits in the same regions
typically are named Sund, in Scandinavian languages as well as in German. The word is related to "to sunder" in the
meaning of "to separate". So the use of Sound to name fjords in North America and New Zealand differs from the
European meaning of that word.
The name of Wexford in Ireland is originally derived from Veisafjǫrðr ("inlet of the mud flats") in Old Norse, as
used by the Viking settlers — though the inlet at that place in modern terms is an estuary, not a fjord.

False fjords
The differences in usage between the English and the Scandinavian
languages have contributed to confusion in the use of the term fjord.
Bodies of water that are clearly fjords in Scandinavian languages are
not considered fjords in English; similarly bodies of water that would
clearly not be fjords in the Scandinavian sense have been named or
suggested to be fjords. Examples of this confused usage follow.

The Bay of Kotor in Montenegro has been suggested by some to be a

fjord, but is in fact a drowned river canyon or ria. Similarly the Lim
The Lim bay in Croatia is sometimes called a
bay in Istria, Croatia, is sometimes called "Lim fjord" although it is not fjord, but is actually a ria.
actually a fjord carved by glacial erosion but instead a ria dug by the
river Pazinčica. The Croats call it Limski kanal, which does not translate precisely to the English equivalent either.
In the Danish language any inlet is called a fjord, but none of the "fjords" of Denmark is a fjord in geological sense.
Limfjord in English terminology is a channel, since it separates the North Jutlandic Island (Vendsyssel-Thy) from
the rest of Jutland. Ringkøbing Fjord on the western coast of Jutland is a lagoon. The long narrow "fjords" of
Denmark's Baltic Sea coast like the German Förden were dug by ice moving from the sea upon land, while fjords in
the geological sense were dug by ice moving from the mountains down to the sea.
While the long fjord-like bays of the New England coast are sometimes referred to as "fjards", the only glacially
formed fjord-like feature in New England is Somes Sound in Maine.
The fjords in Finnmark (Norway), which are fjords in the Scandinavian sense of the term, are considered by some to
be false fjords. Although glacially formed, most Finnmark fjords lack the classic hallmark steep-sided valleys of the
more southerly Norwegian fjords since the glacial pack was deep enough to cover even the high grounds when they
were formed. The Oslofjord on the other hand is a rift valley, and not glacially formed.
In Acapulco, Mexico, the calanques—narrow, rocky inlets—on the western side of the city, where the famous
cliff-divers perform daily, are described in the city's tourist literature as being fjords.
Fjord 119

Freshwater fjords
Some Norwegian freshwater lakes that have
formed in long glacially carved valleys with
terminal moraines blocking the outlet follow
the Norwegian naming convention; they are
named fjords. Outside of Norway, the three
western arms of New Zealand's Lake Te
Anau are named North Fiord, Middle Fiord
and South Fiord. Another freshwater "fjord"
in a larger lake is Baie Fine, located on the
northeastern coast of Georgian Bay of Lake
Huron in Ontario. Western Brook Pond, in
Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park,
Freshwater fjords at the Italian slope of the Alps:
is also often described as a fjord, but is
blue figures = water surface in meters above sea level,
actually a freshwater lake cut off from the brown figures = ground of the lakes in meters above (+) or below (-) sea level
sea, so is not a fjord in the English sense of
the term. Such lakes are sometimes called "fjord lakes". Okanagan Lake was the first North American lake to be so
described, in 1962.[5] The bedrock there has been eroded up to 650 m (2133 ft) below sea level, which is 2000 m
(6562 ft) below the surrounding regional topography.[6] Fjord lakes are common on the inland lea of the Coast
Mountains and Cascade Range; notable ones include Lake Chelan, Seton Lake, Chilko Lake, and Atlin Lake.
Kootenay Lake, Slocan Lake and others in the basin of the Columbia River are also fjord-like in nature, and created
by glaciation in the same way. Along the British Columbia Coast, a notable fjord-lake is Owikeno Lake, which is a
freshwater extension of Rivers Inlet. Quesnel Lake, located in central British Columbia, is claimed to be the deepest
fjord formed lake on earth. Another area notable for fjord lakes is northern Italy and southern Switzerland: Lake
Como and its neighbours.

Locations
The principal mountainous regions where fjords have formed are in the
higher middle latitudes and the high latitudes reaching to 80°N
(Svalbard, Greenland), where, during the glacial period, many valley
glaciers descended to the then-lower sea level. The fjords develop best
in mountain ranges against which the prevailing westerly marine winds
are orographically lifted over the mountainous regions, resulting in
abundant snowfall to feed the glaciers. Hence coasts having the most
pronounced fjords include the west coast of Europe, the west coast of
North America from Puget Sound to Alaska, the southwest coast of Sognefjord in Norway, the third longest fjord in
the world
New Zealand, and the west coast of South America and to
south-western Tasmania. In Tasmania, there are many small fjords
with mountains surrounding reaching 1,000 m in southern districts, though these are not glaciated they are often
covered in snow, sometimes in summer. These fjords have formed by past glaciers ripping through to the sea.
Fjord 120

Principal glaciated regions

• West coast of Europe
• Faroe Islands
• Westfjords of Iceland
• Eastfjords of Iceland
• Norway, including Svalbard
• Kola Bay in Russia
• West coast of New Zealand
• Fiordland, in the southwest of the South Island
• Northwest Coast of North America

• The coast of Alaska, United States: Lynn Canal, Glacier Bay, Eyjafjörður in north Iceland, Akureyri can be
etc. seen to the far right

• British Columbia Coast, Canada: from the Alaskan Border along

the Portland Canal to Indian Arm; Kingcome Inlet is a typical
West Coast fjord.
• Hood Canal in Washington, United States
• West coast of South America
• Zona Austral and the Los Lagos Region, Chile
• Northeast Coast of North America Killary Harbour, western Ireland
• Labrador: Saglek Fjord, Nachvak Fjord, Hebron Fjord

Other glaciated regions

Other regions have fjords, but many of these are less pronounced due
to more limited exposure to westerly winds and less pronounced relief.
Areas include:
• Europe
• Ireland (There are three examples of glacial fjords in Ireland:
Lough Swilly, Carlingford Lough and Killary Harbour)
New Zealand's Milford Sound
• Scotland (where called firths, the Scots language cognate of
fjord; lochs or sea lochs)
• the Gullmaren on the west coast of Sweden
• North America
• Canada:
• Newfoundland: Facheux Bay and Bonne Bay in Gros Morne
National Park
• Quebec's Saguenay River valley
• the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, particularly:
Glacier in a fjord at Kenai Fjords National Park,
• Ellesmere Island Alaska
• Baffin Island
• Greenland
• Scoresby Sund, the largest fjords in the world
• Søndre Strømfjord or Kangerlussuaq
• Disko Island
Fjord 121

• Ilulissat Ice fjord, the most productive ice fjord in the world.
• United States
• Somes Sound, Acadia National Park, Maine
• Hudson River
• most clearly seen at the New Jersey Palisades
• Hood Canal, western Washington State
• Arctic
• Arctic islands Tysfjord in Norway north of the Arctic Circle is
located in the boreal zone

Magdalenafjord in the high arctic archipelago

Svalbard

• Antarctica
• South Georgia (UK)
• Kerguelen Islands (France)
• particularly the Antarctic Peninsula
• Sub-Antarctic islands

Extreme fjords
The longest fjords in the world are:
The entrance to Larsen Harbour, a
1. Scoresby Sund in Greenland—350 km (217 mi) sub-embayment of Drygalski Fjord in South
2. Greely/Tanquary Fiord in Canada—230 km (143 mi) Georgia Island.
3. Sognefjord in Norway—203 km (126 mi)
Deep fjords include:
1. Skelton Inlet in Antarctica—1933 m (6342 ft)
2. Sognefjord in Norway—1308 m (4291 ft) (the mountains then rise to up to 1000 m (3281 ft))
3. Messier Channel in Chile—1288 m (4226 ft)
Fjord 122

References
[1] Institute of Marine Research: Coral reefs in Norway (http:/ / www. imr. no/ coral/ )
[2] Paddy Ryan. Fiords - Underwater rock walls and basins (http:/ / www. TeAra. govt. nz/ EarthSeaAndSky/ MarineEnvironments/ Fiords/ 2/
en), Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Updated 21 September 2007. Accessed 2008-04-18.
[3] fjeld is another
[4] In 1926 the A Dictionary of Modern English Usage said: "The OED gives precedence to fi-. The other spelling is apparently used in English
to help the ignorant to call it fyord; as, instead of helping, it only puzzles them, it should be aboandoned" (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/
books?id=Vr7muDFR6j4C& pg=PA181& lpg=PA181& dq=fjord+ spelling+ fiord& source=bl& ots=F42V_w9IpT&
sig=SsJ9arOIEAZUP-qVjew3JMvjPlQ& hl=en& ei=Zl8GTaW8G5PQsAOx1_nnCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9&
ved=0CE8Q6AEwCDgo#v=onepage& q=fjord spelling fiord& f=false)
[5] Nasmith, Hugh (1962). Late glacial history and surficial deposits of the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Victoria, BC, Canada: BC
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources
[6] Eyles, Nicholas; Mullins, Henry T.; and Hine, Albert C. (1990). "Thick and fast: Sedimentation in a Pleistocene fiord lake of British
Columbia, Canada". Geology 18 (11): 1153–1157. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<1153:TAFSIA>2.3.CO;2.

External links
• Use of whales to probe Arctic fjord's secrets (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2683797.stm)
• Fiordland's Marine Reserves (http://www.doc.govt.nz/templates/podcover.aspx?id=33897)
• Saguenay River - The Canadian Atlas Online (http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.
aspx?id=rivers&sub=rivers_east_saguenay)

Glacier
A glacier (pronounced UK: /ˈɡlæsiər/ GLASS-ee-ər or US: /ˈɡleɪʃər/
GLAY-shər) is a large persistent body of ice. Originating on land, a
glacier flows slowly due to stresses induced by its weight. The
crevasses and other distinguishing features of a glacier are due to its
flow. Another consequence of glacier flow is the transport of rock and
debris abraded from its substrate and resultant landforms like cirques
and moraines. A glacier forms in a location where the accumulation of
snow and sleet exceeds the amount of snow that melts. Over many
years, often decades or centuries, a glacier will eventually form as the
The Baltoro Glacier in the Karakoram, Kashmir,
snow compacts and turns to ice. A glacier is distinct from sea ice and
Northern Pakistan. At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in
lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water. length, it is one of the longest alpine glaciers on
earth.
The word glacier comes from French. It is derived from the Vulgar
Latin *glacia and ultimately from Latin glacies meaning ice.[1] The
processes and features caused by glaciers and related to them are
referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and
flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called
glaciology. Glaciers are important components of the global
cryosphere.

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the
polar regions, but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges of every
continent except Australia. In the tropics, glaciers occur only on high
Ice calving from the terminus of the Perito
mountains.[2] Moreno Glacier, in western Patagonia, Argentina
Glacier 123

Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of freshwater on Earth. Many

glaciers store water during one season and release it later as meltwater,
a water source that is especially important for plants, animals and
human uses when other sources may be scant.
Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climate changes, e.g.,
precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes
are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change
and are a major source of variations in sea level.

The Aletsch Glacier, the largest glacier of the

Alps, in Switzerland

Icebergs calved from outlet glaciers at Cape

York, Greenland

Types of glaciers
Glaciers are categorized in many ways including by their morphology,
thermal characteristics or their behavior. Alpine glaciers form on the
crests and slopes of mountains and are also known as "mountain
glaciers", "niche glaciers", or "cirque glaciers". An alpine glacier that
fills a valley is sometimes called a valley glacier. Larger glaciers that
cover an entire mountain, mountain range, or volcano are known as an
ice cap or ice field, such as the Juneau Icefield.[3] Ice caps feed outlet
glaciers, tongues of ice that extend into valleys below far from the
margins of the larger ice masses.
Mouth of the Schlatenkees Glacier near
The largest glacial bodies, ice sheets or continental glaciers, cover Innergschlöß, Austria
[4]
more than 50,000 km² (20,000 mile²). Several kilometers deep, they
obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from the surface. The only extant ice sheets are the two
that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. These regions contain vast quantities of fresh water. The volume of ice
is so large that if the Greenland ice sheet melted, it would cause sea levels to rise six meters (20 ft) all around the
world. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, sea levels would rise up to 65 meters (210 ft).[5] Ice shelves are areas of
floating ice, commonly located at the margin of an ice sheet. As a result they are thinner and have limited slopes and
reduced velocities.[6] Ice streams are fast-moving sections of an ice sheet.[7] They can be several hundred kilometers
long. Ice streams have narrow margins and on either side ice flow is usually an order of magnitude less.[8] In
Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large ice shelves. However, some drain directly into the sea, often with an ice
tongue, like Mertz Glacier. In Greenland and Antarctica ice streams ending at the sea are often referred to as
tidewater glaciers or outlet glaciers, such as Jakobshavn Isbræ (Kalaallisut: Sermeq Kujalleq).
Glacier 124

Tidewater glaciers are glaciers that terminate in the sea. As the ice
reaches the sea pieces break off, or calve, forming icebergs. Most
tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a
tremendous splash as the iceberg strikes the water. If the water is deep,
glaciers can calve underwater, causing the iceberg to suddenly leap up
out of the water. The Hubbard Glacier is the longest tidewater glacier
in Alaska and has a calving face over 10 km (6 mi) long. Yakutat Bay
and Glacier Bay are both popular with cruise ship passengers because
Sightseeing boat in front of a tidewater glacier,
of the huge glaciers descending hundreds of feet to the water. This
Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska
glacier type undergoes centuries-long cycles of advance and retreat that
are much less affected by the climate changes currently causing the
retreat of most other glaciers. Most tidewater glaciers are outlet glaciers of ice caps and ice fields.

In terms of thermal characteristics, a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its
base. The ice of a polar glacier is always below freezing point from the surface to its base, although the surface
snowpack may experience seasonal melting. A sub-polar glacier has both temperate and polar ice, depending on the
depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier.

Formation
Glaciers form where the accumulation of snow and ice exceeds
ablation. As the snow and ice thicken, they reach a point where they
begin to move, due to a combination of the surface slope and the
pressure of the overlying snow and ice. On steeper slopes this can
occur with as little as 15 m (50 ft) of snow-ice. The snow which forms
temperate glaciers is subject to repeated freezing and thawing, which
changes it into a form of granular ice called firn. Under the pressure of
the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser
and denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further
Gorner Glacier in Switzerland
compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice has a slightly reduced
density from ice formed from the direct freezing of water. The air
between snowflakes becomes trapped and creates air bubbles between the ice crystals.

The distinctive blue tint of glacial ice is often wrongly attributed to Rayleigh scattering due to bubbles in the ice. The
blue color is actually created for the same reason that water is blue, that is, its slight absorption of red light due to an
overtone of the infrared OH stretching mode of the water molecule.[9]

Anatomy
The location where a glacier originates is referred to as the "glacier head". A glacier terminates at the "glacier foot",
or terminus. Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions.[10] The ablation zone is
the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the
accumulation zone. At this altitude, the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice
lost through ablation. The accumulation zone is the region where snowpack or superimposed ice accumulation
persists.
A further zonation of the accumulation zone distinguishes the melt conditions that exist.
• The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.
Glacier 125

• The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This
zone is often marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches melting point.
• Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater
refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.
• The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been
raised to 0 °C.
The upper part of a glacier that receives most of the snowfall is called the accumulation zone. In general, the glacier
accumulation zone accounts for 60-70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. The depth
of ice in the accumulation zone exerts a downward force sufficient to cause deep erosion of the rock in this area.
After the glacier is gone, its force often leaves a bowl or amphitheater-shaped isostatic depression ranging from large
lake basins, such as the Great Lakes or Finger Lakes, to smaller mountain basins, known as cirques.
The "health" of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the glacier mass balance or observing terminus behavior.
Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area snowcovered at the end of the melt
season, and a terminus with vigorous flow.
Following the Little Ice Age, around 1850, the glaciers of the Earth have retreated substantially through the 1940s
(see Retreat of glaciers since 1850). A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers from 1950-1985.
However, since 1985 glacier retreat and mass balance loss has become increasingly ubiquitous and large.[11] [12] [13]

Motion
Glaciers move, or flow, downhill due to the internal deformation of ice
and gravity.[14] Ice behaves like an easily breaking solid until its
thickness exceeds about 50 meters (160 ft). The pressure on ice deeper
than that depth causes plastic flow. At the molecular level, ice consists
of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between the
layers. When the stress of the layer above exceeds the inter-layer
binding strength, it moves faster than the layer below.[15]

Another type of movement is through basal sliding. In this process, the

glacier slides over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by the
presence of liquid water. As the pressure increases toward the base of
the glacier, the melting point of water decreases, and the ice melts.
Friction between ice and rock and geothermal heat from the Earth's
interior also contribute to melting. This type of movement is dominant
in temperate, or warm-based glaciers. The geothermal heat flux
becomes more important the thicker a glacier becomes.[16]

The rate of movement is dependent on the underlying slope, amongst

many other factors. The Nadelhorn Glacier above Saas-Fee, Valais,
Switzerland
Glacier 126

Fracture zone and cracks

The top 50 meters of the glacier, being under less pressure, are more
rigid; this section is known as the fracture zone, and mostly moves as a
single unit, over the plastic-like flow of the lower section. When the
glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks up to 50 meters deep
form in the fracture zone. The lower layers of glacial ice flow and
deform plastically under the pressure, allowing the glacier as a whole
to move slowly like a viscous fluid. Glaciers flow downslope, usually
this reflects the slope of their base, but it may reflect the surface slope
instead. Thus, a glacier can flow rises in terrain at their base. The upper
Ice cracks in the Titlis Glacier
layers of glaciers are more brittle, and often form deep cracks known
as crevasses. The presence of crevasses is a sure sign of a glacier.
Moving ice-snow of a glacier is often separated from a mountain side
or snow-ice that is stationary and clinging to that mountain side by a
bergshrund. This looks like a crevasse but is at the margin of the
glacier and is a singular feature.

Crevasses form due to differences in glacier velocity. As the parts

move at different speeds and directions, shear forces cause the two
sections to break apart, opening the crack of a crevasse all along the
disconnecting faces. Hence, the distance between the two separated
parts, while touching and rubbing deep down, frequently widens Signs warning of the hazards of a glacier in New
significantly towards the surface layers, many times creating a wide Zealand
chasm. Crevasses seldom are more than 150 feet (46 m) deep but in
some cases can be 1000 feet (300 m) or even deeper. Beneath this point, the plastic deformation of the ice under
pressure is too great for the differential motion to generate cracks. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow, as a
glacier accelerates where the slope steepens. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier
expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form from the edge of the glacier, due to the reduction in speed caused by
friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are usually largely transverse to flow.

Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous. Subsequent heavy

snow may form fragile snow bridges, increasing the danger by hiding
the presence of crevasses at the surface. Below the equilibrium line,
glacier meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. The meltwater
can pool in a proglacial lake, a lake on top of the glacier, or can
descend into the depths of the glacier via moulins. Within or beneath
the glacier, the stream will flow in an englacial or sub-glacial tunnel.
Sometimes these tunnels reemerge at the surface of the glacier.[17]

Speed
The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by friction.
Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly
than the upper portion. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at
the valley's side walls, which slows the edges relative to the center.
This was confirmed by experiments in the 19th century, in which Crossing a crevasse on the Easton Glacier, Mount
stakes were planted in a line across an alpine glacier, and as time Baker, in the North Cascades, United States
passed, those in the center moved farther.
Glacier 127

Mean speeds vary greatly. There may be no motion in stagnant areas, where trees can establish themselves on
surface sediment deposits such as in Alaska. In other cases they can move as fast as 20–30 meters per day, as in the
case of Greenlands's Jakobshavn Isbræ (Kalaallisut: Sermeq Kujalleq), or 2–3 m per day on Byrd Glacier, the largest
glacier in the world in Antarctica. Velocity increases with increasing slope, increasing thickness, increasing
snowfall, increasing longitudinal confinement, increasing basal temperature, increasing meltwater production and
reduced bed hardness.
A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called surges. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until
suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities far
greater than normal speed.[18] These surges may be caused by failure of the underlying bedrock, the ponding of
meltwater at the base of the glacier[19]  — perhaps delivered from a supraglacial lake — or the simple accumulation
of mass beyond a critical "tipping point".[20]
In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year, glacial earthquakes occur. These are
large scale tremblors that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1.[21] [22]
The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland show a peak every year in July, August and September, and the
number is increasing over time. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were
detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.
This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming.[21] [22]
Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream, a large, fast-moving river of ice pouring from the
West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf. Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day, each one
equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake, and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea. During each
event a 96 by 193 kilometer (60 by 120 mile) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters (2.2 ft) over about
25 minutes, remains still for 12 hours, then moves another half-meter. The seismic waves are recorded at
seismographs around Antarctica, and even as far away as Australia, a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers.
Because the motion takes place of such along period of time 10 to 25 minutes, it cannot be felt by scientists standing
on the moving glacier. It is not known if these events are related to global warming[23]

Ogives
Ogives are alternating dark and light bands of ice occurring as narrow wave crests and wave valleys on glacier
surfaces. They only occur below icefalls, but not all icefalls have ogives below them. Once formed, they bend
progressively downglacier due to the increased velocity toward the glacier's centerline. Ogives are linked to seasonal
motion of the glacier as the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the
glacier. The ridges and valleys are formed because ice from an icefall is severely broken up, thereby increasing
ablation surface area during the summertime. This creates a swale and space for snow accumulation in the winter,
which in turn creates a ridge.[24] Sometimes ogives are described as either wave ogives or band ogives, in which they
are solely undulations or varying color bands, respectively.[25]
Glacier 128

Geography
Glaciers occur on every continent and approximately 47 countries.
Extensive glaciers are found in Antarctica, Chilean Patagonia, Canada,
Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, e.g.,
in the Andes, the Himalaya, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, and
the Alps. On mainland Australia no glaciers exist today, although a
small glacier on Mount Kosciuszko was present in the last glacial
period, and Tasmania was extensively glaciated.[26] The South Island
of New Zealand has many glaciers including Tasman, Fox and Franz
Josef Glaciers. In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are
Black ice glacier near Aconcagua, Argentina
located on its highest summit massif of Puncak Jaya.[27] Africa has
glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, on Mount Kenya and in
the Ruwenzori Range.

Permanent snow cover is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the
winds. As temperature decreases with altitude, high mountains — even those near the Equator — have permanent
snow cover on their upper portions, above the snow line. Examples include Mount Kilimanjaro and the Tropical
Andes in South America; however, the only snow to occur exactly on the Equator is at 4690 m (15387 ft) on the
southern slope of Volcán Cayambe in Ecuador.
Conversely, areas of the Arctic, such as Banks Island, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are considered
polar deserts, as they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport
much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the Quaternary, Manchuria, lowland Siberia,[28] and central and
northern Alaska,[29] though extraordinarily cold with winter temperatures believed to reach −100 °C (−148 °F) in
parts,[30] had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.[31] [32]
In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are
high (4500 metres (14800 ft) - 6900 m (22600 ft)) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from
accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are located near or in the hyperarid Atacama desert.

Glacial geology
Rocks and sediments are added to glaciers
through various processes. Glaciers erode
the terrain principally through two methods:
abrasion and plucking.
As the glacier flows over the bedrock's
fractured surface, it softens and lifts blocks
of rock that are brought into the ice. This
process is known as plucking, and it is
produced when subglacial water penetrates
the fractures and the subsequent freezing
expansion separates them from the bedrock.
When the ice expands, it acts as a lever that Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion
loosens the rock by lifting it. This way,
sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. The rocks frozen into the
Glacier 129

bottom of the ice then act like grit in

sandpaper.
Abrasion occurs when the ice and the load
of rock fragments slide over the bedrock and
function as sandpaper that smooths and
polishes the surface situated below. This
pulverized rock is called rock flour. The
flour is formed by rock grains of a size
between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm. Sometimes
the amount of rock flour produced is so high
that currents of meltwaters acquire a grayish
color. These processes of erosion lead to
steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in
alpine settings, which can cause avalanches
and rock slides. These further add material Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near Mariehamn, Åland Islands

to the glacier.

Visible characteristics of glacial abrasion are glacial striations. These are produced when the bottom's ice contains
large chunks of rock that mark scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the flutes, researchers can
determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Chatter marks are seen as lines of roughly crescent-shape
depressions in the rock underlying a glacier, caused by the abrasion where a boulder in the ice catches and is then
released repetitively as the glacier drags it over the underlying basal rock.
The rate of glacier erosion is variable. The differential erosion undertaken by the ice is controlled by six important
factors:
• Velocity of glacial movement;
• Thickness of the ice;
• Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier;
• Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier;
• Thermal conditions at the glacier base; and
• Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base.
Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier are typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being
deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:
• Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material
ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.
• Fluvial and outwash: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified through various processes, such
as boulders' being separated from finer particles.
The larger pieces of rock which are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "glacial erratics". They
may range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they may be moved great distances, they may be of drastically
different type than the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics provide clues of past glacial
motions.
Glacier 130

Moraines
Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a
glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. These features
usually appear as linear mounds of till, a non-sorted mixture of rock,
gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material.
Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a
glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial
moraines are formed when two different glaciers, flowing in the same
direction, coalesce and the lateral moraines of each combine to form a
moraine in the middle of the merged glacier. Less apparent is the Glacial moraines above Lake Louise, Alberta,
ground moraine, also called glacial drift, which often blankets the Canada
surface underneath much of the glacier downslope from the
equilibrium line. Glacial meltwaters contain rock flour, an extremely fine powder ground from the underlying rock
by the glacier's movement. Other features formed by glacial deposition include long snake-like ridges formed by
streambeds under glaciers, known as eskers, and distinctive streamlined hills, known as drumlins.

Stoss-and-lee erosional features are formed by glaciers and show the direction of their movement. Long linear rock
scratches (that follow the glacier's direction of movement) are called glacial striations, and divots in the rock are
called chatter marks. Both of these features are left on the surfaces of stationary rock that were once under a glacier
and were formed when loose rocks and boulders in the ice were transported over the rock surface. Transport of
fine-grained material within a glacier can smooth or polish the surface of rocks, leading to glacial polish. Glacial
erratics are rounded boulders that were left by a melting glacier and are often seen perched precariously on exposed
rock faces after glacial retreat.
The term moraine is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found
near the margins of glaciers in the French Alps. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to
a series of formations, all of which are composed of till.

Drumlins
Drumlins are asymmetrical, canoe shaped hills with aerodynamic
profiles made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters
and they can reach a kilometer in length. The tilted side of the hill
looks toward the direction from which the ice advanced (stoss), while
the longer slope follows the ice's direction of movement (lee).
Drumlins are found in groups called drumlin fields or drumlin camps. A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified
An example of these fields is found east of Rochester, New York, and the landscape. The teardrop-shaped formations
denote the direction of the ice flow.
it is estimated that it contains about 10,000 drumlins.

Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, it can be inferred from their shape that they are
products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when
glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.
Glacier 131

Glacial valleys
Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic "V" shape,
produced by downward erosion by water. However, during glaciation,
these valleys widen and deepen, forming a "U"-shaped glacial valley.
Besides the deepening and widening of the valley, the glacier also
smooths the valley due to erosion. In this way, it eliminates the spurs
of earth that extend across the valley. Because of this interaction,
triangular cliffs called truncated spurs are formed.

Many glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller tributaries.
Therefore, when the glaciers recede from the region, the valleys of the A glacial valley in the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie
tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression, and these National Forest, showing the characteristic
are called hanging valleys. U-shape and flat bottom

In parts of the soil that were affected by abrasion and plucking, the
depressions left can be filled by lakes, called paternoster lakes.
At the 'start' of a classic valley glacier is the cirque, which has a bowl
shape with escarped walls on three sides, but open on the side that
descends into the valley. In the cirque, an accumulation of ice is
formed. These begin as irregularities on the side of the mountain,
which are later augmented in size by the coining of the ice. Once the
glacier melts, these corries are usually occupied by small mountain
lakes called tarns.

There may be two glacial cirques 'back to back' which erode deep into Yosemite Valley from an airplane, showing the
their backwalls until only a narrow ridge, called an arête is left. This U-shape

structure may result in a mountain pass.

Glaciers are also responsible for the creation of fjords (deep coves or
inlets) and escarpments that are found at high latitudes.

This image shows the termini of the glaciers in

the Bhutan Himalaya. Glacial lakes have been
rapidly forming on the surface of the
debris-covered glaciers in this region during the
last few decades.
Glacier 132

Arêtes and horns (pyramid peak)

An arête is a narrow crest with a sharp edge. The meeting of three or
more arêtes creates pointed pyramidal peaks and in extremely
steep-sided forms these are called horns.
Both features may have the same process behind their formation: the
enlargement of cirques from glacial plucking and the action of the ice.
Horns are formed by cirques that encircle a single mountain. Features of a glacial landscape

Arêtes emerge in a similar manner; the only difference is that the cirques are not located in a circle, but rather on
opposite sides along a divide. Arêtes can also be produced by the collision of two parallel glaciers. In this case, the
glacial tongues cut the divides down to size through erosion, and polish the adjacent valleys.

Roche moutonnée
Some rock formations in the path of a glacier are sculpted into small hills with a shape known as roche moutonnée or
"sheepback" rock. An elongated, rounded, asymmetrical, bedrock knob can be produced by glacier erosion. It has a
gentle slope on its up-glacier side and a steep to vertical face on the down-glacier side. The glacier abrades the
smooth slope that it flows along, while rock is torn loose from the downstream side and carried away in ice, a
process known as 'plucking'. Rock on this side is fractured by a combination of various forces, such as water, ice in
rock cracks, and structural stresses.

Alluvial stratification
The water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier and carries with it fine eroded sediments.
As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water then gradually
deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an alluvial plain. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a
valley train. When the deposition is to an estuary, the sediments are known as "bay mud".
Outwash plains and valley trains are
usually accompanied by basins known
as "kettles". These are glacial
depressions produced when large ice
blocks are stuck in the glacial
alluvium. After they melt, the sediment
is left with holes. The diameter of such
depressions ranges from 5 m to 13 km,
with depths of up to 45 meters. Most
are circular in shape due to the melting
Landscape produced by a receding glacier
blocks of ice becoming rounded. The
lakes that often form in these
depressions are known as "kettle lakes".[33]
Glacier 133

Deposits in contact with ice

When a glacier reduces in size to a critical point, its flow stops, and the ice becomes stationary. Meanwhile,
meltwater flows over, within, and beneath the ice leave stratified alluvial deposits. Because of this, as the ice melts,
it leaves stratified deposits in the form of columns, terraces and clusters. These types of deposits are known as
"deposits in contact with ice".
When those deposits take the form of columns of tipped sides or mounds, they are called kames. Some kames form
when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. In other cases, they are just the result
of fans or deltas towards the exterior of the ice produced by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can
form terraces or kame along the sides of the valley.
A third type of deposit formed in contact with the ice is characterized by long, narrow sinuous crests, composed
fundamentally of sand and gravel deposited by streams of meltwater flowing within, or beneath the glacier. After the
ice has melted, these linear ridges or eskers remain as landscape features. Some of these crests have heights
exceeding 100 meters and their lengths surpass 100 km.

Loess deposits
Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be
deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site. These eolian loess deposits may be very deep,
even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the Midwestern United States of America. Katabatic winds can be
important in this process.

Transportation and erosion

• Entrainment is the picking up of loose material by the glacier from along the bed and valley sides. Entrainment
can happen by regelation or by the ice simply picking up the debris.
• Basal ice freezing is thought to be to be made by glaciohydraulic supercooling, though some studies show that
even where physical conditions allow it to occur, the process may not be responsible for observed sequences of
basal ice.
• Plucking is the process involves the glacier freezing onto the valley sides and subsequent ice movement pulling
away masses of rock. As the bedrock is greater in strength than the glacier, only previously loosened material can
be removed. It can be loosened by local pressure and temperature, water and pressure release of the rock itself.
• Supraglacial debris is carried on the surface of the glacier as lateral and medial moraines. In summer ablation,
surface melt water carries a small load and this often disappears down crevasses.
• Englacial debris is moraine carried within the body of the glacier.
• Subglacial debris is moved along the floor of the valley either by the ice as ground moraine or by meltwater
streams formed by pressure melting.

Deposition
• Lodgement till is identical to ground moraine. It is material that is smeared on to the valley floor when its weight
becomes too great to be moved by the glacier.
• Ablation till is a combination of englacial and supraglacial moraine. It is released as a stationary glacier begins to
melt and material is dropped in situ.
• Dumping is when a glacier moves material to its outermost or lowermost end and dumps it.
• Deformation flow is the change of shape of the rock and land due to the glacier.
Glacier 134

Isostatic rebound
This rise of a part of the crust is due to an isostatic adjustment. A large
mass, such as an ice sheet/glacier, depresses the crust of the Earth and
displaces the mantle below. The depression is about a third the
thickness of the ice sheet. After the glacier melts the mantle begins to
flow back to its original position pushing the crust back to its original
Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust
position. This post-glacial rebound, which lags melting of the ice
sheet/glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in
Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America.

An interesting geomorphological feature created by the same process, but on a smaller scale, is known as
dilation-faulting. It occurs within rock where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape,
but more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting, leading to an effect similar to that which would be seen if
the rock were hit by a large hammer. This can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria.

Glaciers on Mars
Elsewhere in the solar system, the vast polar ice caps of Mars rival
those of the Earth and show glacial features. Especially the south polar
cap is compared to glaciers on Earth.[34] Other glacial features on Mars
are glacial debris aprons and the lineated valley fills of the fretted
terrain in northern Arabia Terra.[35] Topographical features and
computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars'
past.[36]

Martian glaciers are affected by the thin atmosphere of Mars. Because

of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely due Northern polar icecap on Mars
to sublimation, not melting. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered
with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument onboard the Mars Reconnaisance Orbiter found ice
under a thin layer of rocks in formations called Lobate Debris Aprons (LDA's).[37] [38] [39] [40] [41]

Gullies in a crater in Eridania,
north of the large crater Kepler.
Also, features that may be
remains of old glaciers are
present. One, to the right, has the
shape of a tongue.
Lobate Debris Apron in Moreux Crater moraines Tributary Glacier, as
Phlegra Montes, Cebrenia and kettle holes, as seen seen by HiRISE
quadrangle. The debris apron by HiRISE
is probably mostly ice with a
thin covering of rock debris,
so it could be a source of
water for future Martian
colonists. Scale bar is 500
meters long.
Glacier 135

Mesa in Glacier as Enlargement of area in rectangle

Ismenius seen by of the previous image. On Earth
Lacus HiRISE the ridge would be called the
quadrangle, under the terminal moraine of an alpine
as seen by HiWish glacier. Picture taken with
CTX. Mesa program. HiRISE under the HiWish
has several Area in program.
glaciers rectangle is
eroding it. enlarged in
One of the the next
glaciers is photo. Zone
seen in of
greater detail accumulation
in the next of snow at
two images the top.
from HiRISE. Glacier is
moving
down valley,
then
spreading out
on plain.
Evidence for
flow comes
from the
many lines
on surface.
Location is
in Protonilus
Mensae in
Ismenius
Lacus
quadrangle.

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[2] Post, Austin; LaChapelle, Edward R (2000). Glacier ice. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295979100.
[3] "Retreat of alaskan glacier juneau icefield" (http:/ / www. nichols. edu/ departments/ glacier/ juneau icefield. htm). Nichols.edu. . Retrieved
2009-01-05.
[4] American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=ice-sheet1)
[5] "Sea Level and Climate" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ fs2-00/ ). USGS FS 002-00. USGS. 2000-01-31. . Retrieved 2009-01-05.
[6] * National Snow and Ice Data Center. "Types of Glacier" (http:/ / www. nsidc. org/ glaciers/ questions/ types. html). .
[7] Bindschadler, R.A. and T.A. Scambos. Satellite-image-derived velocity field of an Antarctic ice stream. Science, 252(5003), 242-246, 1991
[8] British Antarctic Survey. "Description of Ice Streams" (http:/ / www. antarctica. ac. uk/ / about_antarctica/ geography/ ice/ streams. php). .
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[9] What causes the blue color that sometimes appears in snow and ice ? (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ causesofcolor/ 5C. html)
[10] [Benson, C.S., 1961, "Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland Ice Sheet", Res. Rep. 70, U.S. Army Snow, Ice and
Permafrost Res Establ., Corps of Eng., 120 pp]
[11] "Glacier change and related hazards in Switzerland" (http:/ / www. grid. unep. ch/ activities/ global_change/ switzerland. php). UNEP. .
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[12] http:/ / folk. uio. no/ kaeaeb/ publications/ grl04_paul. pdf Frank Paul, et al., 2004, Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with
satellite data, GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 31, L21402, doi:10.1029/2004GL020816, 2004
[13] Recent Global Glacier Retreat Overview (http:/ / www. nichols. edu/ departments/ Glacier/ glacier_retreat. htm)
[14] Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009). Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2. ISBN 978-3-642-03414-5.
[15] W.S.B. Paterson, Physics of ice
[16] Hughes, T. West Antarctic ice streams. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 15(1), 1-46, 1977
[17] "Moulin 'Blanc': NASA Expedition Probes Deep Within a Greenland Glacier" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ earth/ lookingatearth/
moulin-20061211. html). NASA. 2006-12-11. . Retrieved 2009-01-05.
[18] T. Strozzi et al.: The Evolution of a Glacier Surge Observed with the ERS Satellites (http:/ / earth. esa. int/ pub/ ESA_DOC/ gothenburg/
154stroz. pdf) (pdf, 1.3 Mb)
[19] The Brúarjökull Project: Sedimentary environments of a surging glacier. The Brúarjökull Project research idea. (http:/ / www. hi. is/ ~oi/
bruarjokull_project. htm)
[20] Meier & Post (1969)
[21] http:/ / people. deas. harvard. edu/ ~vtsai/ files/ EkstromNettlesTsai_Science2006. pdf Ekström, G., M. Nettles, and V. C. Tsai
(2006)"Seasonality and Increasing Frequency of Greenland Glacial Earthquakes",Science, 311, 5768, 1756-1758,
doi:10.1126/science.1122112
[22] http:/ / people. deas. harvard. edu/ ~vtsai/ files/ TsaiEkstrom_JGR2007. pdf Tsai, V. C. and G. Ekström (2007). "Analysis of Glacial
Earthquakes", J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S22, doi:10.1029/2006JF000596
[23] "The Antarctic Sun: Earthshaking Discovery" (http:/ / antarcticsun. usap. gov/ science/ contentHandler. cfm?id=1476). .
[24] Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms (2 ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. p. 546. ISBN 0-13-860958-6.
[25] Glossary of Glacier Terminology (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ of/ 2004/ 1216/ no/ no. html)
[26] C.D. Ollier: Australian Landforms and their History, National Mapping Fab, Geoscience Australia (http:/ / www. ga. gov. au/ education/
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[27] KINCAID, JONI L.; KLEIN, ANDREW G. (2004). "Retreat of the Irian Jaya Glaciers from 2000 to 2002 as Measured from IKONOS
Satellite Images" (http:/ / www. easternsnow. org/ proceedings/ 2004/ kincaid_and_klein. pdf). Portland, Maine, USA. pp. 147–157. .
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[28] Collins, Henry Hill; Europe and the USSR; p. 263. ISBN 1256350003
[29] Yukon Beringia Interpretive Center (http:/ / www. beringia. com/ centre_info/ exhibit. html)
[30] Huntington, Ellsworth; The Character of Races; p. 55. ISBN 040509955X
[31] Earth History 2001 (http:/ / www. eas. slu. edu/ People/ KChauff/ earth_history/ 4EH-posted. pdf) (page 15)
[32] "On the Zoogeography of the Holarctic Region" (http:/ / www. wku. edu/ ~smithch/ biogeog/ SCHM1946. htm)
[33] "Kettle geology" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 315739/ kettle). Britannica Online. . Retrieved 2009-03-12.
[34] Kargel, J.S. et al.:Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs, Third International Conference
on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13-17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb) (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ meetings/
polar2003/ pdf/ 8112. pdf)
[35] Fretted Terrain: Lineated Valley Fill, Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera, Malin Space Science Systems/NASA (http:/ / www.
msss. com/ mars_images/ moc/ top102_Dec98_rel/ fretted/ index. html)
[36] Martian glaciers: did they originate from the atmosphere?, ESA Mars Express, 20 January 2006 (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/
Mars_Express/ SEMS3PMZCIE_0. html)
[37] Head, J. et al. 2005. Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars. Nature: 434. 346-350
[38] http:/ / www. marstoday. com/ news/ viewpr. html?pid=18050
[39] http:/ / news. brown. edu/ pressreleases/ 2008/ 04/ martian-glaciers
[40] Plaut, J. et al. 2008. Radar Evidence for Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons in the Mid-Northern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science
XXXIX. 2290.pdf
[41] Holt, J. et al. 2008. Radar Sounding Evidence for Ice within Lobate Debris Aprons near Hellas Basin, Mid-Southern Latitudes of Mars.
Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2441.pdf

Uncited references
• This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed
in the version of 24 July 2005.
• Hambrey, Michael; Alean, Jürg (2004). Glaciers (2nd ed. ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-82808-2. OCLC 54371738. An excellent less-technical treatment of all aspects, with superb
photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see
Weblinks: Glaciers-online)
• Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J. A. (1999). Glaciers and Glaciation. Arnold. ISBN 0470236515.
OCLC 38329570.
Glacier 137

• Bennett, M. R.; Glasser, N. F. (1996). Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 0471963445. OCLC 33359888 37536152.
• Hambrey, Michael (1994). Glacial Environments. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press.
ISBN 0774805102. OCLC 30512475. An undergraduate-level textbook.
• Knight, Peter G (1999). Glaciers. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-7487-4000-7. OCLC 42656957
63064183 77294832. A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities
• Walley, Robert (1992). Introduction to Physical Geography. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. A textbook devoted to
explaining the geography of our planet.
• W. S. B. Paterson (1994). Physics of Glaciers (3rd ed. ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080139728. OCLC 26188. A
comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.

External links
• Glaciers of the Pyrenees (http://www.glaciares.org)
• on PBS "On Thin Ice" (http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/516/index.html|NOW)
• Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921 (http://www.asiasociety.org/onthinnerice)
• Short radio episode California Glaciers (http://californialegacy.org/radio_anthology/scripts/muir.html) from
The Mountains of California by John Muir, 1894. California Legacy Project.
ltg:Laduojs

Tunnel valley
A tunnel valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley
originally cut under the glacial ice near the
margin of continental ice sheets such as that now
covering Antarctica and formerly covering
portions of all continents during past glacial
ages.[1]

A Tunnel Valley can be up to 100 km (62 mi)

long, 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1300 ft)
deep (its depth may vary along its length).
Tunnel Valleys were formed by subglacial
erosion by water and served as subglacial
drainage pathways carrying large volumes of
New York's Finger Lakes. Lying below Lake Ontario the Finger Lakes
melt water. Their cross-sections exhibit steep
formed in tunnel valleys.
sided flanks similar to fjord walls, and their flat
bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion.

They presently appear as dry valleys, lakes, seabed depressions, and as areas filled with sediment. If they are filled
with sediment their lower layers are filled primarily with glacial, glaciofluvial or glaciolacustrine sediment,
supplemented by upper layers of temperate infill.[2] They can be found in areas formerly covered by glacial ice
sheets including Africa, Asia, North America, Europe, Australia and offshore in the North Sea, the Atlantic and in
waters near Antarctica.
Tunnel valleys appear in the technical literature under several terms, including tunnel channels, subglacial valleys,
iceways, snake coils and linear incisions.
Tunnel valley 138

Significance
Understanding tunnel valleys is important because:
• They serve as a marker for areas with the potential for effective oil exploration in Africa,
• Their bedrock boundaries and glacial infill makes them effective aquifers in many regions.
• Soil engineers must accommodate the variations which they exhibit when boring tunnels, establishing
foundations, and
• They provide one of several signatures marking the edge of former glaciations.
Tunnel valleys play a useful role in identifying oil rich areas in Arabia and North Africa. The Upper
Ordovician–Lower Silurian materials there contain a roughly 20 m (66 ft) thick, carbon-rich layer of black shale.
Approximately 30% of the world's oil is found in these shale deposits. Although the origin of these deposits is still
under study, it has been established that the shale routinely overlies glacial and glacio-marine sediment deposited
~445 million years before the present by the Hirnantian glaciation. The shale has been linked to glacial meltwater
nutrient enrichment of the shallow marine environment. Hence the presence of tunnel valleys is an indicator of the
presence of oil in these areas.[3]
Tunnel valleys represent a substantial fraction of all melt-water drainage from glaciers. Melt-water drainage
influences the flow of glacial ice, which is important in understanding of the duration of glacial–interglacial periods
and aids in identifying glacial cyclicity, a problem that is important to palaeoenvironmental investigations.[4]
Tunnel valleys are typically eroded into bedrock and filled with glacial debris of varying sizes. This configuration
makes them excellent at capturing and storing water. Hence they serve an important role as aquifers across much of
Northern Europe, Canada and the United States. Examples include Oak Ridges Moraine Aquifer, Spokane
Valley-Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer, Mahomet Aquifer, the Saginaw Lobe Aquifer [5], and the Corning Aquifer [6].
Tunnel valley 139

Characteristics

Buried, open and partially filled

Tunnel valleys have been observed as open
valleys and as partially or totally buried valleys.
If buried they may be partially or totally filled
with glacial outwash or other debris. The valleys
may be incised in bedrock, sand, silt, or clay.[1]
A part of a tunnel valley may go uphill: water
can flow uphill if it is under pressure in an
enclosed pipe: for example in Doggerland
(submerged land which is now part of the bed of
the North Sea) are some infilled tunnel valleys
that flowed from north to south across the
hollow of the Outer Silver Pit.[7]

A figure in Dutch showing the cross-section of a tunnel valley which has
been refilled after erosion into bedrock.
They have steep sides which are frequently asymmetric.[1]
Dimensions
They vary in channel depth and width; Danish
examples run from 0.5–4 km (0.31–2.5 mi) wide
and from 50–350 m (160–1150 ft) deep. They
vary in depth/altitude along their course,
exhibiting overdeepening; overdeepened
sections cut into bedrock and typically are
significantly deeper than either upstream or
downstream sections of the same tunnel valley.

Tunnel valleys frequently include relatively straight individual segments parallel to and independent of one another .
Tunnel valley courses may be periodically interrupted; the interruption may include a stretch of elevated esker,
indicating the channel ran through ice for a distance. The below-grade sections typically run 5–30 km (3.1–19 mi) in
length; in some cases the sections form a larger pattern of an interrupted channel composed of strings of depressions
which can extend from 70–100 km (43–62 mi).[1]

Structure
The upstream portion – that section furthest into the glacier - consists of a branching system forming a network,
similar to the anastomostic branching patterns of the upper reaches of a river (as contrasted with dendritic patterns).
They typically exhibit the largest cross-sectional area in the center of the course and terminate over a relatively short
distance in elevated outwash fans at the ice-margin.[1]
Tunnel valleys are found to cross the regional gradient - as a result they may be crosscut by modern stream networks.
In one example, tributaries of the Kalamazoo River cut at nearly right angles across buried tunnel channel filled with
ice and debris.[8] They frequently terminate at a recessional moraine. Tunnel valleys from successive glaciations may
crosscut one another.[9]
Tunnel valleys frequently run along roughly parallel courses. They originate in and run through regions which
include clear evidence of glacial erosion through abrasion and may exhibit striations and roche moutonnée.
Depositional forms such as terminal moraines and outwash fans are found at their terminal end.[1] In Michigan tunnel
Tunnel valley 140

valley channels have been observed to diverge slightly with an average spacing between the channels of 6 km
(3.7 mi) and a standard deviation of 2.7 km (1.7 mi).[10]
Tunnel valley channels often start or stop
abruptly. They have convex-up longitudinal
profiles. They are often occupation by elongated
lakes of underfit streams. The frequently show
signs of subsequent depositions such as
eskers.[10]

Evidence of erosion mechanisms

Evidence suggests that erosion in a tunnel valley
is primarily the result of water flow. They erode
by meltwater, which it has been argued
episodically drains in repeated jökulhlaups from
subglacially stored lakes and reservoirs;
examples of such motion have been observed in The Kawartha lakes in Ontario formed in residual tunnel valleys from the
Late Wisconsonian glacial period. The water flow was from upper left to
Antarctica. Although there is evidence of ice
lower right. Close examination shows the existence of buried tunnel valleys
erosion such as linear striations in the bedrock, as well - they can be identified by contrasting vegetation.
these are observed only in the widest valleys,
and are believed to have played a secondary role.[1]

The subglacial layout of valley tunnels/channels is predominantly oriented parallel to glacial ice flow lines –
essentially they streatch from areas of thicker sheet ice toward areas of thinner sheet ice. They can exhibit reverse
gradients, which result when pressurized meltwater flows over obstacles such as ridges or hills along the glacier
bed.[11]
Tunnel valleys can be formed under extremely thick glacial ice – examples have been observed on the bottom of
Lake Superior and in the oceans offshore in Antarctica. The course of a tunnel valley typically runs from thickest
glacial ice to the glacier margin; as a result the glacial ice pressurizes the water such that it runs uphill toward its
end.[1]

Formation of tunnel valleys/channels

Although there is agreement on the role of meltwater in creation of tunnel valleys, several theories are still under
consideration for the role of that meltwater:
• Steady state theory - Boulton and Hindmarsh propose a steady state theory. They suggest tunnel valleys form
in unconsolidated sediment when meltwater flows under pressure through an initially narrow subglacial
conduit. With progressive removal of sediment by meltwater, ice deforms under its own weight into the cavity
to create a tunnel valley through a positive feedback mechanism.[12]
• Jökulhlaup driven erosion - Piotrowski argues that ice sheets may, in some instances, be cold-based; that is
they contact land that is frozen (permafrost) and they freeze to the permafrost. Meltwater builds up behind this
frozen ice terminus until it generates sufficient pressure to lift the ice and break the bond, with a catastrophic
meltwater release such as is seen with the Icelandic jökulhlaup. As a consequence of this jökulhlaup a tunnel
valley is formed.[13]
• Upglacier erosion - Wingfield proposes that tunnel valleys form gradually, with the valley head cutting
progressively back toward the source up-glacier during deglaciation.[14]
Periodic outbursts of subglacial water have been observed moving subglacial water between subglacial lakes beneath
the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Satellite data recorded a subglacial discharge totaling 2 km3 (0.48 cu mi) traveling
Tunnel valley 141

~260 km (160 mi) over a period of less than a year. As the flow subsided, the weight of ice closed the tunnel and
sealed the lake again.[15] The water flow was modeled satisfactorily with channeling in ice and in sediment. The
analytic model shows that over some regions, the ice-bedrock geometry included sections which would have frozen,
blocking off flow, unless erosion of the sedimentary substrate was the means of creating a channel and sustaining the
discharge.[16] Hence, combining this data and analysis with Icelandic jökulhlaup observations, there is experimental
evidence that some form of the jökulhlaup hypothesis with features of the steady state model is plausible.

Common features of tunnel valley theories

Subglacial meltwater flow is common to all
theories; hence a key to understanding channel
formation is an understanding of subglacial
meltwater flow. Meltwater may be produced on
the glacier surface (supraglacially), below the
glacier (basally) or both. Meltwater may flow
either supraglacially or basally as well; the
signatures of supraglacial and basal water flow
differ with the passage zone. Supraglacial flow is
similar to stream flow in all surface environments
– water flows from higher areas to lower areas
under the influence of gravity. Basal flow exhibits
significant differences. In basal flow the water,
either produced by melting at the base or drawn
downward from the surface by gravity, collects at
the base of the glacier in ponds and lakes in a
pocket overlain by hundreds of meters of ice. If
there is no surface drainage path, water from
surface melting will flow downward and collect
in crevices in the ice, while water from basal
melting will collect under the glacier; either
source will form a subglacial lake. The hydraulic
head of the water collected in a basal lake will
A Polish ribbon lake formed in a tunnel valley. Note the variable width and
increase as water drains through the ice until the the interruption between segments of the course. There is also evidence of
pressure grows high enough to either develop a other sediment-filled channels adjacent to this (e.g., two smaller lakes to the
path through the ice or to float the ice above it.[4] right)
[11]

Steady state theory

Sources of water and water drainage routes through and below temperate and sub-polar glaciers are reasonably well
understood and provide a basis for understanding tunnel valleys. For these glaciers, supraglacial water ponds or
moves in rivers across the surface of the glacier until it drops down a vertical crevice (a moulin) in the glacier. There
it joins subglacial water created by geothermal heat; some portion of the water drains into aquifers below the glacier.
Excess subglacial water that cannot drain through sediment or impermeable bedrock as groundwater, moves either
through channels eroded into the bed of sediment below the glacier (called Nye channels[17] ) or through channels
upward into the glacial ice (called Rothlisberger channels), eventually flowing out at the ice margin. On the simplest
level, the tunnel valley can be considered a larger-scale version of these phenomena.[18]
Tunnel valley 142

Tunnel valleys or tunnel channels are produced by meltwater flows beneath glacial ice. Tunnel valleys are often
buried or partially buried by sediment accumulation during periods of ice advance and retreat.[11]
Although attractive since it scales up the Nye channel formation which has been observed in sediments, a weakness
of the steady state theory is that it requires that tunnel valleys be excavated in unconsolidated sediment, in which
meltwater is initially forced through an initially narrow subglacial conduit. With progressive sediment erosion by the
meltwater, ice deforms under its own weight into the cavity to creating an ever larger tunnel valley. However the
steady state theory appears not to account for erosion into bedrock, which has been extensively observed.[19]

Jökulhlaup driven erosion

There is evidence that meltwater discharges are episodic.[15] This can result because as water continues to collect,
more ice is lifted, and the water moves outward in a growing under-ice lake. Areas where the ice is most easily lifted
(i.e., areas with thinner overlying ice sheets) are lifted first. Hence the water may move up the terrain underlying the
glacier if it moves toward areas of lower overlying ice.[20] As water collects, additional ice is lifted until a release
path is created.
If no preexisting channel is present, the water is initially released in a broad-front jökulhlaup which can have a flow
front that is tens of kilometers wide, spreading out in a thin front. As the flow continues, it tends to erode the
underlying materials and the overlying ice, creating a channel even as the reduced pressure allows most of the glacial
ice to settle back to the underlying surface, sealing off the broad front release and channelizing the flow. The
direction of the channel is defined primarily by the overlying ice thickness and secondarily by the gradient of the
underlying earth, and may be observed to “run uphill” as the pressure of the ice forces the water to areas of lower ice
coverage until it emerges at a glacial face. Hence the configuration of the various tunnel valleys formed by a specific
glaciation provide a general mapping of the glacier thickness when the tunnel valleys were formed, particularly if the
original surface relief under the glacier was limited.[4] [11]
Analyses by Piotrowski demonstrate that the annual production of water from one typical catchment of
642000000 cubic metres (2.27×1010 cu ft) would normally drain through its associated tunnel valley in less than 48
hours.[13] The debris found in tunnels and at the mouth of tunnels tends to be coarse rocks and boulders – this is
indicative of high flow velocities and an extremely erosive environment. This erosive environment is consistent with
creation of tunnels over 400 m (1300 ft) deep and 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide, as have been observed in the Antarctic.[11]
Piotrowski’s model predicts a cycle as follows:
1. Meltwater is produced as a result of geothermal heating from below. Surface ablation water is not considered as it
would be minimal at the glacial maximum and evidence indicates that surface water does not penetrate more than
100 m (330 ft) into a glacier.[13]
2. Meltwater initially drains through subglacial aquifers.[13]
3. When the hydraulic transmissivity of the substratum is exceeded, subglacial meltwater accumulates in basins.[13]
4. Water accumulates sufficiently to open the ice blockage in the tunnel valley which accumulated after the last
discharge.[13]
5. The tunnel valley discharges the meltwater excess – turbulent flow melts out or erodes the excess ice as well as
eroding the valley floor.[13]
6. As the water level drops, the pressure decreases until the tunnel valleys again close with ice and water flow
ceases.[13]
Tunnel valley 143

Post-erosion infill processes

Tunnel valleys have similar characteristics, irrespective of whether they are formed on land or in a submerged
environment. This is because they are formed by high pressure water under a thick ice sheet – in a submerged
environment they still have sufficient pressure to erode tunnel valleys into configurations comparable to those
generated on land.[19]
Tunnel valleys may remain open, partially filled or filled, as a function of the glacial recession. The filled
configuration is significant because filled tunnel valleys become excellent reservoirs for either water (aquifer) or for
oil. This results since relatively coarse-grained sandstones are located on the valley floors and valley margins and
valley floor because the coarser-grained sediments settle out more easily and accumulate preferentially in the
flowing water common to the tunnel valley fill stages.[19]
The subglacial tunnel valley networks originally formed near the ice margin. Tunnel valleys are likely to fill with
sediment as the result of meltwater release during glacial recession. Tunnel valleys fill in two main ways. In the first
instance, debris carried by flow settles out and accumulates in the tunnel valley. Subsequently, once the ice has
retreated sufficiently, marine deposits may be laid down, depending on the water depth at the ice front.[19]
The tunnel valley sedimentary record is controlled by meltwater release flowrates and sediment burdens during
glacial recession. The sediment found in the tunnel valley provides insight into whether it was laid down in a tidal
environment, a transitional environment, or an essentially dry environment with good drainage. In the glaciomarine
environment, glacially-related deposits are interbedded with to those similar to those on non-glaciated tidal areas; the
tidal environment will show undertow dominated fans. The transitional environment is characterized by both mixed
marine and fresh water life in a delta environment. In an essentially dry environment, the glacial flow carries
sediment which accumulates much as it would in any stream bed.[19]

Large-scale structure
Ice flow within glaciers results from an increase in the surface slope of the glacier, which result from geographic
features combined with an imbalance between the amounts of ice accumulated through precipitation and lost through
ablation. The increased gradient increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and
deformation are also affected by the slope of the ice, the ice thickness and temperature.
Punkari identified that continental ice sheets typically flow in fan-shaped lobes, which converge from separate
sources and move at differing speeds. Lobes are separated by interlobate zones, which have thinner ice coverage.
Water collects in this interlobate area. The hydraulic head (pressure) is lower in areas of thinner ice; hence subglacial
water tends to converge on the interlobate joint. The separate lobes move at different speeds, generating friction at
the ice boundary; the heat released melts ice to release additional water. The surface of the interlobate area is
crevassed, allowing surface meltwater, which runs down the ice surface to the lower area, to penetrate into the ice.
As a result the ice-flow patterns and the debris accumulation are different in interlobate zones. Specifically, tunnel
valleys and eskers indicate water flow toward the interlobate zones, which are elevated as the result of debris carried
and deposited there.[21]
Tunnel valley 144

Geographic distribution
Glacially formed tunnel valleys have been
identified on every continent.

Africa
Tunnel valleys associated with the Late
Ordovician glaciation have been observed in
north African countries, including Libya.[22]
These large-scale channel-fill sandstone bodies
(tunnel valleys) are a striking sedimentological
feature of the glacially related deposits on the
old North Gondwanaland margin. They range
from 10–200 m (33–660 ft) in depth, and
500–3000 m (1600–9800 ft) wide. The tunnel
Tunnel valley landscape from the island Zealand in Denmark.
valleys are incised into the bedrock and can be
traced for 2–30 km (1.2–19 mi) in length. In one
example, in Mauritania, in the western Sahara, Late Ordovician siliciclastic glacial features and deposits on the
North Gondwana continental shelf include incised channels identified as tunnel valleys. The filled tunnel valley are
several kilometers long and several hundred meters wide. Reconstructions conclude that these structures were
located in glacier ice-margin regions; the cross-sections of the valleys are comparable to those confirmed to have
formed glacially, the valleys end in outwash fans similar to tunnel valleys, and the infill is post-glacial typical of that
observed for tunnel valleys.[23]

In southern Africa a Permo-Carboniferous tunnel valley system has been identified in northern Cape Province, South
Africa.[24]

Antarctica
The active formation of tunnel valleys is observed in the present period beneath the Antarctic ice.[4] [11]

Asia
During the late Ordovician, eastern Gondwana was covered with ice sheets. As a consequence, Jordan and Saudi
Arabia exhibit regionally-extensive filled tunnel valley structures.[3]

Australia
Open-pit gold mines near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, expose an extensive network of glacially-eroded valleys
filled with tillite and shale cut below the Late Paleozoic Pilbara ice sheet.[25]

Europe
Tunnel valleys and related glacial impacts have been identified in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Germany,
Northern France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, Finland, Sweden and Norway.[26] They have been studied
in detail in Denmark, north Germany and north Poland where the thick ice sheet of the Weichsel and earlier
Glaciations, having flowed down from the mountains of Scandinavia, began to rise up the north-European slope,
driven by the altitude of the glacial ice accumulation over Scandinavia. Their alignment indicates the direction of ice
flow at the time of their formation.[27] [28] They are found extensively in the United Kingdom with several examples
reported from Cheshire for example.[29] [30] They are also to be found under the North Sea.[31]
Tunnel valley 145

Examples of lakes formed in tunnel valleys include the Ruppiner See (a lake in Ostprignitz-Ruppin, Brandenburg),
the Werbellinsee, and the Schwielochsee, all in Germany.

North America
Okanagan Lake is a large, deep ribbon lake in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia which formed in a tunnel
valley from the Okanogan lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. The lake is 135 km (84 mi) long, between 4 and 5 km
(2.5 and 3.1 mi) wide, and has a surface area of 351 km2 (136 sq mi).[32] Northern Idaho and Montana show
evidence of tunnel valley formation under the Purcell lobe and the Flathead Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet.[33]
Tunnel valleys/channels in southeast Alberta form an interconnected, anabranching network comprising Sage Creek,
the Lost River and the Milk River and generally drain southeast.[34]
Tunnel valleys have been observed in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan at the margins of the Laurentide Ice
Sheet.[35] Examples of bedrock tunnel valleys in Minnesota include River Warren Falls and several valleys which lie
deep beneath till deposited by the glaciers which created them, but can be traced in many places by the Chain of
Lakes in Minneapolis and lakes and dry valleys in St. Paul.
The Kawartha lakes of Ontario formed in the Late Wisconsinan glacial period. Ice melt from the Niagara Escarpment
flowed through tunnel valleys beneath the ice expanded to form a west-to-east passage between the main Laurentide
ice sheet and a mass of ice in the Lake Ontario basin.[36]
Cedar Creek Canyon is a tunnel valley located in Allen County, Indiana. It is a very straight, narrow gorge about 50
to 100 feet (15 to 30 m) deep that contains part of the lower segment of Cedar Creek, the largest tributary of the St.
Joseph River.
In the Laurentian Channel offshore eastern Canada, numerous tunnel valleys have been identified originating from
the submerged valley of the St. Lawrence River, which is also of glacial origin. Seismic reflection profiles of the fill
of tunnel valleys suggest that they are of various ages, with the youngest dating from shortly after the Late Glacial
Maximum. They result from erosion by sub-glacial water crossing the eastern Scotian Shelf off Nova Scotia. They
originate from the Laurentian Channel south of the Cabot Strait. Additionally, seismic profiles show deeply buried
post-Miocene channels, some of which lie 1100 m (3600 ft) below modern sea level, cutting across the eastern part
of the outer Laurentian Channel which have also tentatively been determined to be tunnel valleys. Seismic profiles
have also mapped large tunnel valleys on Banquereau Bank and Sable Island Bank.[37]

South America
The Perito Moreno Glacier is located in the southern Southern Patagonian Ice Field, terminating in Lake Argentino
at 50°30′S 73°6′W. It divides Lake Argentino into the Los Témpanos channel, and the Rico branch, blocking the
channel and forming an ice dam. Lake Argentino periodically breaks through in outburst floods with drainage
initially through a tunnel with subsequent roof collapse to form an open channel.[38]

Temporal distribution
There have been five known ice ages in the Earth's history; the Earth is experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during
the present time.
Tunnel valley 146

Name Period Period Era Tunnel valleys and tunnel valley formation extensively observed
(Ma)

Quaternary 2.58 - Neogene Cenozoic Tunnel valleys formation has been reported in northern Asia, Europe,
Present North America, and Antarctica

Karoo 360 - 260 Carboniferous and Paleozoic Tunnel valleys has been reported in the Carboniferous–Permian
Permian [19] [25] [24]
glacial record of Australia and of South Africa.

Andean-Saharan 450 - 420 Ordovician and Paleozoic Tunnel valleys have been reported in Jordan, Saudi Arabia,
Silurian Mauritania, Mali, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Niger, Chad, and
[19]
Sudan.

Cryogenian 800 - 635 Cryogenian Neoproterozoic Tunnel valleys have been reported in the Cryogenian strata of Oman
(or [19]
and Mauritania.
Sturtian-Varangian)

Huronian 2100–2400 Siderian and Paleoproterozoic

Rhyacian

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age". Sedimentary Geology (Copyright © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.) 193 (1-4): 221–231. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.09.024.
[27] Jørgensen, Flemming; Peter B.E. Sandersen (June 2006). "Buried and open tunnel valleys in Denmark—erosion beneath multiple ice
sheets". Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (11-12): 1339–1363. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.11.006.
[28] Smolska, Ewa (1 September 2007). "Development of gullies and sediment fans in last-glacial areas on the example of the Suwałki Lakeland
(NE Poland)". CATENA 71 (1): 122–131. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2006.10.009.
[29] Livingstone, Stephen J.; David J.A. Evans, Colm Ó Cofaigh, Jonathan Hopkins (Corrected Proof, Available online 24 November 2009).
"The Brampton kame belt and Pennine escarpment meltwater channel system (Cumbria, UK): Morphology, sedimentology and formation".
Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, in Press 70: 24. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.11.005.
[30] Piotrowski, Jan A. (1997). "Subglacial hydrology in north-western Germany during the last glaciation: groundwater flow, tunnel valleys and
hydrological cycles". Quaternary Science Reviews 16 (2): 169–185. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(96)00046-7.
[31] Benn, D.I. and Evans, D.J.A.; Glaciers & Glaciation (1998) Oxford University Press, Inc. ISBN 0 340 58431 9 Fig. 9.27
[32] Lesemann, Jerome-Etienne; Tracy A. Brennand (November 2009). "Regional reconstruction of subglacial hydrology and glaciodynamic
behaviour along the southern margin of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet in British Columbia, Canada and northern Washington State, USA".
Quaternary Science Reviews 28 (23-24): 2420–2444. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.019.
[33] Smith, Larry N. (15 March 2004). "Late Pleistocene stratigraphy and implications for deglaciation and subglacial processes of the Flathead
Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, Flathead Valley, Montana, USA". Sedimentary Geology 165 (3-4): 295–332.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2003.11.013.
[34] Beaney, Claire L. (2001). "Tunnel channels in southeast Alberta, Canada: : evidence for catastrophic channelized drainage". Quaternary
International (Copyright © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.) 90 (1): 2375–2391.
doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(01)00093-3.
[35] Fisher, Timothy G.; Harry M. Jol, Amber M. Boudreau (November 2005). "Saginaw Lobe tunnel channels (Laurentide Ice Sheet) and their
significance in south-central Michigan, USA". Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (22): 2375–2391. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.11.019.
[36] Russell, H. A. J.; R. W. C. Arnott, D. R. Sharpe (1 August 2003). "Evidence for rapid sedimentation in a tunnel channel, Oak Ridges
Moraine, southern Ontario, Canada". Sedimentary Geology 160 (1-3): 33–55. Bibcode 2003SedG..160...33R.
doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00335-4.
[37] Piper, David J.W.; John Shaw and Kenneth I. Skene (23 March 2007). "Stratigraphic and sedimentological evidence for late Wisconsinian
sub-glacial outburst floods to Laurentian Fan". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (© 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V) 246
(1): 101–119. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.10.029.
[38] Depetris, P.J.; A.I. Pasquini (15 December 2000). "The hydrological signal of the Perito Moreno Glacier damming of Lake Argentino
(southern Andean Patagonia): the connection to climate anomalies". Global and Planetary Change (Copyright © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V.
All rights reserved.) 26 (4): 367–374. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00049-7.
Atoll 148

Atoll
An atoll ( /ˈætɒl/ or /æˈtɒl/)[1] is a
coral island (or islands) that encircles a
lagoon partially or completely.

Usage
The word atoll comes from the
Dhivehi (an Indo-Aryan language
spoken on the Maldive Islands) word
atholhu (Dhivehi: ‫ުޅޮތައ‬, [ˈət̪ɔɭu])OED.
Its first recorded use in English was in
1625 as atollon - Charles Darwin
recognized its indigenous origin and
coined, in his The Structure and
Distribution of Coral Reefs, the
Satellite picture of the Atafu atoll in Tokelau in the Pacific Ocean.
definition of atolls as "..circular groups
of coral islets [...] and [the word] is
synonymous with 'lagoon-island'." (1842, p. 2). More modern definitions of atoll are those of McNeil (1954, p. 396)
as "..an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and islets composed of
reef detritus" and Fairbridge (1950, p. 341) "...in an exclusively morphological sense, [as] ...a ring-shaped ribbon
reef enclosing a lagoon."
Atoll 149

Distribution and size

The distribution of atolls around the globe is
instructive: most of the world's atolls are in the
Pacific Ocean (with concentrations in the
Tuamotu Islands, Caroline Islands, Marshall
Islands, Coral Sea Islands, and the island
groups of Kiribati, Tuvalu and Tokelau) and
Indian Ocean (the Atolls of the Maldives, the
Laccadive Islands, the Chagos Archipelago and
the Outer Islands of the Seychelles). The
Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls,
other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that
belong to the Colombian department of San
Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean Sea.

Reef-building corals will thrive only in warm

tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and
seas, and therefore atolls are only found in the
tropics and subtropics. The northernmost atoll
of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24' N, along
with other atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian
Islands. The southernmost atolls of the world
are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58' S, and nearby Satellite Image of some of the atolls of the Maldives by NASA. A total of 1322
Middleton Reef at 29°29' S, in the Tasman Sea, islands arranged into 26 atolls make up the country.
both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands
Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at 24°40' S. Bermuda is sometimes
claimed as the "northernmost atoll" at a latitude of 32°24' N. At this latitude coral reefs would not develop without
the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is what is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general
form, while resembling that of an atoll, has a very different mode of formation. While there is no atoll directly on the
Equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km North of the Equator.

The largest atolls by total area (lagoon

plus reef and dry land)[2] are listed
below:
• Saya de Malha Bank, Western
Indian Ocean (35000 km²) (without
separate North Bank), submerged,
least depth 7 m,
• Lansdowne Bank, west of New
Caledonia (21000 km²), submerged,
least depth 3.7 m [3]
• Great Chagos Bank (12642 km²,
land area only 4.5 km²)
• Reed Bank, Spratly Islands
Nukuoro from space. Courtesy NASA.
(8866 km²), submerged, least depth
9m
Atoll 150

• Macclesfield Bank, South China Sea (6448 km²), submerged, least depth 9.2 m
• North Bank (Ritchie Bank, north of Saya de Malha Bank) (5800 km²), submerged, least depth <10 m
• Rosalind Bank, Caribbean Sea (4500 km²), submerged, least depth 7.3 m
• Boduthiladhunmathi (Thiladhunmathi-Miladhunmadulu) Atoll, Maldives, (two names, but a single atoll structure)
(3850 km², land area 51 km²)
• Chesterfield Islands, New Caledonia (3500 km², land area <10 km²)
• Huvadhu Atoll, Maldives (3152 km², land area 38.5 km²)
• Truk Lagoon, Chuuk (3130 km²)[4]
• Sabalana Islands, Indonesia (2694 km²)
• Nukuoro atoll, Federated States of Micronesia, lagoon, is 40 km², land area of 1.7 km², divided among more than
40 islets that lie on the northern, eastern and southern sides of the lagoon
• Lihou Reef, Coral Sea (2529 km², land area 1 km²)
• Bassas de Pedro (2474.33 km²), submerged, least depth 16.4 m
• Ardasier Bank, Spratly Islands (2347 km²), cay on the south side?
• Kwajalein, Marshall Islands (2304 km², land area 16.4 km²)
• Diamond Islets Bank, Coral Sea (2282 km², land area <1 km²)
• Namonuito Atoll, Chuuk (2267 km², land area 4.4 km²)
• Ari Atoll, Maldives (2252 km², land area 69 km²)
• Maro Reef, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1934 km²
• Rangiroa, Tuamotu Islands (1762 km², land area 79 km²)
• Kolhumadulhu Atoll, Maldives (1617 km², land area 79 km²)
• North Malé Atoll, Maldives (1565 km², land area 69 km²)
• Ontong Java, Solomon Islands (1500 km², land area 12 km²)
In most cases, the land area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. According to,[5] Lifou (land area
1146 km²) is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island (660 km²). More sources however
list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, which is also a raised coral atoll (321.37 km² land
area; according to other sources even 575 km²), 160 km² main lagoon, 168 km² other lagoons (according to other
sources 319 km² total lagoon size). The remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll.
The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km². The largest atoll in terms of island numbers is
Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands.

Formation
In 1842 Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made
during a five-year voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. Accepted as basically correct, his explanation
involved considering that several tropical island types—from high volcanic island, through barrier reef island, to
atoll—represented a sequence of gradual subsidence of what started as an oceanic volcano. He reasoned that a
fringing coral reef surrounding a volcanic island in the tropical sea will grow upwards as the island subsides (sinks),
becoming an "almost atoll", or barrier reef island, as typified by an island such as Aitutaki in the Cook Islands, Bora
Bora and others in the Society Islands. The fringing reef becomes a barrier reef for the reason that the outer part of
the reef maintains itself near sea level through biotic growth, while the inner part of the reef falls behind, becoming a
lagoon because conditions are less favorable for the coral and calcareous algae responsible for most reef growth. In
time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface and the barrier reef remains. At this point, the
island has become an atoll.
Atolls are the product of the growth of tropical marine organisms, and so these islands are only found in warm
tropical waters. Volcanic islands located beyond the warm water temperature requirements of reef building, or
hermatypic, organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface. An island that is
Atoll 151

located where the ocean water temperatures are just sufficiently warm for upward reef growth to keep pace with the
rate of subsidence is said to be at the Darwin Point. Islands in colder, more polar regions evolve towards seamounts
or guyots; warmer, more equatorial islands evolve towards atolls, for example Kure Atoll.

Darwin’s theory As the island and ocean As the subsidence continues Ultimately the island sinks below
starts with a floor subside, coral growth the fringing reef becomes a the sea, and the barrier reef
volcanic island builds a fringing reef, often larger barrier reef further from becomes an atoll enclosing an
which becomes including a shallow lagoon the shore with a bigger and open lagoon
extinct between the land and the deeper lagoon inside
main reef

Reginald Aldworth Daly offered a somewhat different explanation for atoll formation: islands worn away by erosion,
by ocean waves and streams, during the last glacial stand of the sea of some 900 feet (270 m) below present sea level
developed as coral islands (atolls), or barrier reefs on a platform surrounding a volcanic island not completely worn
away, as sea level gradually rose from melting of the glaciers. Discovery of the great depth of the volcanic remnant
beneath many atolls such as at Midway Atoll favors the Darwin explanation, although there can be little doubt that
fluctuating sea level has had considerable influence on atolls and other reefs.
Coral atolls are also an important place where dolomitization of calcite occurs. At certain depths water is
undersaturated in calcium carbonate but saturated in dolomite. Convection created by tides and sea currents enhance
this change. Hydrothermal currents created by volcanoes under the atoll may also play an important role.

United States national monuments

As of January 6, 2009 U.S. President
Bush announced that several remote
Pacific islands under U.S. jurisdiction
are now national monuments,
[6] [7]
protecting coral reefs.

References
[1] pronunciation in old video on youtube,
Bikini Atoll video (http:/ / www. youtube.
com/ watch?v=Z29H_AX-jTs) Aerial overview of the Wake Island atoll. Part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine
[2] ftp:/ / rock. geosociety. org/ pub/ reposit/ National Monument.
2001/ 2001075. pdf Atoll Area, Depth and
Rainfall] (2001) spreadsheet from The Geologicl Society of America (http:/ / www. geosociety. org/ aboutus/ index. htm). Retrieved d.d.
October 1, 2009.
[3] Lansdowne Bank "21 000" - Meine Bibliothek - Google Bücher (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=de& q=Lansdowne+ Bank+ "21+
000")
[4] http:/ / conserveonline. org/ workspaces/ pacific. island. countries. publications/ fsm/ fsmblueprint
[5] Misinformation about Islands (http:/ / www. worldislandinfo. com/ MISINFORMATION. htm)
[6] Presidential Proclamation 8336 (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ pacificremoteislandsmarinemonument/ PP PRIMNM. pdf)
[7] Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents: Monday, January 12, 2009 Volume 45—Number 1, Page 14 (http:/ / fdsys. gpo. gov/ fdsys/
pkg/ WCPD-2009-01-12/ pdf/ WCPD-2009-01-12. pdf)
Atoll 152

Further reading
• Darwin, C. 1842. The structure and distribution of coral reefs. London.
• Dobbs, David. 2005. Reef Madness : Charles Darwin, Alexander Agassiz, and the Meaning of Coral. Pantheon.
ISBN 0-375-42161-0
• Fairbridge, R. W. 1950. Recent and Pleistocene coral reefs of Australia. J. Geol., 58(4): 330–401.
• McNeil, F. S. 1954. Organic reefs and banks and associated detrital sediments. Amer. J. Sci., 252(7): 385–401.

External links
• Formation of Bermuda reefs (http://coexploration.org/bbsr/coral/html/body_reef_formation.htm)
• Darwin's Volcano (http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/darwinvolcano.html) - a short video discussing
Darwin and Agassiz' coral reef formation debate

Bay
Bays are an area of water mostly surrounded by land. Bays generally
have calmer waters than the surrounding sea, due to the surrounding
land blocking some waves and often reducing winds. Bays also exist as
an inlet in a lake or pond. A large bay may be called a gulf, a sea, a
sound, or a bight. A cove is a circular or oval coastal inlet with a
narrow entrance; some coves may be referred to as bays.

Bays and gulfs were significant in the history of human settlement

The bay at San Sebastián, Spain
because they can provide a safe place for fishing. Later they were
important in the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they
encouraged their selection as ports.[1] Any bay may contain fish and
other sea creatures or be adjacent to other bays, for example, James
Bay is adjacent to Hudson Bay. Large bays, such as the Bay of Bengal
and the Hudson Bay, have varied marine geology.

Formation
There are various ways that bays can be created. The largest bays have
developed as a result of continental drift.[1] As the super-continent
Gondwana broke up along curved and indented fault lines, the
continents moved apart and the world's largest gulfs formed. These
include the Gulf of Guinea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of
The Bay of Bengal in South Asia
Mexico and the Bay of Bengal which is the largest bay in the world.[1]

Another way bays are formed is via glacial and river erosion.[1] If
formed by glaciers a bay is known as a fjord. Rias are created by
rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and
bays are formed by the folding of the earth's crust as well as coastal
erosion due to waves and currents.[1] Currents can make waves more
The bay of Baracoa, Cuba
constant, while soft rocks will allow erosion to have a stronger effect.
Bay 153

Any hard rock is eroded less quickly, leaving headlands. The Gulf of
California is an example of a gulf created by the geological process of
folding.

References
[1] Carreck, Rosalind, ed (1982). The Family Encyclopedia of Natural History. The
Hamlyn Publishing Group. pp. 202. ISBN 011202257.

The bay of İzmir, in Turkey

Coast
The coastline is where the land meets the sea or ocean.[1] A precise
line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the
dynamic nature of tides. The term "coastal zone" can be used instead,
which is a spatial zone where interaction of the sea and land processes
occurs.[2] Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a
geographic location or region; for example, New Zealand's West Coast,
or the East and West Coasts of the United States.

A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as

opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the
Atlantic Ocean: The East Coast of Brazil
other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body (Genipabu, Rio Grande do Norte).
of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). Similarly,
the somewhat related term "bank" refers to the land alongside or
sloping down to a river (riverbank) or to a body of water smaller than a
lake. "Bank" is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an
artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond.
In other places this may be called a levee.

While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of

the term "coast", the delineation of the extents of a coast differ
according to jurisdiction, with many scientific and government
authorities in various countries differing for economic and social
policy reasons. Pacific Ocean: The West Coast Region of New
Zealand
Coast 154

Indian Ocean: coasts of the Andaman Islands,

India in the Bay of Bengal

Formation
The main agents responsible for
deposition and erosion along coastlines
are waves, tides and currents. The
formation of coasts is also heavily
influenced by their lithology. The
harder the material the less likely it is
to erode or suffer the effects of
erosion. Variants in the rock create
different-shaped coastlines.

Tides often determine the range over

Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area. Porto Covo, west coast of Portugal
which sediment is deposited or eroded.
Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce
deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides
do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries
from the ocean.[3]

Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy;

the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment
it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves
to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces
give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the
wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are
compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it
down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and
is moved along the coastline by the waves. Coastline of Grand Anse Beach, St. George's,
Grenada, West Indies
Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount
of sediment located on a coastline.[4] Today riverine deposition at the
coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by
causing it to be deposited inland.
Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural
processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion
and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).
Coast 155

Environmental importance
The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore is an important part of a local ecosystem as the mixture of fresh
water and salt water in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a
diversity of plants, animals, and insects crucial to the food chain.
The high level of biodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for
thousands of years.

Human impacts

Human uses of coasts

An increasing part the global population inhabits coastal regions.[5]
Many of the world's major cities have been built on or near good
harbors and have port facilities. Jurisdictions that are landlocked have
achieved port status by such measures such as building canals.
The coast is a crucial frontier and must be defended against military
invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed Coastal defenses have
long been erected in many nations and coastal countries also require a
navy and some form of coast guard.
Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water are an important A settled coastline in Marblehead, Massachusetts.
draw for tourists. In many island nations such as those of the Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated
to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the
Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism is central to the
sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick
economy. Coasts are popular destinations because of recreational up to the high-water line.
activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing.
Growth management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities
who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new
residents.

Threats to a coast
Coasts also face many environmental challenges relating to
human-induced impacts. The human influence on climate change is
thought to be a contributing factor of an accelerated trend in sea level
rise which threatens coastal habitat. Houses close to the coast, like these in Tiburon,
California, may be especially desirable
Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial properties.
debris, the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the
probability of large oil spills, small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the
ocean.
Fishing has diminished due to habitat degradation, overfishing, trawling, bycatch and climate change. Since the
growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has gone from a few concentrated areas to
encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges
and other long-lived species that do not recover quickly. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and
can permanently alter species composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the capture of unintended species in the course
of fishing, is typically returned the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents approximately ¼
of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.

Also, the melting arctic ice will cause sea rise which will flood costal areas.
Coast 156

Conservation
Extraordinary population growth in the 20th century has placed stress on the planet’s ecosystems. For example, on
Saint Lucia, harvesting mangrove for timber and clearing for fishing drove the mangrove forests to low levels,
resulting in a loss of habitat and spawning ground for marine life that was unique to the area. These forests also
helped to stabilize the coastline. Conservation efforts since the 1980s have partially restored the ecosystem.

Types of coast
According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline which has experienced a fall in sea
level, because of either a global sea level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal
landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches. Alternatively, a submergent coastline is a
coastline which has experienced a rise in sea level, due to a global sea level change, local subsidence, or isostatic
rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as rias (drowned
valleys) and fjords.
According to a second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock
types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of alternating resistance, so the coastline forms
distinctive landforms, such as coves. A discordant coastline is a type of coastline formed when rock types of
alternating resistance run perpendicular to the shore. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the
rocks are eroded by ocean waves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bays; the more resistant
rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings.

Coastal landforms
The following articles describe some coastal landforms:

Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a

bay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts of
Britain, be called a cove. That between the
cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.

• Bay • Gulf
• Cape • Headland
• Cove • Peninsula
Coast 157

Cliff erosion
• Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding Cliff, or bluff. Sea Cliffs
retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made
of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate then a cliff made of bedrock. (Easterbrook 1999).
• A Natural arch is formed when a sea stacks is eroded through by waves.
• Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds
because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevasse that,
through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.
• A Stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action.
• A Stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.
• Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff
material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of
the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.
• A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently
sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later the length of the platform
decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further off shore (Easterbrook 1999).

Rivers on the coastline

• Delta
• Estuary

Coastal features formed by sediment

• Beach • Dune system • Ria • Spit

• Beach cusps • Mudflat • Shoal • Surge channel
• Boondocks • Raised beach • Strand plain • Tombolo

Coastal features formed by another feature

• Lagoon
• Salt marsh

Other features on the coast

• Concordant coastline • Fjord • Island arc • Machair

• Discordant coastline • Island

Coastal processes
The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone:

• Attrition • Longshore drift • Sedimentation • Tides

• Currents • Saltation • sediment transport • Water waves
• Denudation • Sea level change • solution • diffraction
• Deposition • eustatic • sub-aerial processes • refraction
• Erosion • isostatic • suspension • wave breaking
• Flooding • wave shoaling
• Weathering
Coast 158

Wildlife

Animals
Animals living along the coast vary enormously, some live along coasts to nest like puffins, sea turtles and
rockhopper penguins. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on the coast and scavenge on food deposited by
the sea. Most coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food
thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life
found just off-coast.
There are many kinds of seabirds on the coast. Pelicans and cormorants join up with terns and oystercatchers to
forage for fish and shellfish on the coast.

Plants
Coastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast growing seaweed that grows up to a metre a day. Corals
and anemones are true animals, but live a similar lifestyle as plants do. Mangroves and salt marsh are important
coastal vegetation types in topical and temperate environments respectively.

Coastline statistics

The coastline problem

At some time in the years immediately preceding 1951, Lewis Fry Richardson in researching the possible effect of
border lengths on the probability of war noticed that the Portuguese reported their measured border with Spain to be
987 km, but the Spanish reported it to be 1214 km. This was the beginning of the coastline problem, which is how to
arrive at an estimate of a boundary that is infinite.[6]
The prevailing method of estimating a border (or coastline) was to lay off n equal straight-line segments of length ℓ
with dividers on a map or aerial photograph. Each end of the segment must be on the boundary. Investigating the
discrepancies in border estimation Richardson discovered what is now termed the Richardson Effect: the sum of the
segments is inversely proportional to the common length of the segments. In effect, the shorter the ruler, the longer
the measured border; thus, the Spanish and Portuguese geographers were using different-length rulers.
The result most astounding to Richardson is that, as ℓ approaches zero, the length of the coastline approaches
infinity. Richardson had believed, based on Euclidean geometry, that a coastline would approach a fixed length, as
do similar estimations of regular geometric figures. For example, the perimeter of a regular polygon inscribed in a
circle approaches the circumference with increasing numbers of sides (and decrease in the length of one side). In
Geometric measure theory such a smooth curve as the circle that can be approximated by small straight segments
with a definite limit is termed a rectifiable curve.

Describing a coastline
More than a decade after Richardson's work was finished, Benoît Mandelbrot invented a new branch of mathematics,
fractal geometry, to describe just such non-rectifiable complexes in nature as the infinite coastline.[7] His own
definition of the new figure serving as the basis for his study is:[8]
I coined fractal from the Latin adjective fractus. The corresponding Latin verb frangere means "to break:" to
create irregular fragments. It is therefore sensible ... that, in addition to "fragmented" ... fractus should also
mean "irregular."
A key property of the fractal is self-similarity; that is, at any scale the same general configuration appears. A
coastline is perceived as bays alternating with promontories. No matter how greatly any one small section of
coastline is magnified, a similar pattern of bays and promontories on bays and promontories appears, right down to
Coast 159

the grains of sand. At that scale the coastline appears as a momentarily shifting, potentially infinitely long thread
with a stochastic arrangement of bays and promontories formed from the small objects at hand. In such a real
environment (as opposed to smooth curves) Mandelbrot asserts[7] "coastline length turns out to be an elusive notion
that slips between the fingers of those who want to grasp it."
A coastline is definitely to be represented by a fractal. However, there are different kinds of fractals. A coastline is in
"a first category of fractals, namely curves whose fractal dimension is greater than 1." That last statement represents
an extension by Mandelbrot of Richardson's thought. Mandelbrot's statement of the Richardson Effect is:[9]

where L, coastline length, a function of the measurement unit, ε, is approximated by the expression. F is a constant
and D is a parameter that Richardson found depended on the coastline approximated by L. He gave no theoretical
explanation but Mandelbrot identified L with a non-integer form of the Hausdorff dimension, later the fractal
dimension. Rearranging the right side of the expression obtains:

where Fε-D must be the number of units ε required to obtain L. The fractal dimension is the number of the
dimensions of the figure being used to approximate the fractal: 0 for a dot, 1 for a line, 2 for a square. D in the
expression is between 1 and 2, for coastlines typically less than 1.5. The broken line measuring the coast does not
extend in one direction nor does it represent an area, but is intermediate. It can be interpreted as a thick line or band
of width 2ε. More broken coastlines have greater D and therefore L is longer for the same ε. Mandelbrot showed that
D is independent of ε.

Notes
[1] "Coast" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 43/ C0434300. html). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition.
2000. . Retrieved 2008-12-11.
[2] Nelson, Stephen A. (2007). "Coastal Zones" (http:/ / www. tulane. edu/ ~sanelson/ geol204/ coastalzones. htm). . Retrieved 2008-12-11.
[3] Davidson (2002), p.421.
[4] Easterbrook (1999).
[5] Goudarzi, Sara (July 18, 2006). "Flocking to the Coast: World's Population Migrating into Danger" (http:/ / www. livescience. com/
environment/ 060718_map_settle. html). Live Science. . Retrieved 2008-12-14.
[6] Drazin, P.G. (1993). "Fractals". In Ashford, Oliver M.; Charnock, H.; Drazin, P. G. et al.. The Collected Papers of Lewis Fry Richardson:. 1,
Meteorology and numerical analysis. Cambridge University Press (CUP) Archive. pp. 45–46. ISBN 0521382971, ISBN 9780521382977..
[7] Mandelbrot (1983) page 28.
[8] Mandelbrot (1983), page 1.
[9] Mandelbrot (1983), pages 29–31.

References
• Burke, Lauretta A.; Kura, Yumiko; Kassem, Ken; Revenga, Carmen; Spalding, Mark; McAllister, Don (2001).
"Coastal Ecosystems" (http://pdf.wri.org/Page_coastal.pdf). In Hutter, Carolynne. Pilot Analysis of Global
Ecosystems. World Resources Institute. ISBN 1-56973-458-5.
• Davidson, Jon P.; Reed, Walter E.; Davis, Paul M. (2002). Exploring Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. ISBN 0130183725, ISBN 9780130183729.
• Easterbrook, Don J. (1999). Surface Processes and Landforms (2 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
ISBN 0138609586, ISBN 9780138609580.
• Haslett, Simon K. (2009). Coastal Systems (2nd Edition). introduction to environment. New York: Routledge.
ISBN 9780415440608.
• Mandelbrot, Benoit B.. "II.5 How long is the coast of Britain?". The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Macmillan.
pp. 25–33. ISBN 0716711869, ISBN 9780716711865.
Coast 160

External links
• "Wild Coast USA" (http://www.wildcoast-usa.com/). Sierra Club. Retrieved 2008-12-11.
• "Data Explorer" (http://nosdataexplorer.noaa.gov/nosdataexplorer/). NOAA's National Ocean Service.
Retrieved 2008-12-11.

Continental shelf
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain. Much of the shelf
was exposed during glacial periods, but is now submerged under relatively shallow seas (known as shelf seas) and
gulfs, and was similarly submerged during other interglacial periods. The continental margin, between the
continental shelf and the abyssal plain, comprises a steep continental slope followed by the flatter continental rise.
Sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the
slope, called the continental rise. Extending as far as 500 km from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited
by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope.[1] The continental rise's gradient is intermediate between the slope and
the shelf, on the order of 0.5-1°.[2]
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the name continental shelf was given a legal definition
as the stretch of the seabed adjacent to the shores of a particular country to which it belongs. Such shores are also
known as territorial waters.

Geographical distribution
The width of the continental shelf
varies considerably – it is not
uncommon for an area to have
virtually no shelf at all, particularly
where the forward edge of an
advancing oceanic plate dives beneath
continental crust in an offshore
subduction zone such as off the coast
of Chile or the west coast of Sumatra.
The largest shelf – the Siberian Shelf
The global continental shelf, highlighted in cyan in the Arctic Ocean – stretches to 1500
kilometers (930 miles) in width. The
South China Sea lies over another extensive area of continental shelf, the Sunda Shelf, which joins Borneo, Sumatra,
and Java to the Asian mainland. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the North Sea and
the Persian Gulf. The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km (50 mi). The depth of the shelf also varies,
but is generally limited to water shallower than 150 m (490 ft).[3] The slope of the shelf is usually quite low, on the
order of 0.5°; vertical relief is also minimal, at less than 20 m (66 ft).[4]

Though the continental shelf is treated as a physiographic province of the ocean, it is not part of the deep ocean basin
proper, but the flooded margins of the continent.[5] Passive continental margins such as most of the Atlantic coasts
have wide and shallow shelves, made of thick sedimentary wedges derived from long erosion of a neighboring
continent. Active continental margins have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent earthquakes that move
sediment to the deep sea.[6]
Continental shelf 161

Topography
The shelf usually ends at a point of
increasing slope[7] (called the shelf
break). The sea floor below the break
is the continental slope. Below the
slope is the continental rise, which
finally merges into the deep ocean
floor, the abyssal plain. The
continental shelf and the slope are part
of the continental margin. The shelf Sediment  Rock  Mantle
area is commonly subdivided into the
inner continental shelf, mid continental shelf, and outer continental shelf, each with their specific
geomorphology and marine biology. The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the
continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly
140 m (460 ft); this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.[8] The continental
slope is much steeper than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°.[9] The slope
is often cut with submarine canyons. The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well
understood until the 1960s.[10]

Sediments
The continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments; that is, those derived from erosion of the continents.
However, little of the sediment is from current rivers; some 60-70% of the sediment on the world's shelves is relict
sediment, deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–120 m lower than it is now.[11]
Sediments usually become increasingly fine with distance from the coast; sand is limited to shallow, wave-agitated
waters, while silt and clays are deposited in quieter, deep water far offshore.[12] These shelf sediments accumulate at
an average rate of 30 cm/1000 years, with a range from 15–40 cm.[13] Though slow by human standards, this rate is
much faster than that for deep-sea pelagic sediments.

Biota
Combined with the sunlight available in shallow waters, the continental shelves teem with life, compared to the
biotic desert of the oceans' abyssal plain. The pelagic (water column) environment of the continental shelf constitutes
the neritic zone, and the benthic (sea floor) province of the shelf is the sublittoral zone.[14]
Though the shelves are usually fertile, if anoxic conditions in the sedimentary deposits prevail, the shelves may in
geologic time become sources of fossil fuels.

Economic significance
The relatively accessible continental shelf is the best understood part of the ocean floor. Most commercial
exploitation from the sea, such as metallic-ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbon extraction, takes place on the
continental shelf. Sovereign rights over their continental shelves up to 200 nautical miles from coastal baselines,
within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), were claimed by the marine nations that signed the Convention on
the Continental Shelf drawn up by the UN's International Law Commission in 1958 partly superseded by the 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.[15]
The legal definition of a continental shelf differs significantly from the geological definition. UNCLOS states that
the shelf and slope extend to the limit of the continental margin, but no less than 200 nautical miles from the
Continental shelf 162

baseline. Thus inhabited volcanic islands such as the Canaries, which have no actual continental shelf, nonetheless
have a legal continental shelf, whereas uninhabitable islands have no shelf.

Notes
[1] Pinet 39, Gross 45.
[2] Pinet 37.
[3] Pinet, 37.
[4] Pinet 36-37.
[5] Pinet 35-36.
[6] Pinet 90-93.
[7] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 539632/ shelf-break
[8] Gross 43.
[9] Pinet 36, Gross 43.
[10] Pinet 98, Gross 44.
[11] Pinet 84-86, Gross 43.
[12] Gross 121-22.
[13] Gross 127.
[14] Pinet 316-17, 418-19.
[15] http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ ilc/ texts/ instruments/ english/ conventions/ 8_1_1958_continental_shelf. pdf

References
• Gross, Grant M. Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972. ISBN
0-13-629659-9
• Pinet, Paul R. (1996) Invitation to Oceanography. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1996. ISBN
0-7637-2136-0 (3rd ed.)

External links
• Office of Naval Research: Ocean Regions: Continental Margin & Rise (http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/
ocean/regions/oceanfloor2.htm)
• UNEP Shelf Programme (http://www.continentalshelf.org)
• Anna Cavnar, Accountability and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf: Deciding Who Owns the
Ocean Floor (http://www.iilj.org/publications/documents/CavnarESP15-09.pdf)
Coral reef 163

Coral reef
Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Corals are colonies of tiny
living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which
in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. These polyps secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and
protect their bodies. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters.
Often called “rainforests of the sea”, coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. They occupy
less than one tenth of one percent of the world ocean surface, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home
for twenty-five percent of all marine species,[1] including fish, molluscs, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges,
tunicates and other cnidarians.[2] Paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters
that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and
cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas.
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection. The annual global economic
value of coral reefs has been estimated at $US375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly
because they are very sensitive to water temperature. They are under threat from climate change, ocean acidification,
blast fishing, cyanide fishing for aquarium fish, overuse of reef resources, and harmful land-use practices, including
urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution, which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algae growth.[3] [4] [5]

Formation
Most coral reefs were formed after the last glacial period when melting ice caused the sea level to rise and flood the
continental shelves. This means that most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established
themselves on the shelves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become
drowned reefs, covered by so much water that there was insufficient light.[6] Coral reefs are also found in the deep
sea away from the continental shelves, around oceanic islands and as atolls. The vast majority of these islands are
volcanic in origin. The few exceptions have tectonic origins where plate movements have lifted the deep ocean floor
on the surface.
In 1842 in his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs[7] Charles Darwin set out his theory of
the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle. He theorized uplift and
subsidence of the Earth's crust under the oceans formed the atolls.[8] Darwin’s theory sets out a sequence of three
stages in atoll formation. It starts with a fringing reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island and
ocean floor subsides. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef, and ultimately an atoll
reef.

Darwin’s theory As the island and ocean As the subsidence continues Ultimately the island sinks below
starts with a floor subside, coral growth the fringing reef becomes a the sea, and the barrier reef
volcanic island builds a fringing reef, often larger barrier reef further from becomes an atoll enclosing an
which becomes including a shallow lagoon the shore with a bigger and open lagoon
extinct between the land and the deeper lagoon inside
main reef

Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bed rock base, the remains of the original volcano.
Subsequent drilling proved this correct. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in
the clean seas of the tropics where the water is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just
below low tide. Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form what he
Coral reef 164

called fringing reefs, and can eventually grow out from the shore to become a barrier reef.
Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow around the coast,
but coral raised above sea level dies and becomes white limestone. If
the land subsides slowly, the fringing reefs keep pace by growing
upwards on a base of older, dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing
a lagoon between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can encircle an
island, and once the island sinks below sea level a roughly circular
atoll of growing coral continues to keep up with the sea level, forming
a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls don't usually form complete
circles, but are broken in places by storms. Like sea level rise, a rapidly
A fringing reef can take ten thousand years to
subsiding bottom subside can overwhelm coral growth, killing the
form, and an atoll can take up to 30 million
animals and the reef.[8] [10] years
[9]

The two main variables determining the geomorphology, or shape, of

coral reefs are the nature of the underlying substrate on which they rest, and the history of the change in sea level
relative to that substrate.
The approximately 20,000 year old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental
shelves. Sea level was then 120 metres (390 ft) lower than in the twenty-first century.[11] [12] As sea level rose, the
water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago sea level
had risen to 60 metres (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of the coastal plains had become continental
islands. As the sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow
the hills, forming the present cays and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the
last 6,000 years,[12] and the age of the modern living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000
years.[13] Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island,
Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It
formed the world's largest barrier reef, 300–1000 metres (980–3300 ft) from shore, stretching for 2000 kilometres
(1200 mi).[14]
Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 centimetres (0.39 to 1.2 in) per year, and grow vertically
anywhere from 1 to 25 centimetres (0.39 to 9.8 in) per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than
150 metres (490 ft) due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level.[15]

Types
The three principal reef types are:
• Fringing reef – a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an intervening shallow channel or
lagoon
• Barrier reef – a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon
• Atoll reef – a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extending all the way around a lagoon without a
central island
Coral reef 165

Other reef types or variants are:

• Patch reef – an isolated, comparatively small reef outcrop, usually
within a lagoon or embayment, often circular and surrounded by
sand or seagrass. Patch reefs are common
• Apron reef – a short reef resembling a fringing reef, but more
sloped; extending out and downward from a point or peninsular
shore
• Bank reef – a linear or semi-circular shaped-outline, larger than a
A small atoll in the Maldives.
patch reef.
• Ribbon reef – a long, narrow, possibly winding reef, usually
associated with an atoll lagoon
• Table reef – an isolated reef, approaching an atoll type, but without
a lagoon.
• Habili - reef in the Red Sea that does not reach the surface near
enough to cause visible surf, although it may a hazard to ships (from
the Arabic for "unborn")
• Microatolls – certain species of corals form communities called
microatolls. The vertical growth of microatolls is limited by average
tidal height. By analysing growth morphologies, microatolls offer a Inhabited cay in the Maldives
low resolution record of patterns of sea level change. Fossilized
microatolls can also be dated using radioactive carbon dating. Such methods have been used to reconstruct
Holocene sea levels.[16]

• Cays – small, low-elevation, sandy islands formed on the surface of a coral reef. Material eroded from the reef
piles up on parts of the reef or lagoon, forming an area above sea level. Plants can stabilize cays enough to
become habitable by humans. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
Oceans (including the Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide
habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people.
• When a coral reef cannot keep up with the sinking of a volcanic island, a seamount or guyot is formed. The tops
of seamounts and guyots are below the surface. Seamounts are rounded at the top and guyots are flat. The flat top
of the guyot, also called a tablemount, is due to erosion by waves, winds, and atmospheric processes.
Coral reef 166

Zones
Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones
that represent different kinds of habitats.
Usually three major zones are recognized:
the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef
(frequently referred to as the reef lagoon).
All three zones are physically and
ecologically interconnected. Reef life and
oceanic processes create opportunities for
exchange of seawater, sediments, nutrients,
and marine life among one another.
Thus, they are integrated components of the
coral reef ecosystem, each playing a role in
The three major zones of a coral reef: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef the support of the reefs' abundant and
diverse fish assemblages.
Most coral reefs exist in shallow waters less than fifty metres deep. Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where
cool, nutrient rich upwelling does not occur, such as Great Barrier Reef. Others are found in the deep ocean
surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the Maldives. The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside
into the ocean, and atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea.
Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only some of the zones.[17]
• The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to
the surge and the rise and fall of tides. When waves pass over
shallow areas, they shoal, as shown in the diagram at the right. This
means that the water is often agitated. These are the precise
condition under which coral flourish. Shallowness means there is
plenty of light for photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae,
and agitated water promotes the ability of coral to feed on plankton. Water in the reef surface zone is often agitated.
However other organisms must be able to withstand the robust This diagram represents a reef on a continental
conditions to flourish in this zone. shelf. The water waves at the left travel over the
off-reef floor until they encounter the reef slope
• The off-reef floor is the shallow sea floor surrounding a reef. This or fore reef. Then the waves pass over the
zone occurs by reefs on continental shelves. Reefs around tropical shallow reef crest. When a wave enters shallow
water it shoals, that is, it slows down and the
islands and atolls drop abruptly to great depths, and don't have a
wave height increases.
floor. Usually sandy, the floor often supports seagrass meadows
which are important foraging areas for reef fish.
• The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 metres, habitat for many reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and
plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and
atolls.
• The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop-off. "It is usually the richest habitat. Its complex
growths of coral and calcareous algae provide cracks and crevices for protection, and the abundant invertebrates
and epiphytic algae provide an ample source of food."[17]
• The reef flat – sandy bottomed flat can be behind the main reef, containing chunks of coral. "The reef flat may be
a protective area bordering a lagoon, or it may be a flat, rocky area between the reef and the shore. In the former
case, the number of fish species living in the area often is the highest of any reef zone."[17]
Coral reef 167

• The reef lagoon – "many coral reefs completely enclose an area, thereby creating a quiet-water lagoon that
usually contains small patches of reef."[17]
However, the "topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of irregular patches of algae,
sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches changes from
year to year in response to the various factors that favour one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for
example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out
large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move."[18]

Locations
Coral reefs are estimated to cover
284300 square kilometers ( sq mi),[19] just
under one tenth of one percent of the oceans'
surface area. The Indo-Pacific region
(including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean,
Southeast Asia and the Pacific) account for
91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts
for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific Locations of coral reefs.

including Australia accounts for 40.8%.

Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account
for 7.6%.[20]

Although corals exist both in temperate and

tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form
only in a zone extending from 30° N to
30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not
grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft).
The optimum temperature for most coral
reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs
exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F).[21]
Boundary for 20 °C isotherms. Most corals live within this boundary. Note the
However reefs in the Persian Gulf have
cooler waters caused by upwelling on the south west coast of Africa and off the
adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in coast of Peru.
winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer.[22]

Deep water coral can exist at greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as
Norway.[23] Although deep water corals can form reefs, very little is known about them.
Coral reefs are rare along the American and African west coasts. This is due primarily to upwelling and strong cold
coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (respectively the Peru, Benguela and Canary
streams).[24] Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia from the eastern
Coral reef 168

tip of India (Madras) to the Bangladesh and

Myanmar borders.[20] They are also rare
along the coast around north-eastern South
America and Bangladesh due to the
freshwater release from the Amazon and
Ganges Rivers, respectively.

• The Great Barrier Reef—largest,

comprising over 2,900 individual reefs
and 900 islands stretching for over
2600 kilometers (1616 mi) off
Queensland, Australia
• The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef
System—second largest, stretching This map shows areas of upwelling in red. Coral reefs are not found in coastal
areas where colder and nutrient-rich upwellings occur
1000 kilometers (621 mi) from Isla
Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán
Peninsula down to the Bay Islands of Honduras
• The New Caledonia Barrier Reef—second longest double barrier reef, covering 1500 kilometers (930 mi)
• The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef—third largest, following the east coast of Andros Island, Bahamas, between
Andros and Nassau
• The Red Sea—includes 6000 year old fringing reefs located around a 2000 km (1240 mi) coastline.
• Pulley Ridge—deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida
• Numerous reefs scattered over the Maldives
• Ghe Raja Ampat Islands in Indonesia's West Papua province offer the highest known marine diversity.[25]
Coral reef 169

Biology
Live coral are small animals embedded in calcium
carbonate shells. It is a mistake to think of coral as plants
or rocks. Coral heads consist of accumulations of
individual animals called polyps, arranged in diverse
shapes.[26] Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in
size from a pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across.

Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic

zone (above 50 meters), the depth to which sufficient
sunlight penetrates the water, allowing photosynthesis to
occur. Coral polyps do not themselves photosynthesize,
but have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae;
these organisms live within the tissues of polyps and
provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp. Because
of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear
water, which admits more sunlight. Without their
symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals
to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90%
of their nutrients from their symbionts.[27]

Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit

calcium carbonate,[28] [29] the basis of coral, as a skeletal
structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the
Anatomy of a coral polyp.
coral head's top upwards and outwards.[30] Waves,
grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges,
and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into
spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef
community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to
reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the
open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.

The colonies of the one thousand coral species assume a characteristic shape such as wrinkled brains, cabbages, table
tops, antlers, wire strands and pillars.
Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. Individual polyp uses
both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually
by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are
found on the mesentery membranes that radiate inward from the layer
of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are
hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few species
change sex as they grow.

Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging

Table coral from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny larva,
known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during
synchronized spawning. Polyps release eggs and sperm into the water en masse, simultaneously. Eggs disperse over
a large area. The timing
Coral reef 170

of spawning depends on time of year, water temperature, and tidal and

lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation
between high and low tide. The less water movement, the better the
chance for fertilization. Ideal timing occurs in the spring. Release of
eggs or planula usually occurs at night and is sometimes in phase with
the lunar cycle (3–6 days after a full moon). The period from release to
settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat
for several weeks. They are vulnerable to predation and environmental
conditions. The lucky few planulae which successfully attach to
Close up of polyps arrayed on a coral, waving
substrate next confront competition for food and space.
their tentacles. There can be thousands of polyps
on a single coral branch.

Brain coral Staghorn coral Spiral wire coral Pillar coral

Darwin's paradox
Darwin's paradox

Coral... seems to proliferate when ocean waters are warm, poor, clear and agitated, a fact which Darwin had already noted when he
passed through Tahiti in 1842. This constitutes a fundamental paradox, shown quantitatively by the apparent impossibility of
balancing input and output of the nutritive elements which control the coral polyp metabolism.

Recent oceanographic research has brought to light the reality of this paradox by confirming that the oligotrophy of the ocean
euphotic zone persists right up to the swell-battered reef crest. When you approach the reef edges and atolls from the quasi-desert of
the open sea, the near absence of living matter suddenly becomes a plethora of life, without transition. So why is there something
rather than nothing, and more precisely, where do the necessary nutrients for the functioning of this extraordinary coral reef machine
[31]
come from ? — Francis Rougerie

During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin described tropical coral reefs as oases in the desert of the ocean. He
reflected on the paradox that tropical coral reefs, which are among the richest and most diverse ecosystems on earth,
flourish surrounded by tropical ocean waters that provide hardly any nutrients.
Coral reefs cover less than one tenth of one percent of the surface of the world’s ocean, yet they support over
one-quarter of all marine species. This diversity results in complex food webs, with large predator fish eating smaller
forage fish that eat yet smaller zooplankton and so on. However, all food webs eventually depend on plants, which
are the primary producers. Coral reefs' primary productivity is very high, typically producting 5-10g C m−2 day−1
biomass.[32]
One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical waters is that they are deficient in nutrients and drifting plankton.
Further, the sun shines year round in the tropics, warming the surface layer, making it less dense than subsurface
layers. The warmer water is separated from deeper, cooler water by a stable thermocline, where the temperature
makes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating above the cooler deeper waters. In most parts of
the ocean there is little exchange between these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to
the bottom where they decompose. This decomposition releases nutrients in the form of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
Coral reef 171

and potassium (K). These nutrients are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics they do not directly return to the
surface.[10]
Plants form the base of the food chain, and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean these plants are mainly
microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which powers
carbon fixation, so they are found only relatively near the surface. But they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton
rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the
thermocline.[10]
Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef
and the island. They become havens for marine life, providing
protection from waves and storms.
Most importantly, reefs recycle nutrients, which happens much less in
the open ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include
phytoplankton as well as seaweed and coralline algae, especially small
types called turf algae, which pass nutrients to corals.[33] The
phytoplankton are eaten by fish and crustaceans, who also pass
nutrients along the food web. Recycling ensures that fewer nutrients
are needed overall to support the community.
Coral polyps Coral reefs support many symbiotic relationships. In particular,
zooxanthellae provides energy to coral in the form of glucose, glycerol,
and amino acids.[34] Zooxanthellae can provide up to 90% of a coral’s energy requirements.[35] In return, as an
example of mutualism, the coral shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimetre of coral
and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis.
Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and
phosphorus, directly from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at
night to catch zooplankton that brush them when the water is agitated.
Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares
some of the nitrogen with the zooxanthellae, which also require this
element.[33] The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae
give corals their different colours. Coral which loses its zooxanthellae
becomes white and is said to be bleached, a condition which unless
corrected can kill the coral.
The colour of corals depends on the type of
Sponges are another key to explaining Darwin’s paradox. They live in zooxanthella they host
crevices in the coral reefs. They are efficient filter feeders, and in the
Red Sea they consume about sixty percent of the phytoplankton that drifts by. The sponges eventually excrete
nutrients in a form the corals can use.[36]
Coral reef 172

The roughness of coral surfaces is the key to coral survival in agitated

waters. Normally a boundary layer of still water surrounds a
submerged object, which acts as a barrier. Waves breaking on the
extremely rough edges of corals disrupt the boundary layer, allowing
the corals access to passing nutrients. Turbulent water thereby
promotes reef growth and branching. Without the nutritional gains
brought by rough coral surfaces, even the most effective recycling
would leave corals wanting in nutrients.[37]
Most coral polyps are nocturnal feeders. Here, in
the dark, polyps have extended their tentacles to Cyanobacteria provide soluble nitrates for the reef via nitrogen
feed on zooplankton fixation.[38]
Coral reefs also often depend on surrounding habitats, such as seagrass
meadows and mangrove forests, for nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves supply dead plants and animals which are
rich in nitrogen and also serve to feed fish and animals from the reef by supplying wood and vegetation. Reefs in
turn protect mangroves and seagrass from waves and produce sediment for the mangroves and seagrass to root in.[39]

Biodiversity
Reefs are home to a large variety of organisms,
including fish, seabirds, sponges, Cnidarians
(which includes some types of corals and
jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp,
cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs),
molluscs (including cephalopods), echinoderms
(including starfish, sea urchins and sea
cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles and sea
snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on
coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as
dolphins being the main exception. A few of
these varied species feed directly on corals, while
others graze on algae on the reef.[20] [33] Reef
biomass is positively related to species
diversity.[40]

Tube sponges attracting cardinal fishes, glassfishes and wrasses

Coral reef 173

Fish
Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs.[20] The reasons for this
diversity remain controversial. Hypotheses include the "lottery", in
which the first (lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able to
defend it against latecomers, "competition", in which adults compete
for territory, and less-competitive species must be able to survive in
poorer habitat, and "predation", in which population size is a function
of post-settlement piscivoremortality.[41] Healthy reefs can produce up
to 35 tons of fish per square kilometer each year, but damaged reefs
produce much less.[42]

Reef species include:

• Fish that influence the coral. These feed either on small animals
living near the coral, seaweed/algae, or on the coral itself. Fish that
feed on small animals include Labridae (cleaner fish) who notably
feed on organisms that inhabit larger fish, bullet fish and
sea-urchin-eating Balistidae (triggerfish) while seaweed-eating fish Organisms can cover every square inch of a coral
include the Pomacentridae (damselfishes). Serranidae (groupers) reef.
cultivate the seaweed by removing creatures feeding on it (such as
sea urchins), and they remove inedible seaweeds. Fish that eat coral itself include Scaridae (parrotfish) and
Chaetodontidae (butterflyfish).

• Fish that cruise the boundaries of the reef or nearby seagrass meadows. These include predators such as
Trachinotus(pompanos), groupers, horse mackerels, certain types of shark, barracudas and Lutjanidae (snappers).
Herbivorous and plankton-eating fish also populate reefs. Seagrass-eating fish include horse mackerel, snapper,
Pagellus (porgies) and Conodon (grunts). Plankton-eating fish include Caesio (fusilier), ray, chromis, and the
nocturnal Holocentridae (squirrelfish), Apogonidae (cardinalfish) and Myctophidae (lanternfish).
Fish that swim in coral reefs can be as colorful as the reef. Examples are the parrotfish, Pomacanthidae (angelfish),
damselfish, Clinidae (blennies) and butterflyfish. At night, some change to a less vivid color.

Invertebrates
Sea urchins, Dotidae and sea slugs eat seaweed. Some species of sea urchins, such as Diadema antillarum, can play a
pivotal part in preventing algae overrunning reefs.[43] Nudibranchia and sea anemones eat sponges.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring
into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Those animals
boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those settling on the reef include many
other species, particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.[24]
Coral reef 174

Algae
Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable
algae to outcompete and kill the coral.[44] [45] In surveys done around largely uninhabited US Pacific islands, algae
inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations.[46] The algae population consists of turf algae, coralline algae,
and macroalgae.

Seabirds
Coral reef systems provide important habitats for seabird species, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll in
Hawaii supports nearly three million seabirds, including two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan
Albatross, and one-third of the global population of black-footed albatross.[47] Each seabird species has specific sites
on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short-tailed albatross is the
rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive feather hunting in the late nineteenth century.[48]

Other
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Tropical birds such as herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies feed
on reef fish. Some land based reptiles intermittently associate with reefs, such as monitor lizards, the marine
crocodile and semi-aquatic snakes like Laticauda colubrina. Sea turtles eat sponges.

Schooling reef fish Caribbean reef squid Banded coral The whitetip reef shark almost
shrimp exclusively inhabits coral reefs

Green turtle Giant clam Soft coral, cup coral, sponges Banded sea krait
and ascidians

Economic value
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The global economic value of
coral reefs has been estimated at as much as $US375 billion per year.[49] Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing
wave energy, and many small islands would not exist without their reef to protect them. According to the
environmental group World Wide Fund for Nature, the economic cost over a 25 year period of destroying one
kilometre of coral reef is somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000.[50] About 6 million tons of fish are taken
each year from coral reefs. Well managed coral reefs have an annual yield of 15 tons seafood on average per square
kilometre. Southeast Asia's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $ 2.4 billion annually from seafood.[50]
To improve the management of coastal coral reefs another environmental group, the World Resources Institute
(WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-related tourism, shoreline protection and
Coral reef 175

fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered St. Lucia,
Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican Republic, with a paper for Jamaica in preparation. The WRI was also "making
sure that the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning".[51] The Belize study
estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at 395–559 million dollars annually.[52]

Threats
Coral reefs are dying around the world.[53] In particular, coral mining,
agricultural and urban runoff, pollution (organic and non-organic),
overfishing, blast fishing, disease, and the digging of canals and access
into islands and bays are localized threats to coral ecosystems. Broader
threats are sea temperature rise, sea level rise and pH changes from
ocean acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas emissions.

In El Nino-year 2010, preliminary reports show global coral bleaching

reached its worst level since another El Nino year, 1998, when 16 Island with fringing reef off Yap, Micronesia.
percent of the world's reefs died as a result of increased water [53]
Coral reefs are dying around the world.
temperature. In Indonesia's Aceh province, surveys showed some 80
percent of bleached corals died. In July, Malaysia closed several dive sites where virtually all the corals were
damaged by bleaching.[54] [55]

In order to find answers for these problems, researchers study the various factors that impact reefs. The list includes
the ocean's role as a carbon dioxide sink, atmospheric changes, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viruses, impacts
of dust storms carrying agents to far flung reefs, pollutants, algal blooms and others. Reefs are threatened well
beyond coastal areas.
General estimates show approximately 10% world's coral reefs are dead.[56] [57] [58] About 60% of the world's reefs
are at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in
Southeast Asia, where 80% of reefs are endangered.

Protection
Marine Protected Areas (MPA) have become
increasingly prominent for reef management. MPAs
promote responsible fishery management and habitat
protection. Much like national parks and wildlife
refuges, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict
potentially damaging activities. MPA encompass both
social and biological objectives, including reef
restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity, and economic
benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of
participation, clashing views, effectiveness, and
funding. In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands
Protected Area, MPA's can also provide revenue,
potentially equal to the income that they would have A diversity of corals

generated without controls as Kiribati did for its

Phoenix Islands.[59]

Biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument and world heritage status can protect reefs. For example Belize's
Barrier reef, Chagos archipelago, Sian Ka'an, the Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and
Coral reef 176

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites.

In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject
of much legislation, including a Biodiversity Action Plan.
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a generations-old practice of
restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing but not net or spear
fishing. The result is that both the biomass and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where
fishing is unrestricted.[60] [61]

Artificial reefs
Efforts to expand the size and number of coral reefs generally involve supplying substrate to allow more corals to
find a home. Substrate materials include discarded vehicle tires, scuttled ships, subway cars, and formed concrete
such as reef balls. Reefs also grow unaided on marine structures such as oil rigs.
In large restoration projects, propagated hermatypic coral on substrate can be secured with metal pins, superglue or
milliput.[62] Needle and thread can also attach A-hermatype coral to substrate.[63]
Low voltage electrical currents applied through seawater crystallize dissolved minerals onto steel structures. The
resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize
and grow at accelerated rates on these coated structures. The electrical currents also accelerate formation and growth
of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms. The vicinity of the
anode and cathode provides a high pH environment which inhibits the growth of competitive filamentous and fleshy
algae. The increased growth rates fully depend on the accretion activity.[64]
During accretion, the settled corals display an increased growth rate, size and density, but after the process is
complete, growth rate and density return to levels that are comparable to natural growth, and are about the same size
or slightly smaller.[64]

Origins
Beginning a few thousand years after marine
organisms developed hard skeletons, coral reefs
emerged. The times of maximum development were
in the Middle Cambrian (513–501 Ma), Devonian
(416–359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359–299 Ma), due
to Order Rugosa extinct corals, and Late Cretaceous
(100–65 Ma) and all Neogene (23 Ma–present), due
to Order Scleractinia corals.

Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: Early

Cambrian (542–513 Ma) reefs resulted from
Ancient coral reefs calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals
with conical shape, probably related to sponges) and
rudists, a type of bivalve, built Late Cretaceous (100–65 Ma) reefs.
Coral reef 177

Organizations
Organizations which currently undertake coral reef/atoll restoration projects using simple methods of plant
propagation:
• Coral Cay [65]
• Counterpart International[66]
• U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF)
• National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI) [67]
• US Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Coral Reef
Conservation Program
• National Center for Coral Reef Research (NCORE)
• Reef Ball
• Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI)
• Foundation of the peoples of the South Pacific [68]
• WorldFishCenter: promotes sustainable mariculture techniques to grow reef organismsas tridacnidae
• Coral Restoration Foundation (CRF) : Adopt a Coral [69]
Organizations which promote interest, provide knowledge bases about coral reef survival, and promote activities to
protect and restore coral reefs:
• Australian Coral Reef Society
• Biosphere Foundation[70]
• Chagos Conservation Trust
• Conservation Society of Pohnpei
• Coral Cay Conservation
• Coral Reef Care
• Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) [71]
• Coral Reef Targeted Research and Capacity Building for Management
• Coral Triangle Initiative
• Cousteau Society
• Crusoe Reef Society
• CEDAM International
• Earthwatch
• Environmental Defense Fund
• Environmental Solutions International
• Friends of Saba Marine Park
• Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA) Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA) [72]
• Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network[73]
• Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
• Green Fins
• ICRAN Mesoamerican Reef Alliance
• International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)[74]
• International Marinelife Alliance
• International Society for Reef Studies
• Intercoast Network
• Kosrae Conservation and Safety Organization
• Marine Conservation Group
• Marine Conservation Society
• Mesoamerican Reef Tourism Initiative (MARTI)
Coral reef 178

• NSF Moorea Coral Reef Long-term Ecological Research site[75]

• Nature Conservancy
• Ocean Voice International
• PADI
• Planetary Coral Reef Foundation[76]
• Practical Action[77]
• Project Reefkeeper
• ReefBase
• Reef Check
• Reef Relief[78]
• Reefwatch
• Save Our Seas Foundation[79]
• Seacology
• SECORE
• Singapore Underwater Federation
• Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology
• Tubbataha Foundation
• Wildlife Conservation International
• WWF

Notes
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[3] "Corals reveal impact of land use" (http:/ / www. coralcoe. org. au/ news_stories/ landimpacts. html). ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral
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[4] Minato, Charissa (July 1, 2002). "Urban runoff and coastal water quality being researched for effects on coral reefs" (http:/ / www. hcri. ssri.
hawaii. edu/ files/ media/ pr-water_quality. pdf). . Retrieved December, 2010.
[5] "Coastal Watershed Factsheets - Coral Reefs and Your Coastal Watershed" (http:/ / water. epa. gov/ type/ oceb/ fact4. cfm). Environmental
Protection Agency Office of Water. July 1998. . Retrieved December, 2010.
[6] Kleypas, Joanie. "Coral reef" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Coral_reef#Types_of_Coral_Reefs). The Encyclopedia of Earth. . Retrieved
April 4, 2011.
[7] Darwin, Charles (1842). The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under
the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836 (http:/ / darwin-online. org. uk/ content/ frameset?viewtype=text&
itemID=F271& pageseq=1). London: Smith Elder and Co.
[8] Gordon Chancellor (2008). Introduction to Coral reefs (http:/ / darwin-online. org. uk/ EditorialIntroductions/ Chancellor_CoralReefs. html).
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[11] Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2006). "A "big picture" view of the Great Barrier Reef" (http:/ / www. gbrmpa. gov. au/ __data/
assets/ pdf_file/ 0017/ 12437/ Reef-Facts-01. pdf) (PDF). Reef Facts for Tour Guides. . Retrieved 18 June 2007.
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Coral reef 179

_orig=browse& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&

md5=844934e86d603e4aa8f0c42faa6b42ef). Marine Geology 168 (1–4): 61–78. doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(00)00043-8. .
[17] Moyle & Cech 2003, p. 556
[18] Connell, Joseph H. (March 24, 1978). "Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests and Coral Reefs". Science 199 (4335 pp).
doi:10.1126/science.199.4335.1302.
[19] UNEP (2001) UNEP-WCMC World Atlas of Coral Reefs (http:/ / coral. unep. ch/ atlaspr. htm) Coral Reef Unit
[20] Spalding, Mark, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and
UNEP/WCMC.
[21] Achituv, Y. and Dubinsky, Z. 1990. Evolution and Zoogeography of Coral Reefs Ecosystems of the World. Vol. 25:1-8.
[22] The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs
[23] Gunnerus, Johan Ernst (1768). Om Nogle Norske Coraller.
[24] Nybakken, James. 1997. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. 4th ed. Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley.
[25] (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2007/ 09/ indonesia/ doubilet-text) Ultra Marine: In far eastern Indonesia, the Raja Ampat islands
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[26] Sherman, C.D.H. " The Importance of Fine-scale Environmental Heterogeneity in Determining Levels of Genotypic Diversity and Local
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of Wollongong Ph.D. Thesis. 2006. Accessed 2009-06-07.
[27] Paul Marshall and Heidi Schuttenberg.; Marshall, Paul; Schuttenberg, Heidi. (2006). A Reef Manager’s Guide to Coral Bleaching (http:/ /
www. gbrmpa. gov. au/ corp_site/ info_services/ publications/ misc_pub/ a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching). Townsville, Australia:
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,. ISBN 1 876945 40 0. .
[28] Stacy, J., Marion, G., McCulloch, M. and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. " changes to Mackay Whitsunday water quality and connectivity between
terrestrial, mangrove and coral reef ecosystems: Clues from coral proxies and remote sensing records -Synthesis of research from an ARC
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[29] Nothdurft, L.D. " Microstructure and early diagensis of recent reef building scleractinian corals, Heron Reef, Great Barrier Reef:
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[30] Wilson, R.A. " The Biological Notion of Individual (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ biology-individual/ )."Stanford Encyclopedia of
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a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching). Townsville, Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,. 2006. ISBN 1 876945 40 0. .
[36] Roach, John (November 7, 2001). "Rich Coral Reefs in Nutrient-Poor Water: Paradox Explained?" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/
news/ 2001/ 11/ 1107_keyholecoral. html). National Geographic News. . Retrieved April 5, 2011.
[37] "Corals play rough over Darwin's paradox" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg17523612.
100-corals-play-rough-over-darwins-paradox. html). New Scientist date=21 September 2002 (2361). .
[38] Wilson E (2004) "Coral’s Symbiotic Bacteria Fluoresce, Fix Nitrogen" (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ news/ 8233/ 8233notw7. html) Chemical
and engineering news, 82(33): 7.
[39] Wells, Sue; Hanna, Nick (1992). Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs. ISBN 0806987952.
[40] "World's Reef Fishes Tussling With Human Overpopulation" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2011/ 04/ 110405130347. htm).
ScienceDaily. Apr. 5, 2011. . Retrieved April 25, 2011.
[41] Buchheim, Jason. "Coral Reef Fish Ecology" (http:/ / www. marinebiology. org/ fishecology. htm). marinebiology.org. . Retrieved April 5,
2011.
[42] McClellan, Kate; Bruno, John (2008). "Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/
Coral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices). Encyclopedia of Earth. . Retrieved October 25, 2008.
[43] Osborne, Patrick L. (2000). Tropical Ecosystem and Ecological Concepts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 464. ISBN 0 521
64523 9.
[44] "Coral Reef Biology" (http:/ / www. coral. noaa. gov/ component/ content/ article/ 138. html). NOAA. . Retrieved April 6, 2011.
[45] Glynn, P.W. (1990). Ecosystems of the World v. 25-Coral Reefs. New York, NY isbn13=978-0444873927: Elsevier Science.
[46] Vroom, Peter S.; Page, Kimberly N.; Kenyon, Jean C.; Brainard, Russell E. (2006). "Algae-Dominated Reefs". American Scientist 94 (5):
430–437.
[47] http:/ / the. honoluluadvertiser. com/ article/ 2005/ Jan/ 17/ ln/ ln23p. html
[48] "U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service - Birds of Midway Atoll" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ midway/ midwaywildlifebirds. html). . Retrieved August
19, 2009.
Coral reef 180

[49] "Heat Stress to Caribbean Corals in 2005 Worst on Record" (http:/ / www. noaanews. noaa. gov/ stories2010/ 20101115_coralbleaching.
html). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 15 November 2010. . Retrieved April 7, 2011.
[50] "The Importance of Coral to People (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ what/ wherewework/ coraltriangle/ importance-of-coral. html)
publisher=World Wildlife Fund"]. . Retrieved April 7, 2011.
[51] "Coastal Capital: Economic Valuation of Coastal Ecosystems in the Caribbean" (http:/ / www. wri. org/ project/ valuation-caribbean-reefs).
World Resources Institute. .
[52] Cooper, Emily; Burke, Lauretta; Bood, Nadia (2008). "Coastal Capital: Belize: The Economic Contribution of Belize’s Coral Reefs and
Mangroves" (http:/ / pdf. wri. org/ coastal_capital_belize_brochure. pdf). . Retrieved April 6 2011.
[53] "Coral reefs around the world" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ interactive/ 2009/ sep/ 02/ coral-world-interactive).
Guardian.co.uk. 2 September 2009. .
[54] RITTER, KARL (December 8, 2010). −goal-coral-reefs.html "Climate goal may spell end for some coral reefs" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/
news/ 2010-12-climate). Associated Press. −goal-coral-reefs.html. Retrieved December, 2010.
[55] Markey, Sean (May 16, 2006). "Global Warming Has Devastating Effect on Coral Reefs, Study Shows". National Geographic News.
[56] Kleypas, J.A.; Feely, R.A.; Fabry, V.J.; Langdon, C.; Sabine, C.L. (2006), Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine
Calcifiers: A guide for Future Research (http:/ / www. ucar. edu/ communications/ Final_acidification. pdf), National Science Foundation,
NOAA, & United States Geological Survey, , retrieved April 7, 2011
[57] Save Our Seas, 1997 Summer Newsletter, Dr. Cindy Hunter and Dr. Alan Friedlander
[58] Tun, K.; Chou, L.M.; Cabanban, A.; Tuan, V.S.; Philreefs; Yeemin, T.; Suharsono; Sour, K. et al. (2004). "Status of Coral Reefs, Coral Reef
Monitoring and Management in Southeast Asia, 2004". Status of Coral Reefs of the world: 2004. Townsville, Queensland, Australia:
Australian Institute of Marine Science.
[59] "Phoenix Rising" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2011/ 01/ phoenix-islands/ stone-text). National Geographic Magazine. January
2011. . Retrieved April 30, 2011.
[60] Cinner, Joshua E.; MARNANE, Michael J.; McClanahan, Tim R. (2005). "Conservation and community benefits from traditional coral reef
management at Ahus Island, Papua New Guinea" (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ j. 1523-1739. 2005. 00209. x-i1/ abstract).
Conservation Biology 19 (6). doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00209.x-i1. .
[61] "Coral Reef Management, Papua New Guinea" (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images. php3?img_id=17182).
Nasa's Earth Observatory. . Retrieved 2 November 2006.
[62] Superglue used for placement of coral (http:/ / coralgarden. co. uk/ plate. html)
[63] Needle and thread use with soft coral (http:/ / coralgarden. co. uk/ puls. html)
[64] Sabater, Marlowe G.; Yap, Helen T. (2004). "Long-term effects of induced mineral accretion on growth, survival, and corallite properties of
Porites cylindrica Dana". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 311.
[65] http:/ / www. coralcay. org/ expeditions/ marine/ fj1/
[66] 'The Coral Gardener'-documentary about Counterpart scientist Austin Bowden-Kerby (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ b009jsjv)
[67] http:/ / www. nova. edu/ ncri
[68] http:/ / www. fspi. org. fj/ programs. htm
[69] http:/ / www. coralrestoration. org
[70] Biosphere Foundation (http:/ / www. biospherefoundation. org)
[71] http:/ / www. coral. org/
[72] http:/ / globalcoral. org/
[73] Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Status of Coral Reefs of the World 2008 (http:/ / www. reefbase. org/ resource_center/ publication/
main. aspx?refid=27173& referrer=GCRMN)
[74] International Coral Reef Initiative (http:/ / www. icriforum. org)
[75] NSF Moorea Coral Reef Long-term Ecological Research site (http:/ / mcr. lternet. edu)
[76] Planetary Coral Reef Foundation (http:/ / www. pcrf. org)
[77] Action coral reef restoration Practical Action (http:/ / practicalaction. org/ docs/ technical_information_service/ coral_reefs. pdfPractical)
[78] Reef Relief (http:/ / reefrelieffounders. com)
[79] Save Our Seas Foundation (http:/ / saveourseas. com)
Coral reef 181

References
• Butler, Steven. 1996. "Rod? Reel? Dynamite? A tough-love aid program takes aim at the devastation of the coral
reefs". U.S. News and World Report, 25 November 1996.
• Christie, P. 2005a. University of Washington, Lecture. 18 May 2005.
• Christie, P. 2005b. University of Washington, Lecture. 4 May 2005.
• Clifton, Julian. 2003. Prospects for Co-Management in Indonesia's Marine Protected Areas. Marine Policy, 27(5):
389-395.
• Courtney, Catherine and Alan White. 2000. Integrated Coastal Management in the Philippines. Coastal
Management; Taylor and Francis.
• Fox, Helen. 2005. Experimental Assessment of Coral Reef Rehabilitation Following Blast Fishing. The Nature
Conservancy Coastal and Marine Indonesia Program. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, February 2005.
• Gjertsen, Heidi. 2004. Can Habitat Protection Lead to Improvements in Human Well-Being? Evidence from
Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines.
• Moyle, PB; Cech, JJ (2003). Fishes, An Introduction to Ichthyology (5 ed.). Benjamin Cummings.
ISBN 978-0131008472.
• Sadovy, Y.J. Ecological Issues and the Trades in Live Reef Fishes, Part 1
• USEPA (http://www.epa.gov/awow/oceans/coral/about.html).
• UNEP. 2004. Coral Reefs in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 2. (http://www.
unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/13_-_Habitat_Booklets/
UNEP_or_GEF_Review_of_Coral_Reefs_in_the_South_China_Sea.html)
• UNEP. 2007. Coral Reefs Demonstration Sites in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication
No. 5. (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/
Technical_Publication_05_-_Coral_Reef_Demonstration_Sites_in_the_South_China_Sea.html)
• UNEP, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS
Technical Publication No. 11. (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/
19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/
Technical_Publication_11_-_National_Reports_on_Coral_Reefs_in_the_Coastal_Waters_of_the_South_China_Sea.
html)

External links

External images
Coral Reefs: Rainforests of the Sea (http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/films/crrain_qt.htm) ORG Educational films.

• Coral Reefs (http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life-ecosystems/coral-reefs)- At the Smithsonian Ocean Portal

• How Coral Reefs Work (http://animals.howstuffworks.com/marine-life/coral-reef.htm)
• International Coral Reef Initiative (http://www.icriforum.org)
• International Year of the Reef in 2008 (http://www.iyor.org)
• Moorea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site (US NSF) (http://mcr.lternet.edu)
• ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies (http://www.coralcoe.org.au/index.html)
• NOAA's Coral-List Listserver for Coral Reef Information and News (http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/mailman/
listinfo/coral-list/)
• NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program (http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/)
• Exhibition of the Mexican Caribbean coral reef biodiversity aquarium in Xcaret Mexico (http://www.xcaret.
com/Exhibitions/Coral_Reef_Aquarium.html)
• NOAA's Coral Reef Information System (http://www.coris.noaa.gov/)
Coral reef 182

• ReefBase: A Global Information System on Coral Reefs (http://www.reefbase.org/)

• National Coral Reef Institute (http://www.nova.edu/ncri/) Nova Southeastern University
• Marine Aquarium Council (http://www.aquariumcouncil.org)
• NCORE National Center for Coral Reef Research (http://www.ncoremiami.org/) University of Miami
• Science and Management of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand (http://www.unepscs.
org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=51&Itemid=83)
• NBII portal on coral reefs (http://coralreefs.nbii.gov/portal/server.pt)
• Microdocs (http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/): 4 kinds of Reef (http://www.stanford.edu/group/
microdocs/typesofreefs.html) & Reef structure (http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.
html)
• (http://www.reefrelieffounders.com) Reef Relief Founders site: Coral reef resources, images, education, threats,
solutions
• Images Coral Reef of Gulf of Kutch (http://gallery.wildone.in/gallery/marine-creatures/
coral-reef-of-gulf-of-kutch/)
• "In The Turf War Against Seaweed, Coral Reefs More Resilient Than Expected" (http://www.sciencedaily.
com/releases/2009/06/090601111932.htm). Science Daily. June 3, 2009. Retrieved February, 2011.

Estuary
An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a
free connection to the open sea.[1]
Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are subject to both marine
influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water
and sediment. The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both the water column
and sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.[2]
Most modern-day estuaries were formed during the Holocene epoch by the flooding of river-eroded or
glacially-scoured valleys when sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years ago.[3] Estuaries are typically
classified by their geomorphological features or by water circulation patterns and can be referred to by many
different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets, or sounds, although sometimes these water bodies do not
necessarily meet the above criteria of an estuary and may be fully saline.
Estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas throughout the world, with about 60% of the world’s
population living along estuaries and the coast. As a result, estuaries are suffering degradation by many factors,
including sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation; overgrazing and other poor farming practices;
overfishing; drainage and filling of wetlands; eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal
wastes; pollutants including heavy metals, PCBs, radionuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and diking or
damming for flood control or water diversion.[3]
Estuary 183

Definition
The word “estuary” is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning
tidal inlet of the sea, which in itself is derived from the term aestus,
meaning tide. There have been many definitions proposed to describe
an estuary. The most widely accepted definition is: “a semi-enclosed
coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea,
and within which sea water is measurably diluted with freshwater
derived from land drainage.” [1] However, this definition excludes a
number of coastal water bodies such as coastal lagoons and brackish
seas. A more thorough definition of an estuary would be “a
River Exe estuary
semi-enclosed body of water connected to the sea as far as the tidal
limit or the salt intrusion limit and receiving freshwater runoff;
however the freshwater inflow may not be perennial, the connection to
the sea may be closed for part of the year and tidal influence may be
negligible.” [3] This definition includes classical estuaries as well as
fjords, lagoons, river mouths, and tidal creeks. Estuaries are a dynamic
ecosystem with a connection with the open sea through which the
seawater enters accordingly to the rhythm of the tides. The seawater
entering the estuary is diluted by the freshwater flowing from rivers
and streams. The pattern of dilution varies in different estuaries and is
dependent on the volume of freshwater, tidal amplitude range, and the River Nith estuary

extent of evaporation from the water within the estuary.[2]

Classification based on geomorphology

Drowned river valleys

Many drowned river valley estuaries were formed between about
15,000 and 6000 years ago following the end of the Wisconsin (or
'Devensian') glaciation when a eustatic rise in sea level of 100 to 130 m Estuary mouth located in Darwin, Northern
(330 to 430 ft) flooded river valleys that were cut into the landscape Territory, Australia
when sea level was lower, creating the estuarine systems. Additionally,
the general subsidence of coastal regions contributed to the
development of drowned river valleys. Well-developed drowned river
valleys are generally found on coastlines with low, wide coastal plains.
Their width-to-depth ratio is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped
in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths
rarely exceed 30 m (98 ft). Examples of this type of estuary include the
Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay, along the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast,
and along the U.S. Gulf coast, Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay.[4]

Estuary mouth
Estuary 184

Lagoon-type or bar-built
These estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches
(barrier islands and barrier spits). Formation of barrier beaches
partially encloses the estuary with only narrow inlets allowing contact
with the ocean waters. Bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently
sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and
marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts of the U.S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments Río de la Plata estuary
and where tidal ranges are less than 4 m (13 ft). The barrier beaches
that enclose bar-built estuaries have been developed in several ways: 1)
upbuilding of offshore bars from wave action, in which sand from the
seafloor is deposited in elongate bars parallel to the shoreline, 2)
reworking of sediment discharge from rivers by wave, current, and
wind action into beaches, overwash flats, and dunes, 3) engulfment of
mainland beach ridges (ridges developed from the erosion of coastal
plain sediments approximately 5,000 years ago) due to sea level rise
and resulting in the breaching of the ridges and flooding of the coastal
lowlands, forming shallow lagoons, 4) elongation of barrier spits from
Estuary mouth of the Yachats River in Yachats,
the erosion of headlands, with the spit growth occurring in the
Oregon
direction of the littoral drift due to the action of longshore currents.
Barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the
shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries. The average water depth
is usually less than 5 m (16 ft), and rarely exceed 10 m (33 ft).
Examples of bar-built estuaries include Barnegat Bay, New Jersey,
Laguna Madre, Texas, and Pamlico Sound, North Carolina.

Fjord-type
Fjord type estuaries are formed in deeply eroded valleys formed by
Amazon estuary
glaciers. These U-shaped estuaries typically have steep sides, rock
bottoms, and underwater sills contoured by glacial movement. The
shallowest area of the estuary occurs at the mouth, where terminal glacial deposits or rock bars form sills that restrict
water flow. In the upper reaches of the estuary, the depth can exceed 300 m (980 ft). The width-to-depth ratio is
generally small. When estuaries contain very shallow sills, tidal oscillations only affect near surface waters to sill
depth, and waters below sill depth may remain stagnant for very long periods of time, resulting in only an occasional
exchange of the deep water of the estuary with the ocean. If the sill depth is deep, water circulation is less restricted
and a slow, but steady exchange of water from the estuary and the ocean occur. Fjord-type estuaries can be found
along the coasts of Alaska, the Puget Sound region of western Washington state, eastern Canada, Greenland, Iceland,
New Zealand, and Norway.
Estuary 185

Tectonically produced
These estuaries are formed by subsidence or land cut off from the ocean by land movement associated with faulting,
volcanoes, and landslides. Inundation from eustatic sea level rise during the Holocene Epoch has also contributed to
the formation of these estuaries. There are only a small number of tectonically produced estuaries; one example is
the San Francisco Bay, which was formed by the crustal movements of the San Andreas fault system causing the
inundation of the lower reaches of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers.[5]

Classification based on water circulation

Salt wedge
In this type of estuary, river output greatly exceeds marine input and tidal effects have a minor importance. Fresh
water floats on top of the seawater in a layer that gradually thins as it moves seaward. The denser seawater moves
landward along the bottom of the estuary, forming a wedge-shaped layer that is thinner as it approaches land. As a
velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the
seawater upward with the freshwater. An example of a salt wedge estuary is the Mississippi River.[5]

Partially mixed
As tidal forcing increases, river output becomes less than the marine input. Here, current induced turbulence causes
mixing of the whole water column such that salinity varies more longitudinally rather than vertically, leading to a
moderately stratified condition. Examples include the Chesapeake Bay and Narragansett Bay.[5]

Vertically homogenous
Tidal mixing forces exceed river output, resulting in a well mixed water column and the disappearance of the vertical
salinity gradient. The freshwater-seawater boundary is eliminated due to the intense turbulent mixing and eddy
effects. The lower reaches of the Delaware Bay and the Raritan River in New Jersey are examples of vertically
homogenous estuaries.[5]

Inverse
Inverse estuaries occur in dry climates where evaporation greatly exceeds the inflow of fresh water. A salinity
maximum zone is formed, and both riverine and oceanic water flow close to the surface towards this zone.[6] This
water is pushed downward and spreads along the bottom in both the seaward and landward direction.[3] An example
of an inverse estuary is Spencer Gulf, South Australia.

Intermittent
Estuary type varies dramatically depending on freshwater input, and is capable of changing from a wholly marine
embayment to any of the other estuary types.[7] [8]
(See also Estuarine water circulation)

Physiochemical variation
Estuary variables consist predominantly of fluctuations in dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment load within the
water. There is extreme spatial variability in salinity, with a range of near 0 at the river end to 34 ‰ at the estuary
mouth. At any one point the salinity will vary considerably over time and seasons, making it a harsh environment for
organisms. Sediment often settles in intertidal mudflats which are extremely difficult to colonize. No points of
attachment exist for algae so vegetation based habitat is not established. Sediment can also clog feeding and
respiratory structures of species, so special adaptations exist within mudflat species to cope with this problem.
Estuary 186

Lastly, dissolved oxygen variation can limit the livability of the habitat. With the impact of nutrient rich sediment
from anthropogenic sources, primary production life cycles thrive and eventual decay removing the dissolved
oxygen from the water, hypoxic or anoxic zones can develop.[9]

Implications for marine life

Estuaries provide habitats for a large number of organisms and support very high productivity. Estuaries provide
habitats for many fish nurseries, depending upon their locations in the world, such as salmon and sea trout.[10] Also,
migratory bird populations, such as the black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa islandica[11] make essential use of
estuaries.
Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation. Many species of fish
and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and are termed
osmoconformers and osmoregulators. Many animals also burrow to avoid predation and to live in the more stable
sedimental environment. However, large numbers of bacteria are found within the sediment which have a very high
oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions,
which can be further exacerbated by limited water flux.
Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with the water bodies and can be flushed in and
out with the tides. Their productivity is largely dependant upon the turbidity of the water. The main phytoplankton
present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which are abundant in the sediment.
It is important to remember that a primary source of food for many organisms on estuaries, including bacteria, is
detritus from the settlement of the sedimentation.

Human impacts
Of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries.[12] For example, New York City is located at the
orifice of the Hudson River estuary.[13]
As ecosystems, estuaries are under threat from human activities such as pollution and overfishing. They are also
threatened by sewage, coastal settlement, land clearance and much more. Estuaries are affected by events far
upstream, and concentrate materials such as pollutants and sediments.[14] Land run-off and industrial, agricultural,
and domestic waste enter rivers and are discharged into estuaries. Contaminants can be introduced which do not
disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment, such as plastics, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and heavy
metals.
Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They
also accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of
the last century.
For example, Chinese and Russian industrial pollution, such as phenols and heavy metals, in the Amur River have
devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[15]
Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land runoff discharges nutrients into estuaries. With human
activities, land run-off also now includes the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from
livestock and humans. Excess oxygen depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of dead
zones.[16] It can result in reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations.
Overfishing also occurs. Chesapeake Bay once had a flourishing oyster population which has been almost wiped out
by overfishing. Historically the oysters filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or
four days. Today that process takes almost a year,[17] and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local
waters. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on the
bottom where they are harmless.
Estuary 187

Notable examples
• Albemarle Sound
• Amazon River
• The Golden Horn
• Chesapeake Bay
• Delaware Bay
• Gippsland Lakes
• Great Bay
• Gulf of Saint Lawrence
• Hampton Roads
• Humber
• Laguna Madre
• Lake Borgne
• Lake Pontchartrain
• Long Island Sound
• Mobile Bay
• Narragansett Bay
• New York Harbor
• Ob River
• Puget Sound
• Pamlico Sound
• Port Jackson
• Rio de la Plata
• San Francisco Bay
• Thames Estuary

References
[1] Pritchard, D. W. (1967) What is an estuary: physical viewpoint. p. 3–5 in: G. H. Lauf (ed.) Estuaries, A.A.A.S. Publ. No. 83, Washington,
D.C.
[2] McLusky, D.S. and Elliott, M. (2004) "The Estuarine Ecosystem: ecology, threats and management." New York: Oxford University Press
Inc. ISBN 0-19-852508-7
[3] Wolanski, E. (2007) "Estuarine Ecohydrology." Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-53066-0
[4] Kunneke, J.T., and T.F. Palik, 1984. "Tampa Bay environmental atlas", U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 85(15) (http:/ / www. nwrc. usgs.
gov/ wdb/ pub/ others/ 85_15. pdf), page 3. Retrieved January 12, 2010.
[5] Kennish, M.J. (1986) "Ecology of Estuaries. Volume I: Physical and Chemical Aspects." Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. ISBN
0-8493-5892-2
[6] Wolanski, E. (1986). "An evaporation-driven salinity maximum zone in Australian tropical estuaries" Estuarine, Coastal, and Shelf Science
22, 415-424.
[7] Tomczak, M (2000) " Oceanography Notes Ch. 12: Estuaries (http:/ / www. es. flinders. edu. au/ ~mattom/ IntroOc/ notes/ lecture12. html).
Retrieved 30 November 2006.
[8] Day, J.H. (1981) "Estuarine Ecology." Rotterdam, The Netherlands: A.A. Balkema. ISBN 90-6191-205-9.
[9] Kaiser et al. (2005). Marine Ecology. Processes, Systems and Impacts. Oxford University Press, 557 pages.
[10] Bronwyn M. Gillanders, Evidence of connectivity between juvenile and adult habitats for mobile marine fauna: an important component of
nurseries (http:/ / www. int-res. com/ articles/ meps2003/ 247/ m247p281. pdf). 2003. Marine Ecology Progress Series
[11] Jennifer A. Gill, The buffer effect and large-scale population regulation in migratory birds (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v412/
n6845/ abs/ 412436a0. html). 2001. Nature 412, 436-438
[12] Ross, D A (1995) Introduction to Oceanography. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers. ISBN 978-0-673-46938-0
[13] NOAA Estuaries tutorial (http:/ / oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ estuaries/ media/ supp_estuar00c. html) Revised March 25, 2008
[14] G.Branch, Estuarine vulnerability and ecological impacts, TREE vol. 14, no. 12 Dec. 1999
[15] "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North, Siberia and Far East: Nivkh" (http:/ / www. npolar. no/ ansipra/ english/ Indexpages/
Ethnic_groups. html#19) by Arctic Network for the Support of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Arctic]
Estuary 188

[16] Gerlach: Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin (1975)

[17] "Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance" (http:/ / habitat. noaa. gov/ restorationtechniques/ public/ habitat. cfm?HabitatID=2&
HabitatTopicID=11). US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . Retrieved 2008-01-16.

External links
• Animated documentary on Chesapeake Bay (http://ecopath.org/LifeInTheChesapeakeBay/) NOAA.
• "Habitats: Estuaries - Characteristics" (http://www.onr.navy.mil/Focus/ocean/habitats/estuaries1.htm).
www.onr.navy.mil. Retrieved 2009-11-17
• The Estuary Guide (Based on experience and R&D within the UK) (http://www.estuary-guide.net).

Lagoon
A lagoon is a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form of barrier.

Definition
The body of comparatively shallow salt or brackish
water is separated from the deeper sea by a shallow or
exposed barrier beach, sandbank of marine origin, coral
reef, or similar feature.[1] Thus, the enclosed body of
water behind a barrier reef or barrier islands or
enclosed by an atoll reef is called a lagoon. When used
within this context of a distinctive portion of coral reef
ecosystems, the term "lagoon" is synonymous with the
term "back reef" or "backreef", which is more
commonly used by coral reef scientists to refer to the
same area.[2]

These applications of lagoon in English date from

1769. It adapted and extended the sense of the Venetian
laguna (cf Latin lacuna, ‘empty space’), which
specifically referred to Venice’s shallow,
island-studded stretch of saltwater, protected from the Garabogaz-Göl lagoon in Turkmenistan.
Adriatic by the barrier beaches of the Lido (see
Venetian Lagoon). Lagoon refers to both coastal lagoons formed by the build-up of sandbanks or reefs along shallow
coastal waters, and the lagoons in atolls, formed by the growth of coral reefs on slowly sinking central islands.
Lagoons that are fed by freshwater streams are also called estuaries.

Many lagoons do not include "lagoon" in their common names. Albemarle Sound in North Carolina, Great South
Bay, between Long Island and the barrier beaches of Fire Island in New York; Isle of Wight Bay, which separates
Ocean City, Maryland from the rest of Worcester County, Maryland; Banana River in Florida; and Lake Illawarra in
New South Wales are all lagoons, despite their names. In the UK there are lagoons at Montrose Basin, (Scotland)
and Broad Water near Tywyn, (Wales), whilst the expanse of water inside Chesil Beach, England, known as The
Fleet, could also be described as a lagoon. There is also one near the small town of Dingle in Western Ireland. Some
of the famous lagoons in India are the Chilika Lake in Orissa, near Puri, and the Vembanad Lake in Kerala. Both are
connected to the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea respectively through a narrow channel. Some other known
lagoons like in Africa, include the Lagos Lagoon which empties itself into the Gulf of Guinea and the South Atlantic
Ocean [Keta Lagoon in Ghana.
Lagoon 189

The world's largest lagoon is located in New Caledonia.

In Latin America often the use of “laguna”, which lagoon translates to, is used to describe a lake, such as Laguna
Catemaco.

Images

Glenrock Lagoon in Australia Lagoa dos Patos Venetian Lagoon as Szczecin Lagoon as seen by
lagoon in Brazil seen by Landsat 1 Landsat c. 2000.

Vistula and Curonian lagoons Nearly half the area of Blue lagoon, Ölüdeniz, Turkey Washdyke Lagoon in New
on the Baltic Sea. Kiritimati is covered with Zealand
lagoons, some freshwater and
some seawater.

Notes
[1] Reid (1961) p.73
[2] Aronson 1993

References
• Reid, George K. (1961). Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
• Aronson, R.B. (1993). "Hurricane effects on backreef echinoderms of the Caribbean". Coral Reefs.
Oceanic trench 190

Oceanic trench
The oceanic trenches are hemispheric-scale
long but narrow topographic depressions of
the sea floor. They are also the deepest parts
of the ocean floor.
Trenches define one of the most important
natural boundaries on the Earth’s solid
surface: the one between two lithospheric
plates. There are three types of lithospheric
plate boundaries: divergent (where
lithosphere and oceanic crust is created at
mid-ocean ridges), convergent (where one
lithospheric plate sinks beneath another and
returns to the mantle), and transform (where
two lithospheric plates slide past each
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted
other).
back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
Trenches are a distinctive morphological
feature of plate boundaries. Along convergent plate boundaries, plates move together at rates that vary from a few
mm to over ten cm per year. A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend
beneath another lithospheric slab. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc, and about 200 km (120 mi)
from a volcanic arc. Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding
oceanic floor. The greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of
10911 m (35797 ft) below sea level. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about a tenth of a
square metre per second.

Geographic distribution
There are about 50000 km (31000 mi) of convergent plate margins, mostly around the Pacific Ocean—the reason for
the reference “Pacific-type” margin—but they are also in the eastern Indian Ocean, with relatively short convergent
margin segments in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. Trenches are sometimes buried and lack
bathymetric expression, but the fundamental structures that these represent mean that the great name should also be
applied here. This applies to Cascadia, Makran, southern Lesser Antilles, and Calabrian trenches. Trenches along
with volcanic arcs and zones of earthquakes that dip under the volcanic arc as deeply as 700 km (430 mi) are
diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations, subduction zones. Trenches are related to
but distinguished from continental collision zones (like that between India and Asia to form the Himalaya), where
continental crust enters the subduction zone. When buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction eventually
stops and the convergent plate margin becomes a collision zone. Features analogous to trenches are associated with
collisions zones; these are sediment-filled foredeeps referred to as peripheral foreland basins, such as that which the
Ganges River and Tigris-Euphrates rivers flow along.
Oceanic trench 191

History of the term "trench"

Trenches were not clearly defined until the late 1940s and 1950s. The bathymetry of the ocean was of no real interest
until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the initial laying of Transatlantic telegraph cables on the seafloor
between the continents. Even then the elongated bathymetric expression of trenches was not recognized until well
into the 20th century. The term “trench” does not appear in Murray and Hjort’s (1912) classic oceanography book.
Instead they applied the term “deep“ for the deepest parts of the ocean, such as Challenger Deep. Experiences from
World War I battlefields emblazoned the concept of the trench warfare as an elongate depression defining an
important boundary, so it was no surprise that the term “trench” was used to describe natural features in the early
1920s. The term was first used in a geologic context by Scofield two years after the war ended to describe a
structurally-controlled depression in the Rocky Mountains. Johnstone, in his 1923 textbook An Introduction to
Oceanography, first used the term in its modern sense for any marked, elongate depression of the sea bottom.
During the 1920s and 1930s, Felix Andries Vening Meinesz developed a unique gravimeter that could measure
gravity in the stable environment of a submarine and used it to measure gravity over trenches. His measurements
revealed that trenches are sites of downwelling in the solid Earth. The concept of downwelling at trenches was
characterized by Griggs in 1939 as the tectogene hypothesis, for which he developed an analogue model using a pair
of rotating drums. World War II in the Pacific led to great improvements of bathymetry in especially the western and
northern Pacific, and the linear nature of these deeps became clear. The rapid growth of deep sea research efforts,
especially the widespread use of echosounders in the 1950s and 1960s confirmed the morphological utility of the
term. The important trenches were identified, sampled, and their greatest depths sonically plumbed. The heroic phase
of trench exploration culminated in the 1960 descent of the Bathyscaphe Trieste, which set an unbeatable world
record by diving to the bottom of the Challenger Deep. Following Robert S. Dietz’ and Harry Hess’ articulation of
the seafloor spreading hypothesis in the early 1960s and the plate tectonic revolution in the late 1960s the term
“trench“ has been redefined with plate tectonic as well as bathymetric connotations.
Oceanic trench 192

Trench rollback
Although trenches would seem to be positionally stable over time, it is hypothesized that some trenches, particularly
those associated with subduction zones where two oceanic plates converge, retrograde, that is, they move backward
into the plate which is subducting, akin to a backward-moving wave. This has been termed trench rollback (also
hinge rollback). This is one explanation for the existence of back-arc basins.

Morphologic expression
Trenches are centerpieces of the distinctive physiography of a convergent plate
margin. Transects across trenches yield asymmetric profiles, with relatively
gentle (~5°) outer (seaward) slope and a steeper (~10–16°) inner (landward)
slope. This asymmetry is due to the fact that the outer slope is defined by the
top of the downgoing plate, which must bend as it starts its descent. The great
thickness of the lithosphere requires that this bending be gentle. As the
subducting plate approaches the trench, it is first bent upwards to form the outer
trench swell, then descends to form the outer trench slope. The outer trench
slope is disrupted by a set of subparallel normal faults which staircase the
seafloor down to the trench. The plate boundary is defined by the trench axis
itself. Beneath the inner trench wall, the two plates slide past each other along
the subduction decollement, the seafloor intersection of which defines the
trench location. The overriding plate contains volcanic arc (generally) and a
forearc. The volcanic arc is caused by physical and chemical interactions
between the subducted plate at depth and asthenospheric mantle associated with
the overriding plate. The forearc lies between the trench and the volcanic arc.
Forearcs have the lowest heatflow from the interior Earth because there is no
asthenosphere (convecting mantle) between the forearc lithosphere and the cold
subducting plate.

The inner trench wall marks the edge of the overriding plate and the outermost
forearc. The forearc consists of igneous and metamorphic crust, and this crust
acts as buttress to a growing accretionary prism (sediments scraped off the
downgoing plate onto the inner trench wall, depending on how much sediment The Peru-Chile Trench

is supplied to the trench). If the flux of sediments is high, material will be

transferred from the subducting plate to the overriding plate. In this case an accretionary prism grows and the
location of the trench migrates progressively away from the volcanic arc over the life of the convergent margin.
Convergent margins with growing accretionary prisms are called accretionary convergent margins and make up
nearly half of all convergent margins. If the sediment flux is low, material will be transferred from the overriding
plate to the subducting plate by a process of tectonic ablation known as subduction erosion and carried down the
subduction zone. Forearcs undergoing subduction erosion typically expose igneous rocks. In this case, the location of
the trench will migrate towards the magmatic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins
experiencing subduction erosion are called nonaccretionary convergent margins and comprise more than half of
convergent plate boundaries. This is an oversimplification, because different parts of a convergent margin can
experience sediment accretion and subduction erosion over its life.

The asymmetric profile across a trench reflects fundamental differences in materials and tectonic evolution. The
outer trench wall and outer swell comprise seafloor that takes a few million years to move from where
subduction-related deformation begins near the outer trench swell until sinking beneath the trench. In contrast, the
inner trench wall is deformed by plate interactions for the entire life of the convergent margin. The forearc is
Oceanic trench 193

continuously subjected to subduction-related earthquakes. This protracted deformation and shaking ensures that the
inner trench slope is controlled by the angle of repose of whatever material it is composed of. Because they are
composed of igneous rocks instead of deformed sediments, non-accretionary trenches have steeper inner walls than
accretionary trenches.

Filled trenches
The composition of the inner trench slope and a first-order control on trench morphology is determined by sediment
supply. Active accretionary prisms are common for trenches near continents where large rivers or glaciers reach the
sea and supply great volumes of sediment which naturally flow to the trench. These filled trenches are confusing
because in a plate tectonic sense they are indistinguishable from other convergent margins but lack the bathymetric
expression of a trench. The Cascadia margin of the northwest USA is a filled trench, the result of sediments
delivered by the rivers of the NW USA and SW Canada. The Lesser Antilles convergent margin shows the
importance of proximity to sediment sources for trench morphology. In the south, near the mouth of the Orinoco
River, there is no morphological trench and the forearc plus accretionary prism is almost 500 km (310 mi) wide. The
accretionary prism is so large that it forms the islands of Barbados and Trinidad. Northward the forearc narrows, the
accretionary prism disappears, and only north of 17°N the morphology of a trench is seen. In the extreme north, far
away from sediment sources, the Puerto Rico Trench is over 8600 m (28200 ft) deep and there is no active
accretionary prism. A similar relationship between proximity to rivers, forearc width, and trench morphology can be
observed from east to west along the Alaskan-Aleutian convergent margin. The convergent plate boundary offshore
Alaska changes along its strike from a filled trench with broad forearc in the east (near the coastal rivers of Alaska)
to a deep trench with narrow forearc in the west (offshore the Aleutian islands). Another example is the Makran
convergent margin offshore Pakistan and Iran, which is a trench filled by sediments from the Tigris-Euphrates and
Indus rivers. Thick accumulations of turbidites along a trench can be supplied by down-axis transport of sediments
that enter the trench 1000–2000 km (620–1200 mi) away, as is found for the Peru-Chile Trench south of Valparaíso
and for the Aleutian Trench. Convergence rate can also be important for controlling trench depth, especially for
trenches near continents, because slow convergence causes the capacity of the convergent margin to dispose of
sediment to be exceeded.
There an evolution in trench morphology can be expected as oceans close and continents converge. While the ocean
is wide, the trench may be far away from continental sources of sediment and so may be deep. As the continents
approach each other, the trench may become filled with continental sediments and become shallower. A simple way
to approximate when the transition from subduction to collision has occurred is when the plate boundary previously
marked by a trench is filled enough to rise above sealevel.

Accretionary prisms and sediment transport

Accretionary prisms grow by frontal accretion, whereby sediments are scraped off, bulldozer-fashion, near the
trench, or by underplating of subducted sediments and perhaps oceanic crust along the shallow parts of the
subduction decollement. Frontal accretion over the life of a convergent margin results in younger sediments defining
the outermost part of the accretionary prism and the oldest sediments defining the innermost portion. Older (inner)
parts of the accretionary prism are much more lithified and have steeper structures than the younger (outer) parts.
Underplating is difficult to detect in modern subduction zones but may be recorded in ancient accretionary prisms
such as the Franciscan Group of California in the form of tectonic mélanges and duplex structures. Different modes
of accretion are reflected in morphology of the inner slope of the trench, which generally shows three morphological
provinces. The lower slope comprises imbricate thrust slices that form ridges. The mid slope may comprise a bench
or terraces. The upper slope is smoother but may be cut by submarine canyons. Because accretionary convergent
margins have high relief, are continuously deformed, and accommodate a large flux of sediments, they are vigorous
systems of sediment dispersal and accumulation. Sediment transport is controlled by submarine landslides, debris
Oceanic trench 194

flows, turbidity currents, and contourites. Submarine canyons transport sediment from beaches and rivers down the
upper slope. These canyons form by channelized turbidites and generally lose definition with depth because
continuous faulting disrupts the submarine channels. Sediments move down the inner trench wall via channels and a
series of fault-controlled basins. The trench itself serves as an axis of sediment transport. If enough sediment moves
to the trench, it may be completely filled so that turbidity currents are able to carry sediments well beyond the trench
and may even surmount the outer swell. Sediments from the rivers of SW Canada and NW USA spill over where the
Cascadia trench would be and cross the Juan de Fuca plate to reach the spreading ridge several hundred kilometres to
the west.
The slope of the inner trench slope of an accretionary convergent margin reflects continuous adjustments to the
thickness and width of the accretionary prism. The prism maintains a ‘critical taper’, established in conformance with
Mohr-Coulomb Theory for the pertinent materials. A package of sediments scraped off the downgoing lithospheric
plate will deform until it and the accretionary prism that it has been added to attain a critical taper (constant slope)
geometry. Once critical taper is attained, the wedge slides stably along its basal decollement. Strain rate and
hydrologic properties strongly influence the strength of the accretionary prism and thus the angle of critical taper.
Fluid pore pressures modify rock strength and are important controls of critical taper angle. Low permeability and
rapid convergence may result in pore pressures that exceed lithostatic pressure and a relatively weak accretionary
prism with a shallowly tapered geometry, whereas high permeability and slow convergence result in lower pore
pressure, stronger prisms, and steeper geometry.
The Hellenic trench system is unusual because this convergent margin subducts evaporites. The slope of the surface
of the southern flank of the Mediterranean Ridge (its accretionary prism) is low, about 1°, which indicates very low
shear stress on the decollement at the base of the wedge. Evaporites influence the critical taper of the accretionary
complex, as their mechanical properties differ from those of siliciclastic sediments, and because of their effect upon
fluid flow and fluid pressure, which control effective stress. In the 1970s, the linear deeps of the Hellenic trench
south of Crete were interpreted to be similar to trenches at other subduction zones, but with the realization that the
Mediterranean Ridge is an accretionary complex, it became apparent that the Hellenic trench is actually a starved
forearc basin, and that the plate boundary lies south of the Mediterranean Ridge.[1]

Water and biosphere

The volume of water escaping from within and beneath the forearc results in some of Earth’s most dynamic and
complex interactions between aqueous fluids and rocks. Most of this water is trapped in pores and fractures in the
upper lithosphere and sediments of the subducting plate. The average forearc is underrun by a solid volume of
oceanic sediment that is 400 m (1300 ft) thick. This sediment enters the trench with 50-60% porosity. These
sediments are progressively squeezed as they are subducted, reducing void space and forcing fluids out along the
decollement and up into the overlying forearc, which may or may not have an accretionary prism. Sediments
accreted to the forearc are another source of fluids. Water is also bound in hydrous minerals, especially clays and
opal. Increasing pressure and temperature experienced by subducted materials converts the hydrous minerals to
denser phases that contain progressively less structurally-bound water. Water released by dehydration accompanying
phase transitions is another source of fluids introduced to the base of the overriding plate. These fluids may travel
through the accretionary prism diffusely, via interconnected pore spaces in sediments, or may follow discrete
channels along faults. Sites of venting may take the form of mud volcanoes or seeps and are often associated with
chemosynthetic communities. Fluids escaping from the shallowest parts of a subduction zone may also escape along
the plate boundary but have rarely been observed draining along the trench axis. All of these fluids are dominated by
water but also contain dissolved ions and organic molecules, especially methane. Methane is often sequestered in an
ice-like form (methane clathrate, also called gas hydrate) in the forearc. These are a potential energy source and can
rapidly break down. Destabilization of gas hydrates has contributed to global warming in the past and will likely do
so in the future.
Oceanic trench 195

Chemosynthetic communities thrive where cold fluids seep out of the forearc. Cold seep communities have been
discovered in inner trench slopes down to depths of 7000 m in the western Pacific, especially around Japan, in the
Eastern Pacific along North, Central and South America coasts from the Aleutian to the Peru-Chile trenches, on the
Barbados prism, in the Mediterranean, and in the Indian Ocean along the Makran and Sunda convergent margins.
These communities receive much less attention than the chemosynthetic communities associated with hydrothermal
vents. Chemosynthetic communities are located in a variety of geological settings: above over-pressured sediments
in accretionary prisms where fluids are expelled through mud volcanoes or ridges (Barbados, Nankai and Cascadia);
along active erosive margins with faults; and along escarpments caused by debris slides (Japan trench, Peruvian
margin). Surface seeps may be linked to massive hydrate deposits and destabilization (e.g. Cascadia margin). High
concentrations of methane and sulfide in the fluids escaping from the seafloor are the principal energy sources for
chemosynthesis.

Empty trenches and subduction erosion

Trenches distant from an influx of continental sediments lack an accretionary prism, and the inner slope of such
trenches is commonly composed of igneous or metamorphic rocks. Non-accretionary convergent margins are
characteristic of (but not limited to) primitive arc systems. Primitive arc systems are those built on oceanic
lithosphere, such as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana, Tonga-Kermadec, and Scotia (South Sandwich) arc systems. The inner
trench slope of these convergent margins exposes the crust of the forearc, including basalt, gabbro, and serpentinized
mantle peridotite. These exposures allow easy access to study the lower oceanic crust and upper mantle in place and
provide a unique opportunity to study the magmatic products associated with the initiation of subduction zones. Most
ophiolites probably originate in a forearc environment during the initiation of subduction, and this setting favors
ophiolite emplacement during collision with blocks of thickened crust. Not all non-accretionary convergent margins
are associated with primitive arcs. Trenches adjacent to continents where there is little influx of sediments carried by
rivers, such as the central part of the Peru-Chile Trench, may also lack an accretionary prism.
Igneous basement of a nonaccretionary forearc may be continuously exposed by subduction erosion. This transfers
material from the forearc to the subducting plate and can be accomplished by frontal erosion or basal erosion. Frontal
erosion is most active in the wake of seamounts being subducted beneath the forearc. Subduction of large edifices
(seamount tunneling) oversteepens the forearc, causing mass failures that carry debris towards and ultimately into
the trench. This debris may be deposited in graben of the downgoing plate and subducted with it. In contrast,
structures resulting from subduction erosion of the base of the forearc are difficult to recognize from seismic
reflection profiles, so the possibility of basal erosion is difficult to confirm. Subduction erosion may also diminish a
once-robust accretionary prism if the flux of sediments to the trench diminishes.
Nonaccretionary forearcs may also be the site of serpentine mud volcanoes. These form where fluids released from
the downgoing plate percolate upwards and interact with cold mantle lithosphere of the forearc. Mantle peridotite is
hydrated into serpentinite, which is much less dense than peridotite and so will rise diapirically when there is an
opportunity to do so. Some nonaccretionary forearcs are subjected to strong extensional stresses, for example the
Marianas, and this allows buoyant serpentinite to rise to the seafloor where they form serpentinite mud volcanoes.
Chemosynthetic communities are also found on non-accretionary margins such as the Marianas, where they thrive on
vents associated with serpentinite mud volcanoes.
Oceanic trench 196

Factors affecting trench depth

There are several factors that control the
depth of trenches. The most important
control is the supply of sediment, which fills
the trench so that there is no bathymetric
expression. It is therefore not surprising that
the deepest trenches (deeper than 8000 m
(26000 ft)) are all nonaccretionary. In
contrast, all trenches with growing
accretionary prisms are shallower than
8000 m (26000 ft). A second order control
on trench depth is the age of the lithosphere
at the time of subduction. Because oceanic
lithosphere cools and thickens as it ages, it
subsides. The older the seafloor, the deeper
The Puerto Rico Trench
it lies and this determines a minimum depth
from which seafloor begins its descent. This
obvious correlation can be removed by looking at the relative depth, the difference between regional seafloor depth
and maximum trench depth. Relative depth may be controlled by the age of the lithosphere at the trench, the
convergence rate, and the dip of the subducted slab at intermediate depths. Finally, narrow slabs can sink and roll
back more rapidly than broad plates, because it is easier for underlying asthenosphere to flow around the edges of the
sinking plate. Such slabs may have steep dips at relatively shallow depths and so may be associated with unusually
deep trenches, such as the Challenger Deep.

Major oceanic trenches

Trench Ocean Depth

Mariana Trench Pacific Ocean 11033 m (36198 ft)

Tonga Trench Pacific Ocean 10882 m (35702 ft)

Kuril–Kamchatka Trench Pacific Ocean 10542 m (34587 ft)

Philippine Trench Pacific Ocean 10540 m (34580 ft)

Kermadec Trench Pacific Ocean 10047 m (32963 ft)

Izu-Bonin Trench (Izu-Ogasawara Trench) Pacific Ocean 9780 m (32090 ft)

Japan Trench Pacific Ocean 9000 m (30000 ft)

Puerto Rico Trench Atlantic Ocean 8605 m (28232 ft)

Peru-Chile Trench or Atacama Trench Pacific Ocean 8065 m (26460 ft)

Oceanic trench 197

Notable oceanic trenches

Trench Location

Aleutian Trench West of Alaska

Bougainville Trench South of New Guinea

Cayman Trench Western Caribbean Sea

Cedros Trench (inactive) Pacific coast of Baja California

Hikurangi Trench East of New Zealand

Izu-Ogasawara Trench Near Izu and Bonin islands

Japan Trench Northeast Japan

Kermadec Trench * Northeast of New Zealand

Kuril-Kamchatka Trench * Near Kuril islands

Manila Trench West of Luzon, Philippines

Mariana Trench * Western Pacific ocean; east of Mariana Islands

Middle America Trench Eastern Pacific Ocean; off coast of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

New Hebrides Trench West of Vanuatu (New Hebrides Islands).

Peru-Chile Trench Eastern Pacific ocean; off coast of Peru & Chile

Philippine Trench * East of the Philippines

Puerto Rico Trench Boundary of Caribbean Sea and Atlantic ocean

Puysegur trench Southwest of New Zealand

Ryukyu Trench Eastern edge of Japan's Ryukyu Islands

South Sandwich Trench

Sunda Arc and Java Trench

Tonga Trench * Near Tonga

Yap Trench Western Pacific ocean; between Palau Islands and Mariana Trench

(*) The 5 deepest trenches in the world

Ancient oceanic trenches

Trench Location

Intermontane Trench Western North America; between Intermontane Islands and North America

Insular Trench Western North America; between Insular Islands and Intermontane Islands

Farallon Trench Western North America

Tethyan Trench South of Turkey, Iran, Tibet and Southeast Asia

Oceanic trench 198

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pp. 1503–1527.
• R. D. Jarrard, 1986. "Relations among subduction parameters". Reviews of Geophysics, vol.24, no.2, pp. 217–284.
• J. W. Hawkins, S. H. Bloomer, C. A. Evans, J. T. Melchior. 1984. "Evolution of Intra-Oceanic Arc-Trench
Systems". Tectonophysics 102, 175–205.
• R. L. Fisher and H. H. Hess, 1963. "Trenches" in M. N. Hill (ed.) The Sea v. 3 The Earth Beneath the Sea. New
York: Wiley-Interscience, p. 411–436.
List of peninsulas 199

List of peninsulas
A peninsula (Latin: paenīnsula, "paene-":
almost + "īnsula": island; also called a
byland or biland) is a piece of land that is
surrounded by water but connected to
mainland. In many Germanic and Celtic
languages and also in Hungarian, peninsulas
are called "half-islands". A peninsula can
also be a headland (head), cape, island
promontory, bill, point, or spit.[1] Note that a
point is generally considered a tapering
piece of land projecting into a body of water
that is less prominent than a cape.[2]

Oceania A small peninsula in Croatia

Curonian Spit, a large peninsula in the Baltic Sea

List of peninsulas 200

Cape Cod, a peninsula of Massachusetts

Australia

• Beecroft Peninsula, New South Wales • Jervis Bay Territory

• Bellarine Peninsula, Victoria • Mornington Peninsula, Victoria
• Cape York Peninsula, Queensland • Redcliffe, Queensland
• Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory • Stockton, New South Wales
• Cronulla sand dunes, Kurnell Peninsula • Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania
• Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia • Tasmania itself was once a peninsula connected to Australia during the great Ice Ages
• Eyre Peninsula, South Australia • Wilsons Promontory, Victoria
• Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia • Woy Woy, New South Wales
• Freycinet Peninsula, Tasmania • Yorke Peninsula, South Australia
• Inskip Peninsula, Queensland • Younghusband Peninsula, South Australia
List of peninsulas 201

A beach on the Mornington Peninsula Looking north over the Kurnell Peninsula.

• Aupouri Peninsula, North Island • Farewell Spit, South Island

• Banks Peninsula, South Island
• Bluff Peninsula, South Island
• Bream Head, North Island
• Cape of Brandon Conde, South Island •
• Cape Brett, North Island
• Cape Campbell, South Island
• Cape Foulwind, South Island
• Cape Kidnappers, North Island
• Cape Turnagain, North Island
• Coromandel Peninsula, North Island
• Kaikoura Peninsula, South Island
• Karikari Peninsula, North Island
• Mahia Peninsula, North Island
Miramar Peninsula, North Island
• Mount Maunganui, North Island
• North Auckland Peninsula, North Island
• Otago Peninsula, South Island
• Tiwai Point, South Island

Papua New Guinea

• Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain • Huon Peninsula

Europe
• Europe is sometimes considered to be a large peninsula extending off Eurasia. It is composed of many peninsulas,
the four main component peninsulas being the Iberian, Scandinavian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas.

Balkan Peninsula
The Balkans is a peninsula including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo,
Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia and the European part of Turkey.
List of peninsulas 202

• Chalkidiki, Greece • Istria, Croatia/Slovenia

• Kassandra, Greece • Piran Peninsula, Slovenia
• Mani Peninsula, Greece • Pelješac, Croatia
• Mount Athos, Greece • Prevlaka, Croatia
• Peloponnese, Greece • Split, Croatia
• Sithonia, Greece • Zadar, Croatia
• Pilio, Greece • Karaburun Peninsula, Albania
• Luštica, Montenegro
• Gallipoli, Turkey

Denmark

• Jutland Peninsula, which forms the western half of the country. • Hindsholm
• Djursland • Kegnæs
• Grenen • Mols
• Helgenæs • Odsherred
• Horne Land • Salling
• Hornsherred • Stevns Peninsula

Italy
• Italian Peninsula
• Calabria
• Penisola Salentina
• Promontorio del Gargano
• Sorrentine Peninsula
• Promontorio di Orbetello

Satellite view of the famous boot shaped Italian Peninsula

List of peninsulas 203

Iberian Peninsula
Encompassing continental Spain and Portugal,
Andorra, British overseas territory of Gibraltar and a
small amount of southern France.

Satellite view of the Iberian Peninsula

• Cabo Espichel, Portugal • A Coruña, Spain

• Cabo Carvoeiro, Portugal
• Cabo de São Vicente, Portugal •
• Tróia Peninsula, Portugal
• Gibraltar
• Cádiz, Spain
• O Morrazo, Spain
Anaga, Spain
• Jandía, Spain
• La Isleta, Spain

Scandinavian Peninsula
Encompassing present-day Sweden, Norway, and part of Finland

• Bygdøy, Norway • Nesodden, Norway

• Fornebulandet, Norway
• Fosen, Norway
• Hamarøyhalvøya, Norway
• Hurumlandet, Norway
• Lista, Norway
• Lyngenhalvøya, Norway
• Nordkinn Peninsula, Norway •
• Ofothalvøya, Norway
• Porsangerhalvøya, Norway
• Scania, Sweden
• Snarøya, Norway
• Stad, Norway
• Sværholthalvøya, Norway
Södertörn, Sweden
• Varangerhalvøya, Norway

Turkey
• Anatolian Peninsula
• Thracian Peninsula
• Gelibolu Peninsula
• Karaburun Peninsula
• Dilek Peninsula
• Datça Peninsula
List of peninsulas 204

United Kingdom
• During the great Ice Ages, all of Great Britain was a peninsula, extending north west from the mainland of
Europe/France. The English Channel did not exist at that time.

England

• Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Dorset - the South West Peninsula, or the West Country, or Wessex • The Lizard, Cornwall
• Dengie peninsula, Essex • Manhood Peninsula, West Sussex
• The centre of the city of Durham, County Durham • Morte Point, North Devon
• The Fylde, Lancashire • Orchard Place, London
• Hoo, Kent • Penwith, Cornwall
• Isle of Dogs, London • Isle of Purbeck, Dorset
• Greenwich Peninsula, London • Isle of Portland, Dorset
• Gosport, Hampshire • Rotherhithe, London
• Spurn, Yorkshire
• Tendring, Essex
• Wirral, Cheshire and Merseyside

Scotland

• Ardnamurchan, Lochaber • Kintyre, Argyll and Bute

• Black Isle, Ross and Cromarty • Knoydart, Lochaber
• Cowal, Argyll and Bute • Morvern, Lochaber
• Doonie Point, Aberdeenshire • Strathy Point, Sutherland
• Dunnet Head, Caithness • Point of Hellia, Orkney
• Faraid Head, Sutherland • Point, Outer Hebrides
• Fife

Wales

• Creuddyn Peninsula juts out of the North Wales coast and includes the towns • South Pembrokeshire Peninsula.
of Llandudno, Rhos-on-Sea and Deganwy. Plus the headlands of Great Orme • St Davids Head, Pembrokeshire
and Little Orme • Vale of Glamorgan - technically a peninsula, as it
• Gower Peninsula, Swansea surrounded on three sides by water - two rivers boundaries
• Llŷn Peninsula and the Bristol Channel
• Marloes Peninsula, Pembrokeshire • South West Wales - Swansea to New Quay - surrounded by
• Pembrokeshire peninsula, West Wales the Bristol Channel, St George's Channel and Cardigan Bay

Northern Ireland

• Ards Peninsula, County Down • Lecale Peninsula

• Island Magee • Ramore Head, Portrush

Republic of Ireland
List of peninsulas 205

• Achill Head Peninsula • Horn Head

• Donegal • Howth Peninsula
• Munster - like Ulster, Munster is surrounded on three sides by the sea • Inishowen
• Beara Peninsula • Iveragh Peninsula
• Cooley Peninsula • Loop Head Peninsula
• Dingle Peninsula • Mizen Head Peninsula
• Fanad Peninsula • Mullet Peninsula
• Hook Peninsula • Old Head of Kinsale
• Rosguill
• Sheep's Head Peninsula

Russia

• Chukotka Peninsula • Samland peninsula, Kaliningrad Oblast

• Curonian Spit, Kaliningrad Oblast (shared with Lithuania) • Taymyr Peninsula
• Kamchatka Peninsula • Vistula Spit, Kaliningrad Oblast (shared with Poland)
• Kola Peninsula • Yamal Peninsula
• Rybachy Peninsula

Other countries

• Apsheron, Azerbaijan • Hel Peninsula, Poland

• Au peninsula, Au, Zurich, Switzerland •
• Brittany, France
• Butjadingen, Germany
• Cotentin Peninsula, France
• Crimea, Ukraine
• Fischland-Darß-Zingst, Germany
Karpass Peninsula, Cyprus
• North Holland, Netherlands
• Kakumäe Peninsula, Estonia
• Sõrve Säär, Estonia
• Walcheren, Netherlands
• Zuid-Beveland, Netherlands
• Tihany, Hungary

Asia

Kazakhstan
• Mangyshlak Peninsula

Au peninsula, Lake Zürich, Switzerland

List of peninsulas 206

Eastern Mediterranean

Panoramic view of Beirut.

View of Haifa from the west, the center of Israel's Second Largest Metropolitan
Area

• Asia Minor
• Beirut, Lebanon
• El Mina, Lebanon
• Haifa, Israel
• Acre, Israel, Israel
• Sinai Peninsula, Egypt
• Kapidagi Yarimadasi, Turkey
• Datça Peninsula, Turkey
• Side Peninsula, Turkey
List of peninsulas 207

Persian Gulf
• Arabian Peninsula; Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Oman
• Qatar
• Al-Faw peninsula, Iraq
• Musandam peninsula; Oman, United Arab Emirates

Indian subcontinent and South Asia

• Indostanic Peninsula: The Indian subcontinent is itself a
peninsula.
• Colaba peninsula, Mumbai
• Deccan peninsula
• Worli peninsula, Mumbai
• Kathiawar Peninsula, Gujarat
• Gwadar peninsula, Pakistan
• Jaffna Peninsula, Northern Sri Lanka

China
• Kowloon Peninsula, (Hong Kong)
• Leizhou Peninsula
• Liaodong Peninsula
• Shandong Peninsula
• Fan Lau, (Hong Kong)
• Sai Kung Peninsula, (Hong Kong) South India (Peninsular India).
• Stanley Peninsula, (Hong Kong)
• Chi Ma Wan Peninsula, (Hong Kong)
• Chung Hom Kok Peninsula, (Hong Kong)
• Wan Tsai Peninsula,

Korea
The whole land mass encompassing North and South Korea is a peninsula, surrounded by the Sea of Japan (also
known as the East Sea) on the east, the East China Sea to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait
connecting the first two bodies of water.

Japan

Kyūshū

• Nishi-sonogi-hanto • Satsuma-hanto
• Kunisaki-hanto • Osumi-hanto
List of peninsulas 208

Honshū

• Oshika-hanto • Miura-hato
• Noto-hanto • Boso-hanto
• Oga-hanto

Hokkaido
• Shiretoko Peninsula
• Shakotan Peninsula

South East Asia

• Malay Peninsula • Indochina peninsula

Philippines

• Bataan Peninsula, Luzon • San Ildefonso Peninsula, Luzon

• Bicol Peninsula, Luzon • Zamboanga Peninsula, Mindanao
• Caramoan Peninsula, Bicol • Tinaca Point, Davao del Sur
• Bondoc Peninsula, Luzon • Pujada Peninsula, Mindanao
• Cavite, Luzon

Indonesia

• Poluostrov Yamau • East Peninsula, Sulawesi

• Semenanjung Blambangan, Java, • South-east Peninsula, Sulawesi
• Semenanjung Minahassa, Sulawesi • South Peninsula, Sulawesi

Vietnam

• Cà Mau Peninsula, Cà Mau Province
• Hòn Gốm Peninsula, Da Lat City
• Sơn Trà Peninsula, Danang
• Ngũ Xã Peninsula, Hanoi
• Bình Quới Peninsula, Ho Chi Minh City
• Cam Ranh Peninsula, Khanh Hoa Province
• Đầm Môn Peninsula
• Trà Cổ Peninsula, Quang Ninh
• Phương Mai Peninsula, Qui Nhơn

North America

Canada
List of peninsulas
• Acadian Peninsula, New Brunswick
• Adelaide Peninsula, Nunavut
• Aspotogan Peninsula, Nova Scotia
• Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador
• Banks Peninsula, Nunavut
• Barrow Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Becher Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Beekman Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Bell Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Bell Peninsula, Southampton Island, Nunavut
• Blunt Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Bonavista Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador
• Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut
• Borden Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Brodeur Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Bruce Peninsula, Ontario, extending into Lake Huron
• Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador
• Burrard Peninsula, British Columbia
• Chebucto Peninsula, Nova Scotia
• Colin Archer Peninsula, Devon Island, Queen Elizabeth Islands,
Nunavut
• Collinson Peninsula, Victoria Island, Nunavut
• Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Diamond Jennes Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories
• Cynthia Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Temagami)
• Douglas Peninsula, Northwest Territories
• Dunlas Peninsula, Melville Island, Northwest Territories/Nunavut
• Foxe Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Gaspé Peninsula, Quebec
• Hall Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Henry Kater Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
United States
Alaska
• Alaska Peninsula
• Cleveland Peninsula •
California
• Bay Farm Island, Alameda and Oakland International Airport
• Marin County, California, is a southwards-pointing peninsula surrounded by the Pacific
Ocean, the northern part of San Francisco Bay, and San Pablo Bay
• Monterey Peninsula
• Palos Verdes Peninsula
209
• Joan Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Temagami)
• Kent Peninsula, Nunavut
• Kingston Peninsula, New Brunswick
• Labrador Peninsula, encompassing all of Labrador and most of
Quebec
• Leith Peninsula, Northwest Territories (in Great Bear Lake)
• Long Point, Ontario (in Lake Erie)
• McLean Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Temagami)
• Melville Peninsula, Nunavut
• Meta Incognita Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Natkusiak Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest
Territories/Nunavut
• Niagara Peninsula, Ontario
• North Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Nipigon)
• Nova Scotia peninsula, Nova Scotia
• Pangertot Peninsula, Nunavut
• Parry Peninsula, Northwest Territories
• Pethel Peninsula, Northwest Territories
• Point Pelee, Ontario (in Lake Erie)
• Port au Port Peninsula, Newfoundland, Newfoundland and Labrador
• Prince Albert Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest Territories
• Prince Edward Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Ontario)
• Sibley Peninsula, Ontario (in Lake Superior)
• Simpson peninsula, Nunavut
• Siorarsuk Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Steensby Peninsula, Baffin Island, Nunavut
• Storkerson Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest
Territories/Nunavut
• Saanich Peninsula, Vancouver Island, British Columbia
• Sunshine Coast Peninsula, Sea-to-Sky Corridor, British Columbia
• Ungava Peninsula, Quebec
• Wollaston Peninsula, Victoria Island, Northwest
Territories/Nunavut
• Kenai Peninsula
Seward Peninsula
• Point Loma, San Diego
• San Francisco Peninsula
• Samoa Peninsula, the larger, northern arm of land
separating Humboldt Bay from the Pacific
List of peninsulas 210

Florida

Florida is a well-known example of a large peninsula, with its land

area divided between the larger Florida peninsula and the smaller
Florida panhandle on the north and west. It has several smaller
peninsulas within it:
• Fairpoint Peninsula
• Pinellas peninsula including St. Petersburg and Clearwater
• Much of Tampa lies on a peninsula called Interbay Peninsula
jutting out into Tampa Bay
• Cape Sable

Michigan
The Floridian Peninsula, shown by a NASA satellite
Michigan is very distinguishable for its mitten-shaped Lower image.
Peninsula of Michigan which includes:

• Dyke Peninsula • Old Mission Peninsula

• Fountain Point • The Thumb
• Leelanau Peninsula • Woodtick Peninsula

The northern half of Michigan is called the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and contains:

• Abbaye Peninsula • Keweenaw Peninsula

• Garden Peninsula • Stonington Peninsula

New Jersey

• Barnegat Peninsula
• Cape May Peninsula
• Sandy Hook
• New Barbadoes Neck lies between the
Hackensack River and Passaic River
• Caven Point in Jersey City is a part of
Liberty State Park and Port Liberte.
• Bergen Point and Constable Hook are two peninsulas in Bayonne, which itself lies on peninsula
surrounded by Upper New York Bay, Newark Bay, and the Kill van Kull, formerly known as
Bergen Neck
• Droyer's Point and Kearny Point mark the mouth of the Hackensack River
• MOTBY and Port Jersey are man-made peninisulas extending in Upper New York Bay

New York

• The Bronx, New York, and Yonkers, New York • Cumberland Head
• Long Island, was once a peninsula connected to • Coney Island, was once an actual island until the island was expanded through land
North America during the great Ice Ages reclamation into the Coney Island Creek, thus becoming a peninsula.
• Rockaway Peninsula in southeastern Queens

Utah

• Antelope Island, Utah, becomes a peninsula when waters are low, on • Stansbury Peninsula, becomes an island when waters are high, on
the south shore of the Great Salt Lake the south shore of the Great Salt Lake
• Promentory Peninsula, on the north eastern shore of the Great Salt
Lake
List of peninsulas 211

Virginia

• Delmarva Peninsula, encompassing parts of Maryland and Virginia, and all of • Northern Neck, on the western shore of the Chesapeake
Delaware Bay
• Middle Peninsula, on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay • Virginia Peninsula, on the western shore of the
Chesapeake Bay

Other states

• Cape Cod, Massachusetts, a cape that can be viewed as a • Mokapu, Hawaii • Encinal Peninsula, Flour Bluff, Corpus
peninsula • Nahant, Massachusetts Christi, Texas.
• Delmarva Peninsula, encompassing parts of Maryland and • Olympic Peninsula,
Virginia, and all of Delaware Washington
• Door Peninsula, Wisconsin, in Lake Michigan • Presque Isle, Erie,
• Key Peninsula, Washington, in Puget Sound Pennsylvania
• Kitsap Peninsula, Washington, in Puget Sound • Port Bolivar, Texas, On the
Texas Coast.

Greenland

• Alfred Wegeners Halvo • Nuussuaq Peninsula

• Hayes Halvo • Sigguup Nunaa (Svartenhuk Halvø)
• Ingnerit

Mexico

• Baja California Peninsula, Mexico, containing the state of The Baja • Yucatán Peninsula, partly separating the Gulf of Mexico
Baja California and state of Baja California Sur California from the Caribbean Sea
[[Image:Baja peninsula (mexico) peninsula]]
250m.jpg|thumb|right|upright|237px

The Yucatán peninsula

List of peninsulas 212

South America
• Tierra del Fuego of Chile/Argentina was once a peninsula extending south from South America during the great
Ice Ages

Other countries

• Península de Azuero, Panama • Paria Peninsula, Venezuela

• Placencia Peninsula, Belize
• Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica •
• Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica
• Araya Peninsula, Venezuela
• Paraguana, Venezuela
• Guajira Peninsula, Venezuela/Colombia
Paracas Peninsula, Peru
• Verde Peninsula, Argentina
• Valdes Peninsula, Argentina
• Punta del Este, Uruguay

Caribbean
• Peninsula de Samaná, Dominican Republic • Guanahacabibes Peninsula, Cuba
• Barrio Obrero, Puerto Rico • Hicacos Peninsula, Cuba
• Zapata Peninsula, Cuba

Africa
• Bakassi, Cameroon but disputed with • Punta Durnford, Morocco
Nigeria
• Buri Peninsula, Eritrea • Horn of Africa or Somali peninsula, Somalia
• Cabo Blanco, Mauritania/Morocco • Raas Xaafuun peninsula/Ras Hafun, Somalia
• Cape of Good Hope, South Africa • Ponta de São Lourenço, Madeira Islands (Portuguese Territory)
• Cap Bon, Tunisia • Cape Agulhas, South Africa, southern tip of Africa, and the official dividing point between the
[3]
Atlantic and Indian oceans.
• Cap-Vert, Senegal
• Ceuta, Spain

Antarctica
• Antarctic Peninsula • Fowler Peninsula
• Edward VII Peninsula • Martin Peninsula
• Fletcher Peninsula

References
[1] Peninsula. – Britannica Student Encyclopedia. 2007 (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ ebi/ article-9276348). Encyclopædia Britannica,
Retrieved 2007-07-19.
[2] http:/ / travelingluck. com/ Africa/ Sierra%20Leone/ Northern/ _2409328_Fourah+ Point. html#local_map
[3] "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (http:/ / www. iho-ohi. net/ iho_pubs/ standard/ S-23/ S23_1953. pdf). International Hydrographic
Organization. 1953. . Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Isthmus 213

Isthmus
An isthmus (pronounced /ˈɪsθməs/ or /ˈɪsməs/; plural:
isthmuses, isthmi, from Ancient Greek:
ἰσθμός isthmos "neck") is a narrow strip of land
connecting two larger land areas usually with
waterforms on either side.[1] Of note, the Isthmus of
Corinth connects the peninsula of Peloponnese with the
rest of the Greek peninsula, the Isthmus of Panama
connects the continents of North and South America (the
Americas),[2] and the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt connects
Africa and Asia (or Eurasia).

Canals are often built through isthmuses where they may

be particularly advantageous to create a shortcut for
marine transportation. The Panama Canal bisects the
Isthmus of Panama, thereby connecting the North
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; the Suez Canal adjoins the
North Atlantic and Indian Oceans, cutting across the
Isthmus of Suez to connect the Mediterranean Sea and
the Gulf of Suez/Red Sea. Strait is the sea counterpart of
isthmus.

List of isthmuses
This list is incomplete. The sandy isthmus connecting North and South Bruny Island in
Tasmania, Australia
Isthmus 214

In Asia

Southeast Asia Red Sea

• The Isthmus of Kra connecting • Isthmus of Suez between
Malay Peninsula with the North Africa and Sinai
mainland of Asia. Peninsula.

Caucasus
• The Caucasus region connecting Europe to Asia between the
Black Sea and Caspian Sea is sometimes considered an isthmus.

In Oceania
The Suez Canal crosses the
Suez isthmus
In
Australia New
Zealand
• Eaglehawk
Neck near • Auckland
Port isthmus
Arthur, between
Tasmania. Northland
• The Neck Peninsula
in Bruny and the rest
Island, of New
Tasmania Zealand's
connecting North
[3]
North and Island.
South • The
Bruny. Rongotai
isthmus,
where
Wellington The Isthmus of Panama
International
Airport is
located.
Isthmus 215

In Europe

Mediterranean Sea Russia

• Isthmus of Corinth, which
connects the Peloponnese
peninsula to the rest of
Greece.
• Isthmus of Potidea,
connecting the Kassandra
peninsula with the mainland
of Greece.
• Isthmus of Catanzaro, the
narrowest part of Italy
• Isthmus of Gibraltar
Black Sea
• Isthmus of Perekop between
Crimea and Ukraine proper.
• Karelian Isthmus between
Lake Ladoga and the Baltic
Sea (Gulf of Finland).
• Olonets Isthmus between
Lake Ladoga and Lake
Onega.
United Kingdom
• La Coupée isthmus in Sark.
• Forth-Clyde isthmus in
Scotland.
• Mavis Grind isthmus in
Shetland.
• Rhins of Galloway isthmus
in Wigtownshire (where
Stranraer is situated),
Scotland.
• Bardsey Island.

Iceland
• Isthmus of Westfjords
peninsula, which connects
to the mainland of Iceland.

Americas

USA Panama
• Madison Isthmus. • Isthmus of Panama.
• Seattle,
Washington. Venezuela
• Isthmus of Médanos - links
Canada
Venezuela to Paraguaná.
• Isthmus of Avalon.
• Isthmus of Chile
Chignecto.
• Ofqui Isthmus, Aisén Region, Chile.

Mexico
Argentina
• Isthmus of
Tehuantepec. • Istmo Carlos Ameghino, Province of
Chubut, Argentina.

Nicaragua
British Overseas Territories
• Isthmus of Rivas.
• Isthmus of East Falkland.
Isthmus 216

Notes
[1] In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 07, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online (http:/ / www. britannica. com/
EBchecked/ topic/ 297042/ isthmus)
[2] "Panama: Isthmus that Changed the World" (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images. php3?img_id=16401).
NASA Earth Observatory. . Retrieved 2008-07-01.
[3] The isthmus (http:/ / www. aucklandcity. govt. nz/ whatson/ places/ walkways/ coasttocoast/ index. asp) (from the Auckland City Council
website. Accessed 2009-02-08.)

3. Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río
Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.
4. Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years.
Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.

Island
An island ( /ˈaɪlənd/) or isle ( /ˈaɪl/) is any piece of
sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small
islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be
called islets, cays or keys. An island in a river or lake may
be called an eyot /ˈaɪ.ət/ (also ait /ˈeɪt/), or holm. A
grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is
called an archipelago.

An island may still be described as such despite the

presence of a land bridge, for example Singapore and its
causeway, or the various Dutch delta islands, such as
IJsselmonde. Some places may even retain "island" in their
Cíes Islands in Galicia
names for historical reasons after being connected to a
larger landmass by a wide land bridge, such as Coney
Island.

There are two main types of islands: continental islands

and oceanic islands. There are also artificial islands. There
is no standard of size which distinguishes islands from islets
and continents.

Etymology
The word island comes from Middle English iland, from
Old English igland (from ig, similarly meaning 'island'
when used independently, and -land carrying its
Pokonji Dol, a small Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea
contemporary meaning; cf. Dutch eiland ("island"), German
Eiland ("small island")). However, the spelling of the word
was modified in the 15th century due to an incorrect association with the etymologically unrelated Old French
loanword isle, which itself comes from the Latin word insula.[1] Old English ig is actually a cognate of Latin aqua
(water).[2]
Island 217

Types of island

Continental islands
Continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the
continental shelf of a continent. Examples include
Greenland, Long Island, and Sable Island off North
America; Barbados and Trinidad off South America; Great
Britain, Ireland and Sicily off Europe; Sumatra, Borneo and
Java off Asia; and New Guinea, Tasmania and Kangaroo
Island off Australia.
A small island in Lower Saranac Lake in the Adirondacks in
A special type of continental island is the microcontinental the U.S.
island, which results when a continent is rifted. Examples
are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa; New Zealand; New
Caledonia; the Kerguelen Islands; and some of the
Seychelles.
Another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of
tiny rocks where a water current loses some of its carrying
capacity. An example is barrier islands, which are
accumulations of sand deposited by sea currents on the
continental shelf. Another example is islands in river deltas
or in large rivers. While some are transitory and may
disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes,
others are stable and long-lived. Islets are very small
islands.

Oceanic islands
Oceanic islands are ones that do not sit on continental The islands of Hawai'i are volcanic islands
shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin. The few
oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin
and arise where plate movements have lifted up the deep
ocean floor to above the surface. Examples of this include
Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean and
Macquarie Island in the Pacific.

One type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic

island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the
subduction of one plate under another is occurring.
Examples include the Mariana Islands, the Aleutian Islands
and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. Some of the Lesser
Antilles and the South Sandwich Islands are the only
Atlantic Ocean examples. Fernando de Noronha are submerged mountains islands
Island 218

Another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an

oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples:
Iceland, which is the world's second largest volcanic island,
and Jan Mayen — both are in the Atlantic.
A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over
volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary
relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of
islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time,
this type of island is eventually "drowned" by isostatic
adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount. Plate
movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands
oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example
is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which then
extends beneath the sea surface in a more northerly
direction as the Emperor Seamounts. Another chain with Wake Island is a volcanic island that has become an atoll.
similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older,
northerly trend is the Line Islands. The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the
atolls in the nation of Tuvalu. Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean. Another
hot spot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.

An atoll is an island formed from a coral reef that has grown on an eroded and submerged volcanic island. The reef
rises to the surface of the water and forms a new island. Atolls are typically ring-shaped with a central lagoon.
Examples include the Maldives in the Indian Ocean and Line Islands in the Pacific.

Tropical islands
There are approximately 45,000 tropical islands on Earth.[3] Among coral tropic islands for example are Maldives,
Tonga, Nauru and Polynesia.[3] Granite islands include Seychelles and Tioman.[3] The socio-economic diversity of
these regions ranges from the Stone Age societies in the interior of Madagascar, Borneo or Papua New Guinea to the
high-tech lifestyles of the city-islands of Singapore and Hong Kong. International tourism is a significant factor in
the local economy of Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Réunion, Hawaii and the Maldives, among others.

Desert islands
A desert island is an island with no people. Typically, a desert island is denoted as such because it exists in a state
of being deserted, or abandoned. Note that an arid desert climate is not typically implied; one dictionary uses the
phrase 'desert island' to illustrate the use of 'desert' as an adjective meaning "desolate and sparsely occupied or
unoccupied".[4] According to another, "A desert island is a small tropical island, where nobody lives or an
undiscovered island."[5]

References
Notes
[1] "Island" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Island). Dictionary.com. . Retrieved 2007-03-05.
[2] Ringe, Donald A. (2006). A Linguistic History of English: From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Oxford University Press. p. 109.
ISBN 019928413X.
[3] "The Tropical Islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans" (http:/ / epub. oeaw. ac. at/ 2738-3). Epub.oeaw.ac.at. . Retrieved 2009-01-05.
[4] Merriam-Webster Online, "desert" definition 2 (http:/ / www. m-w. com/ dictionary/ Desert)
[5] Collins Cobuild Dictionary (1995)
Island 219

External links
• Definition of island (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part8.htm) from
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
• Listing of islands (http://islands.unep.ch/isldir.htm) from United Nations Island Directory.

Seamount
A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water's surface (sea level), and
thus is not an island. These are typically formed from extinct volcanoes, that rise abruptly and are usually found
rising from a seafloor of 1000–4000 metres (3281–13123 ft) depth. They are defined by oceanographers as
independent features that rise to at least 1000 metres (3281 ft) above the seafloor. The peaks are often found
hundreds to thousands of metres below the surface, and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea.[1] There
are an estimated 100,000 seamounts across the globe, with only a few having been studied. Seamounts come in all
shapes and sizes, and follow a distinctive pattern of growth, activity, and death. In recent years, several active
seamounts have been observed, for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands.
Because of their abundance, seamounts are one of the most common oceanic ecosystems in the world. Interactions
between seamounts and underwater currents, as well as their elevated position in the water, attract plankton, corals,
fish, and marine mammals alike. Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry, and
many seamounts support extensive fisheries. There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on
seamount ecosystems, and well-documented cases of stock decline, for example with the orange roughy
(Hoplostethus atlanticus). 95% of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling, which literally scrapes whole
ecosystems off seamounts.
Because of their large numbers, many seamounts remain to be properly studied, and even mapped. Bathymetry and
satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap. There have been instances where naval vessels have
collided with uncharted seamounts; for example, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973.
However, the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses; as they get older, extrusions seeping in the
seamounts put pressure on their sides, causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis.

Geography
Seamounts can be found in every ocean basin in the world, distributed extremely widely both in space and in age. A
seamount is technically defined as an isolated elevational rising of 1000 m (3281 ft) or more from the surrounding
seafloor, and with a limited summit area,[2] a definition drafted in 1964. This definition is no longer strictly adhered
to however, and some scientists recognize features as short as 100 m (328 ft) as seamounts. Under the strictest
definition there are up to 100,000 seamounts in the oceans, and under the loosest there may be as many as 2
million;[] however, there are many very small and very deep seamounts that are difficult to analyze, so the true
number may never be known.[2]
Most seamounts are volcanic in origin, and thus tend to be found on oceanic crust near mid-ocean ridges, mantle
plumes, and island arcs. Nearly half of the world's seamounts are found in the Pacific Ocean, and the rest are
distributed mostly across the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Overall there is also a significant bias in distribution
towards the southern hemisphere.[2]
Seamounts are often found in groupings or submerged archipelagos, a classic example being the Emperor
Seamounts, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands. Formed millions of years ago by volcanism, they have since
subsided far below sea level. This long chain of islands and seamounts extends thousands of kilometers northwest
from the island of Hawaii. Isolated seamounts and those without clear volcanic origins are less common; examples
include Bollons Seamount, Eratosthenes Seamount, Axial Seamount and Gorringe Ridge.[3] If all known seamounts
Seamount 220

were collected into one area, they would make a landform the size of Europe.[4] Their overall abundance makes them
one of the most common, and least understood, marine structures and biomes on Earth,[4] a sort of exploratory
frontier.[]

A partial mapping of some of the world's major seamounts

Geology

Geochemistry and evolution

Most seamounts are built by one of two volcanic processes. Volcanoes
near plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges are built by decompression
melting of rock in the mantle that then floats up to the surface, while
volcanoes formed near subducting zones are created because the
subducting plate adds volatiles to the rising plate that raise its melting
point. Which process formed the seamount has a profound effect on its
eruptive materials. Lava flows from mid-ocean ridge and plate
boundary seamounts are mostly basaltic (both tholeiitic and alkalic),
whereas flows from subducting ridge volcanoes are mostly
calc-alkaline lavas. Compared to mid-ocean ridge seamounts,
subduction zone seamounts generally have more sodium, alkali, and
volatile abundances, and less magnesium, resulting in more explosive, Diagram of a submarine eruption. (key: 1. Water
viscous eruptions.[5] vapor cloud 2. Water 3. Stratum 4. Lava flow 5.
Magma conduit 6. Magma chamber 7. Dike 8.
All volcanic seamounts follow a particular pattern of growth, activity, Pillow lava) Click to enlarge.
subsidence and eventual extinction. The first stage of a seamount's
evolution is its early activity, building its flanks and core up from the sea floor. This is followed by a period of
intense volcanism, during which the new volcano erupts almost all (e.g. 98%) of its total magmatic volume. The
seamount may even grow above sea level to become an oceanic island (for example, the 2009 eruption of Hunga
Tonga). After a period of explosive activity near the ocean surface, the eruptions slowly die away. With eruptions
becoming infrequent and the seamount losing its ability to maintain itself, the volcano starts to erode. After finally
Seamount 221

becoming extinct (possibly after a brief rejuvenated period), they are ground back down by the waves. Seamounts
are built in a far more dynamic oceanic setting then their land counterparts, resulting in horizontal subsidation as the
seamount moves on the grinding plate towards a subduction zone. Here it is subducted under the plate margin and
ultimately destroyed, but it may leave evidence of its passage by carving an indentation into the opposing wall of the
subduction trench. The majority of seamounts have already completed their eruptive cycle, so access to early flows
by researchers is limited by late volcanic activity.[5]
Ocean-ridge volcanoes in particular have been observed to follow a certain pattern in terms of eruptive activity, first
observed with Hawaiian seamounts but now shown to be the process followed by all seamounts of the ocean-ridge
type. During the first stage the volcano erupts basalt of various types, caused by various degrees of mantle melting.
In the second, most active stage of its life, ocean-ridge volcanoes erupt tholeiitic to mildly alkalic basalt as a result of
a larger area melting in the mantle. This is finally capped by alkalic flows late in its eruptive history, as the link
between the seamount and its source of volcanism is cut by crustal movement. Some seamounts also experience a
brief "rejuvenated" period after a hiatus of 1.5 to 10 million years, the flows of which are highly alkalic and produce
many xenoliths.[5]
In recent years, geologists have confirmed that a number of seamounts are active undersea volcanoes; two examples
are Lo‘ihi in the Hawaiian Islands and Vailulu'u in the Manu'a Group (Samoa).[3]

Lava types
The most apparent lava flows at a seamount are the eruptive flows
which cover their flanks, however igneous intrusions, in the forms of
dikes and sills, are also an important part of seamount growth. The
most common type of flow is pillow lava, named so after its unusual
shape. Less common are sheet flows, which are glassy and marginal,
and indicative of larger-scale flows. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks
dominate shallow-water seamounts. They are the products of the
explosive activity of seamounts that are near the water's surface, and
Pillow lava, a type of basalt flow that originates
can also form from mechanical wear of existing volcanic rock.[5]
from lava-water interactions during submarine
[6]
eruptions.
Structure
Seamounts can form in a wide variety of tectonic settings, resulting in a very diverse structural bank. Seamounts
come in a wide variety of structural shapes, from conical to flat-topped to complexly shaped.[5] Some are built very
large and very low, such as Koko Guyot[7] and Detroit Seamount;[8] others are built more steeply, such as Loihi
Seamount[9] and Bowie Seamount.[10] Some seamounts also have a carbonate or sediment cap.[5]
Many seamounts show signs of intrusive activity, which is likely to lead to inflation, steepening of volcanic slopes,
and ultimately, flank collapse.[5] There are also several sub-classes of seamounts. The first are guyots, seamount with
a flat top. These tops must be 200 m (656 ft) or more below the surface of the sea; the diameters of these flat
summits can be over 10 km (6.2 mi).[11] Knolls are isolated elevation spikes measuring less than 1000 meters
(3281 ft). Lastly, pinnacles are small pillar-like seamounts.[2]
Seamount 222

Ecology

Ecological role of seamounts

Seamounts are exceptionally important to their biome ecologically, but their role in their environment is little
understood. Because they project out above the surrounding sea floor, they disturb standard water flow, causing
eddies and associated hydrological phenomena that ultimately result in water movement in an otherwise still ocean
bottom. Currents have been measured at up to 0.9 knots, or 48 centimeters per second. Because of this upwelling
seamounts often carry above-average plankton populations, seamounts are thus centers where the fish that feed on
them aggregate, in turn falling prey to further predation, making seamounts important biological hotspots.[2]
Seamounts provide habitats and spawning grounds for these larger animals, including numerous fish. Some species,
including black oreo (Allocyttus niger) and blackstripe cardinalfish (Apogon nigrofasciatus), have been shown to
occur more often on seamounts then anywhere else on the ocean floor. Marine mammals, sharks, tuna, and
cephalopods all congregate over seamounts to feed, as well as some species of seabirds when the features are
particularly shallow.[2]
Seamounts often project upwards into shallower zones more hospitable
to sea life, providing habitats for marine species that are not found on
or around the surrounding deeper ocean bottom. Because seamounts
are isolated from each other they form "undersea islands" creating the
same biogeographical interest. As they are formed from volcanic rock,
the substrate is much harder than the surrounding sedimentary deep sea
floor. This causes a different type of fauna to exist than on the seafloor,
and leads to a theoretically higher degree of endemism.[13] However,
recent research especially centered at Davidson Seamount suggests that
Grenadier fish (Coryphaenoides sp.) and
seamounts may not be especially endemic, and discussions are ongoing
bubblegum coral (Paragorgia arborea) on the
on the effect of seamounts on endemicity. They have, however, been crest of Davidson Seamount. These are two
confidently shown to provide a habitat to species that difficulty species attracted to the seamount; Paragorgia
surviving elsewhere.[14] [15] arborea in particular grows in the surrounding
[12]
area as well, but nowhere near as profusely.
The volcanic rocks on the slopes of seamounts are heavily populated
by suspension feeders, particularly corals, which capitalize on the strong currents around the seamount to supply
them with food. This is in sharp contrast with the typical deep-sea habitat, where deposit-feeding animals rely on
food they get off the ground.[2] In tropical zones extensive coral growth results in the formation of coral atolls late in
the seamount's life.[] [15]
In addition soft sediments tend to accumulate on seamounts, which are typically populated by polychaetes (annelid
marine worms) oligochaetes (microdrile worms), and gastropod mollusks (sea slugs). Xenophyophores have also
been found. They tend to gather small particulates and thus form beds, which alters sediment deposition and creates
a habitat for smaller animals.[2] Many seamounts also have hydrothermal vent communities, for example Suiyo[16]
and Loihi seamounts.[17] This is helped by geochemical exchange between the seamounts and the ocean water.[]
Seamounts may thus be vital stopping points for some migratory animals, specifically whales. Some recent research
indicates whales may use such features as navigational aids throughout their migration.[18] For a long time it has
been surmised that many pelagic animals visit seamounts as well, to gather food, but proof of this aggregating effect
has been lacking. The first demonstration of this conjecture has recently been published.[19]
Seamount 223

Fishing
The effect that seamounts have on fish populations has not gone unnoticed by the commercial fishing industry.
Seamounts were first extensively fished in the second half of the 20th century, due to poor management practices
and increased fishing pressure seriously depleting stock numbers on the typical fishing ground, the continental shelf.
Seamounts have been the site of targeted fishing since that time.[20]
Nearly 80 species of fish and shellfish are commercially harvested from seamounts, including spiny lobster
(Palinuridae), mackerel (Scombridae and others), red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus), red snapper
(Lutjanus campechanus), tuna (Scombridae), Orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus), and perch (Percidae).[2]

Conservation
The ecological conservation of seamounts is hurt by the simple lack of
information available. Seamounts are very poorly studied, with only
350 of the estimated 100,000 seamounts in the world having received
sampling, and fewer than 100 in depth.[21] Much of this lack of
information can be attributed to a lack of technology, and to the
daunting task of reaching these underwater structures; the technology
to fully explore them has only been around the last few decades. Because of overfishing at their seamount
Before consistent conservation efforts can begin, the seamounts of the spawning grounds, stocks of orange roughy
(Hoplostethus atlanticus) have plummeted;
world must first be mapped, a task that is still in progress.[2]
experts say that it could take decades for the
[20]
Overfishing is a serious threat to seamount ecological welfare. There species to restore itself to its former numbers.

are several well-documented cases of fishery exploitation, for example

the orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus) off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand and the pelagic armorhead
(Pseudopentaceros richardsoni) near Japan and Russia.[2] The reason for this is that the fishes that are targeted over
seamounts are typically long-lived, slow-growing, and slow-maturing. The problem is confounded by the dangers of
trawling, which damages seamount surface communities, and the fact that many seamounts are located in
international waters, making proper monitoring difficult.[20] Bottom trawling in particular is extremely devastating to
seamount ecology, and is responsible for as much as 95% of ecological damage to seamounts.[22]

Corals from seamounts are also vulnerable, as they are highly valued
for making jewellery and decorative objects. Significant harvests have
been produced from seamounts, often leaving coral beds depleted.[2]
Individual nations are beginning to note the effect of fishing on
seamounts, and the European Commission has agreed to fund the
OASIS project, a detailed study of the effects of fishing on seamount
Coral earings of this type are often made from
coral harvested off seamounts. communities in the North Atlantic.[20] Another project working
towards conservation is CenSeam, a Census of Marine Life project
formed in 2005. CenSeam is intended to provide the framework needed to prioritise, integrate, expand and facilitate
seamount research efforts in order to significantly reduce the unknown and build towards a global understanding of
seamount ecosystems, and the roles they have in the biogeography, biodiversity, productivity and evolution of
marine organisms.[21] [23]

Possibly the best ecologically studied seamount in the world is Davidson Seamount, with six major expeditions
recording over 60,000 species observations. The contrast between the seamount and the surrounding area was
well-marked.[14] One of the primary ecological havens on the seamount is its deep sea coral garden, and many of the
specimens noted were over a century old.[12] Following the expansion of knowledge on the seamount there was
extensive support to make it a marine sanctuary, a motion that was granted in 2008 as part of the Monterey Bay
National Marine Sanctuary.[24] Much of what is known about seamounts ecologically is based on observations from
Seamount 224

Davidson.[12] [19] Another such seamount is Bowie Seamount, which has also been declared a marine protected area
by Canada for its ecological richness.[25]

Exploration
The study of seamounts has been stymied for a long time by the lack of
technology. Although seamounts have been sampled as far back as the
19th century, their depth and position meant that the technology to
explore and sample seamounts in sufficient detail did not exist until the
last few decades. Even with the right technology available, only a scant
1% of the total number have been explored,[4] and sampling and
information remains biased towards the top 500 m (1640 ft).[2] New
species are observed or collected and valuable information is obtained
on almost every submersible dive at seamounts.[26]
Graph showing the rise in global sea level (in
Before seamounts and their oceanographic impact can be fully mm) as measured by the NASA/CNES oceanic
satellite altimeter TOPEX/Poseidon (left) and its
understood, they must be mapped, a daunting task due to their sheer
follow-on mission Jason-1.
number.[2] The most detailed seamount mappings are provided by
multibeam echosounding (sonar), however after more than 5000
publicly held cruises the amount of the sea floor that has been mapped remains miniscule. Satellite altimetry is a
broader alternative, albeit not as detailed, with 13,000 catalogued seamounts; however this is still only a fraction of
the total 100,000. The reason for this is that uncertanties in the technology limit recognition to features 1500 m
(4921 ft) or larger. In the future technological advances could allow for a larger and more detailed catalogue.[27]

Deep-sea mining
Seamounts are a possible future source of heavy metals. The growth of the human population and, with it, heavy
industry, has pressed demands for Earth's finite resources. Even though the ocean makes up 70% of the world,
technological challenges with deep-sea mineral mining have severely limited its extent. But with the constantly
decreasing supply on land, many see oceanic mining as the destined future, and seamounts stand out as
candidates.[28]
Seamounts are abundant, and all have metal resource potential because of various enrichment processes during the
seamount's life. Hydrogenic Iron-manganese, hydrothermal iron oxide, sulfide, sulfate, sulfur, hydrothermal
manganese oxide, and phosphorite are all mineral resources that are founded by various processes and deposited
upon seamounts. However, only the first two have any potential of being targeted by mining in the next few
decades.[28]
Seamount 225

Dangers
Some seamounts have not been mapped and thus pose a navigational
danger. For instance, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that
hit it in 1973.[30] More recently, the submarine USS San Francisco ran
into an uncharted seamount in 2005 at a speed of 35 knots (40.3 mph;
64.8 km/h), sustaining serious damage and killing one seaman.[29]
One major seamount risk is that often, in the late of stages of their life,
extrusions begin to seep in the seamount. This activity leads to
inflation, over-extension of the volcano's flanks, and ultimetly flank
collapse, leading to submarine landslides with the potential to start
major tsunamis. This is one of the largest natural disasters in the world. USS San Francisco in dry dock in Guam in
January 2005, following its collision with an
In an illustration of the potent power of flank collapses, a summit
uncharted seamount. The damage was extensive
collapse on the northern edge of Vlinder Seamount resulted in a [29]
and the submarine was just barely salvaged.
pronounced headwall scarp and a field of debris up to 6 km (4 mi)
away.[] A catastrophic collapse at Detroit Seamount flattened its whole structure extensively.[8] Lastly, in 2004,
scientists found marine fossils 61 m (200 ft) up the flank of Kohala mountain in Hawaii (island). Subsidation
analysis found that at the time of their deposition, this would have been 500 m (1640 ft) up the flank of the
volcano,[31] far too high for a normal wave to reach. The date corresponded with a massive flank collapse at the
nearby Mauna Loa, and it was theorized that it was a massive tsunami, generated by the landslide, that deposited the
fossils.[32]

References
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Francisco
[2] "Seamount" (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Seamount). Encyclopedia of Earth. December 9, 2008. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[3] Geophysical Monogram: Seamounts, islands and atolls (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=u-NMJaicckMC& printsec=frontcover&
dq=Seamounts,+ islands+ and+ atolls+ keating& q). American Geophysical Union. 1987. ISBN 9780875900681. ISSN 0065-8448. .
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[4] "Seamount Scientists Offer New Comprehensive View of Deep-Sea Mountains" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2010/ 02/
100222162013. htm). ScienceDaily. 23 February 2010. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[5] "The Geological History of Deep-Sea Volcanoes: Biosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere Interactions" (http:/ / www. tos. org/
oceanography/ issues/ issue_archive/ issue_pdfs/ 23_1/ 23-1_staudigel2. pdf). Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography
Society) 32 (1). . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[6] "Pillow lava" (http:/ / www. pmel. noaa. gov/ vents/ nemo/ explorer/ concepts/ pillows. html). NOAA. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[7] "SITE 1206" (http:/ / www-odp. tamu. edu/ publications/ 197_IR/ chap_01/ c1_9. htm). Ocean Drilling Program Database-Results of Site
1206. Ocean Drilling Program. . Retrieved 26 July 2010.
[8] "Seismic stratigraphy of Detroit Seamount, Hawaiian–Emperor Seamount chain" (http:/ / pangea. stanford. edu/ research/ groups/ crustal/
docs/ Kerr. DetroitSeamount. G3. 2005. pdf) (PDF). Stanford University. July 12, 2005. . Retrieved 15 July 2010.
[9] Rubin, Ken (January 19, 2006). "General Information About Loihi" (http:/ / www. soest. hawaii. edu/ GG/ HCV/ loihi. html). Hawaii Center
for Volcanology. SOEST. . Retrieved 26 July 2010.
[10] "The Bowie Seamount Area" (http:/ / www. pac. dfo-mpo. gc. ca/ oceans/ mpa/ bowie/ reports/ bowback. pdf). John F. Dower and Frances J.
Fee. February, 1999. . Retrieved 26 July 2010.
[11] "Guyots" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 250080/ guyot). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[12] "Seamounts may serve as refuges for deep-sea animals that struggle to survive elsewhere" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news153594680.
html). PhysOrg. February 11, 2009. . Retrieved December 7, 2009.
[13] "Davidson Seamount" (http:/ / oceanexplorer. noaa. gov/ explorations/ 06davidson/ background/ conservation/ davidson_fact_sheet. pdf).
NOAA, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. 2006. . Retrieved 2 December 2009.
[14] McClain, Craig R.; McClain CR., Lundsten L., Ream M., Barry J., DeVogelaere A. (January 7, 2009). Rands, Sean. ed. "Endemicity,
Biogeography, Composition, and Community Structure On a Northeast Pacific Seamount" (http:/ / www. plosone. org/ article/ info:doi/ 10.
1371/ journal. pone. 0004141). PLoS ONE 1 (4): e4141. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004141. PMC 2613552. PMID 19127302. . Retrieved
December 3, 2009.
Seamount 226

[15] Lundsten, L; L. Lundsten, J. P. Barry, G. M. Cailliet, D. A. Clague, A. DeVogelaere, J. B. Geller (January 13, 2009). "Benthic invertebrate
communities on three seamounts off southern and central California". Marine Ecology Progress Series (Inter-Research Science Center) 374:
23–32. doi:10.3354/meps07745.
[16] Higashi, Y; Yowsuke Higashi et. al. (15 March 2004). "Microbial diversity in hydrothermal surface to subsurface environments of Suiyo
Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, using a catheter-type in situ growth chamber" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL&
_udi=B6T2V-4BJK5NY-3& _user=10& _coverDate=03/ 15/ 2004& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=&
view=c& _searchStrId=1410995407& _rerunOrigin=google& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&
md5=eb59ee966761ccbaedd7bde28bcc7ac6). FEMS Microbiology Ecology 47 (3): 327–336. doi:10.1016/S0168-6496(04)00004-2.
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[17] "Introduction to the Biology and Geology of Lōʻihi Seamount" (http:/ / earthref. org/ cgi-bin/ er. cgi?s=http:/ / earthref. org/ FEMO/ loihi.
htm). Lōʻihi Seamount. Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO). 2009-02-01. . Retrieved 2009-03-02.
[18] Kennedy, Jennifer. "Seamount: What is a Seamount?" (http:/ / marinelife. about. com/ od/ glossary/ g/ seamountdef. htm). ask.com. .
Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[19] Morato, T., Varkey, D.A., Damaso, C., Machete, M., Santos, M., Prieto, R., Santos, R.S. and Pitcher, T.J. (2008). "Evidence of a seamount
effect on aggregating visitors". Marine Ecology Progress Series 357: 23-32.
[20] "Seamounts – hotspots of marine life" (http:/ / www. ices. dk/ marineworld/ seamounts. asp). International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[21] "CenSeam Mission" (http:/ / censeam. niwa. co. nz/ censeam_about). CenSeam. . Retrieved 22 July 2010.
[22] Report of the Secretary-General (2006) The Impacts of Fishing on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ los/
general_assembly/ documents/ impact_of_fishing. pdf) United Nations. 14 July 2006. Retrieved on 26 July 2010.
[23] "CenSeam Science" (http:/ / censeam. niwa. co. nz/ science). CenSeam. . Retrieved 22 July 2010.
[24] "NOAA Releases Plans for Managing and Protecting Cordell Bank, Gulf of Farallones and Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuaries"
(http:/ / cordellbank. noaa. gov/ management/ jmprpressrelease. pdf). Press release. NOAA. November 20, 2008. . Retrieved 2 December
2009.
[25] "Bowie Seamount Marine Protected Area" (http:/ / www. pac. dfo-mpo. gc. ca/ oceans/ mpa/ bowie/ default_e. htm). Fisheries and Oceans
Canada. May 25, 2006. . Retrieved October 27, 2008.
[26] "Seamounts Identified as Significant, Unexplored Territory" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2010/ 04/ 100430091605. htm).
ScienceDirect. 30 April 2010. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[27] "The Global Seamount Census" (http:/ / www. tos. org/ oceanography/ issues/ issue_archive/ issue_pdfs/ 23_1/ 23-1_wessel. pdf).
Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 23 (1). ISSN 1042-8275. . Retrieved 25 June 2010.
[28] "Seamount Mineral Deposits: A Source for Rare Minerals for High Technology Industries" (http:/ / www. tos. org/ oceanography/ issues/
issue_archive/ issue_pdfs/ 23_1/ 23-1_hein. pdf). Oceanography. Seamounts Special Issue (Oceanography Society) 23 (1). ISSN 1042-8275. .
Retrieved 26 July 2010.
[29] "USS San Francisco (SSN 711)" (http:/ / www. ssbn611. org/ uss_san_francisco. htm). . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[30] Nigel Calder (2002). How to Read a Navigational Chart: A Complete Guide to the Symbols, Abbreviations, and Data Displayed on Nautical
Charts. International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press.
[31] Seach, John. "Kohala Volcano - John Seach" (http:/ / www. volcanolive. com/ kohala. html). Volcanism reference base. John Seach,
volcanologist. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[32] "Hawaiian tsunami left a gift at foot of volcano" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg18324641.
900-hawaiian-tsunami-left-a-gift-at-foot-of-volcano. html). New Scientist (Reed Business Information) (2464): 14. 2004-09-11. . Retrieved 25
July 2010.

Bibliography
Geology
• Keating, B.H., Fryer, P., Batiza, R., Boehlert, G.W. (Eds.), 1987: Seamounts, islands and atolls (http://books.
google.com/books?id=u-NMJaicckMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Seamounts,+islands+and+atolls&
source=bl&ots=vyTWXdEw4W&sig=Y4f3Y7LDDMJ-3PlcDi0uBI1T39w&hl=en&
ei=YgtNTNyaJoG88gb6tvg1&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&
ved=0CB0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false). Geophys. Monogr. 43:319-334.
• Menard, H.W. (1964). Marine Geology of the Pacific (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964Sci...146..513M).
International Series in the Earth Sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York, 271 pp.
Ecology
• De Forges, BR; Richer de Forges, J. Anthony Koslow, and G. C. B. Poore (22 June 2000). "Diversity and
endemism of the benthic seamount fauna in the southwest Pacific" (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/
Seamount 227

v405/n6789/full/405944a0.html). Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 405 (6789): 944–947.

doi:10.1038/35016066. PMID 10879534.
• Koslow, J.A. (1997). Seamounts and the ecology of deep-sea fisheries (http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/
blue_planet/deep_sea/seamounts/). Am. Sci. 85:168-176.
• Lundsten L, McClain CR, Barry JP, Cailliet GM, Clague DA, DeVogelaere AP (2009) Ichthyofauna on Three
Seamounts off Southern and Central California, USA (http://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v389/
p223-232/). Marine Ecology Progress Series 389:223-232.
• Pitcher, T.J., Morato, T., Hart, P.J.B., Clark, M.R., Haggan, N. and Santos, R.S. (eds) (2007). " Seamounts:
Ecology, Fisheries and Conservation (http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405133430.
html)". Fish and Aquatic Resources Series 12, Blackwell, Oxford, UK. 527pp. ISBN 978-1-4051-3343-2

External links
Geography and geology
• Earthref Seamount Catalouge (http://earthref.org/databases/SC/). A database of seamount maps and catalogue
listings.
• Volcanic History of Seamounts in the Gulf of Alaska (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02alaska/
background/geology/geology.html).
• The giant Ruatoria debris avalanche on the northern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand (http://www.agu.org/
pubs/crossref/2001/2001JB900004.shtml). Aftermath of a seamount carving into the far side of a subduction
trench.
• Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes (http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1995/95_09_08.html). The life
cycle of seamounts was originally observed off of the Hawaiian arc.
• How Volcanoes Work: Lava and Water (http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/lava_water.
html). An explanation of the different types of lava-water interactions.
Ecology
• A review of the effects of seamounts on biological processes (http://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/CR/1987/
8709.PDF). NOAA paper.
• Mountains in the Sea (http://www.tos.org/oceanography/issues/issue_archive/23_1.html), a volume on the
biological and geological effects of seamounts, available fully online.
• SeamountsOnline (http://seamounts.sdsc.edu), seamount biology database.
• Vulnerability of deep sea corals to fishing on seamounts beyond areas of national jurisdiction (http://www.
unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/25.htm), United Nations Environment
Program.
• A collection of seamount videos (http://wn.com/seamount)
Volcano 228

Volcano

Cleveland Volcano in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska photographed

from the International Space Station, May 2006

Cross-section through a stratovolcano (vertical scale is exaggerated):

1. Large magma chamber 9. Layers of lava emitted by the

2. Bedrock volcano
3. Conduit (pipe) 10. Throat
4. Base 11. Parasitic cone
5. Sill 12. Lava flow
6. Dike 13. Vent
7. Layers of ash emitted by the 14. Crater
volcano 15. Ash cloud
8. Flank

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust,

which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from below
the surface.
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or
converging. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling
apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by
convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are
usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the
Earth's crust in the interiors of plates, e.g., in the East African Rift, the Pinatubo ash plume reaching a height of 19 km, 3
days before the climactic eruption of 15 June
Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift in North
1991
America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "Plate
hypothesis" volcanism.[1]

Intraplate volcanism has also been postulated to be caused by mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for
example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs from the core-mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the
Earth.
Volcano 229

Etymology
The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name
in turn originates from Vulcan, the name of a god of fire in Roman mythology.[2] The study of volcanoes is called
volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.

Plate tectonics

Divergent plate boundaries

At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic
plates diverge from one another. New
oceanic crust is being formed by hot molten
rock slowly cooling and solidifying. The
crust is very thin at mid-oceanic ridges due
to the pull of the tectonic plates. The release
of pressure due to the thinning of the crust
leads to adiabatic expansion, and the partial
melting of the mantle causing volcanism and Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (OSR – Oceanic Spreading Ridges)
creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent and recent sub aerial volcanoes.

plate boundaries are at the bottom of the

oceans, therefore most volcanic activity is submarine, forming new seafloor. Black smokers or deep sea vents are an
example of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are
formed, for example, Iceland.

Convergent plate boundaries

Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate
and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts,
or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench
just offshore. Water released from the subducting plate lowers the
melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma.
This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high silica content, so
often does not reach the surface and cools at depth. When it does reach Mount Rinjani eruption in 1994, in Lombok,
the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples for this kind of Indonesia

volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

"Hotspots"
"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic provinces postulated to be
formed by mantle plumes. These are postulated to comprise columns of
hot material that rise from the core-mantle boundary. They are
suggested to be hot, causing large-volume melting, and to be fixed in
space. Because the tectonic plates move across them, each volcano
becomes dormant after a while and a new volcano is then formed as the
plate shifts over the postulated plume. The Hawaiian Islands have been Lava enters the Pacific at the Big Island of
Hawaii
Volcano 230

suggested to have been formed in such a manner, as well as the Snake River Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera
being the part of the North American plate currently above the hot spot. This theory is currently under criticism,
however.[1]

Volcanic features
The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain,
spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit. This
describes just one of many types of volcano, and the features of
volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure and behavior of
volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have
rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater,
whereas others present landscape features such as massive plateaus.
Vents that issue volcanic material (lava, which is what magma is called
once it has escaped to the surface, and ash) and gases (mainly steam
Conical Mount Fuji in Japan, at sunrise from
and magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many
Lake Kawaguchi (2005)
of these vents give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of
Hawaii's Kīlauea.

Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes),

particularly on some moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune; and mud
volcanoes, which are formations often not associated with known
magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures
much lower than those of igneous volcanoes, except when a mud
volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

Fissure vents
Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear cracks through which lava Lakagigar fissure vent in Iceland, source of the
emerges. major world climate alteration of 1783–84.
Volcanic eruptions are experienced somewhere in
[3]
Iceland on an average of once every five years.
Shield volcanoes
Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are
formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great
distance from a vent, but not generally explode catastrophically. Since
low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are
more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian
volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in
Iceland, as well.

Skjaldbreiður, a shield volcano whose name

Lava domes means "broad shield"

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lavas. They
are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint Helens), but can also form
independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions,
but their lavas generally do not flow far from the originating vent.
Volcano 231

Cryptodomes
Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava forces its way up and
causes a bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an
example. Lava was under great pressure and forced a bulge in the
mountain, which was unstable and slid down the north side.

Volcanic cones (cinder cones)

January 2009 image of the rhyolitic lava dome of
Volcanic cones or cinder cones are the result from eruptions that erupt Chaitén Volcano, southern Chile during its
mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, 2008–2009 eruption

hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent.
These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a
cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters high. Most cinder cones
erupt only once. Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger
volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset
Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico, Caja
del Rio is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones.

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains Holocene cinder cone volcano on State Highway
composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata 18 near Veyo, Utah
that give rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as
composite volcanoes, created from several structures during different
kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite volcanoes are made of cinders,
ash and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, lava flows on
top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then the process begins
again. Classic examples include Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in
the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

In recorded history, explosive eruptions by stratovolcanoes have posed

the greatest hazard to civilizations, as ash is produced by an explosive
Mayon, near-perfect stratovolcano in the
eruption. No supervolcano erupted in recorded history. Shield Philippines
volcanoes have not an enormous pressure build up from the lava flow.
Fissure vents and monogenetic volcanic fields (volcanic cones) have not powerful explosive eruptions, as they are
many times under extension. Stratovolcanoes (30–35°) are steeper than shield volcanoes (generally 5–10°), their
loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[4]
Volcano 232

Supervolcanoes
A supervolcano is a large volcano that usually has a large caldera and
can potentially produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes
continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to cause severe
cooling of global temperatures for many years afterwards because of
the huge volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They are the most
dangerous type of volcano. Examples include Yellowstone Caldera in
Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both
western United States), Lake Taupo in New Zealand, Lake Toba in
Sumatra, Indonesia and Ngorogoro Crater in Tanzania, Krakatoa near
The Lake Toba volcano created a caldera 100 km
Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Supervolcanoes are hard to identify
long
centuries later, given the enormous areas they cover. Large igneous
provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast
amount of basalt lava erupted, but are non-explosive.

Submarine volcanoes
Submarine volcanoes are common features on the ocean floor. Some are active and, in shallow water, disclose their
presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the surface of the sea. Many others lie at such great depths
that the tremendous weight of the water above them prevents the explosive release of steam and gases, although they
can be detected by hydrophones and discoloration of water because of volcanic gases. Pumice rafts may also appear.
Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface. Because of the rapid cooling effect of water as
compared to air, and increased buoyancy, submarine volcanoes often form rather steep pillars over their volcanic
vents as compared to above-surface volcanoes. They may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new
islands. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes. Hydrothermal vents are common near
these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on dissolved minerals.

Subglacial volcanoes
Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made up
of flat lava which flows at the top of extensive pillow lavas and
palagonite. When the icecap melts, the lavas on the top collapse,
leaving a flat-topped mountain. These volcanoes are also called table
mountains, tuyas or (uncommonly) mobergs. Very good examples of
this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland, however, there are also
tuyas in British Columbia. The origin of the term comes from Tuya
Butte, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River
and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first Herðubreið, one of the tuyas in Iceland

such landform analyzed and so its name has entered the geological
literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to
protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near the boundary
with the Yukon Territory.
Volcano 233

Mud volcanoes
Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted
liquids and gases, although there are several processes which may
cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter
and reach 700 meters high.

Mud volcano on Taman Peninsula, Russia

Erupted material

Lava composition
Another way of classifying volcanoes is by the composition of material
erupted (lava), since this affects the shape of the volcano. Lava can be
broadly classified into 4 different compositions (Cas & Wright, 1987):
• If the erupted magma contains a high percentage (>63%) of silica,
the lava is called felsic.
• Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be highly viscous (not
Pāhoehoe Lava flow on Hawaii. The picture
very fluid) and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows.
shows overflows of a main lava channel.
Viscous lavas tend to form stratovolcanoes or lava domes.
Lassen Peak in California is an example of a volcano formed
from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.
• Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap
volatiles (gases) that are present, which cause the magma to erupt
catastrophically, eventually forming stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic
flows (ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such
volcanoes, since they are composed of molten volcanic ash too
heavy to go up into the atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's
slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions.
The Stromboli volcano off the coast of Sicily has
Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in erupted continuously for thousands of years,
pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in giving rise to the term strombolian eruption.
their path and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be
laid down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of
Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash
that is light enough to be erupted high into the Earth's atmosphere may travel many kilometres before it falls
back to ground as a tuff.

• If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition.
Volcano 234

• These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above

subduction zones (e.g. Mount Merapi in Indonesia).
• Andesitic lava is typically formed at convergent boundary
margins of tectonic plates, by several processes:
• Hydration melting of peridotite and fractional crystallization
• Melting of subducted slab containing sediments
• Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic
magmas in an intermediate reservoir prior to emplacement or
lava flow. Mafic basalt lava flows created the Deccan Traps
• If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is near Matheran, east of Mumbai, one of the largest
called mafic (because it contains higher percentages of magnesium volcanic features on Earth.

(Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are usually much less
viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on their eruption
temperature; they also tend to be hotter than felsic lavas. Mafic
lavas occur in a wide range of settings:

• At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are pulling apart,

basaltic lava erupts as pillows to fill the gap;
• Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including Mauna
Loa and Kilauea), on both oceanic and continental crust;
• As continental flood basalts.
• Some erupted magmas contain <=45% silica and produce ultramafic
lava. Ultramafic flows, also known as komatiites, are very rare;
indeed, very few have been erupted at the Earth's surface since the
Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or
were) the hottest lavas, and probably more fluid than common mafic
lavas.
Pāhoehoe lava from Kīlauea, Hawaii

Lava texture
Two types of lava are named according to the surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced Hawaiian pronunciation: [ˈʔaʔa]) and
pāhoehoe (Hawaiian pronunciation: [paːˈho.eˈho.e]), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery
surface and is the typical texture of viscous lava flows. However, even basaltic or mafic flows can be erupted as ʻaʻa
flows, particularly if the eruption rate is high and the slope is steep.
Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid
lava flows. Usually, only mafic flows will erupt as pāhoehoe, since they often erupt at higher temperatures or have
the proper chemical make-up to allow them to flow with greater fluidity.
Volcano 235

Volcanic activity

Popular classification of volcanoes

Active

A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes is by their frequency

of eruption, with those that erupt regularly called active, those that
have erupted in historical times but are now quiet called dormant, and
those that have not erupted in historical times called extinct. However,
these popular classifications—extinct in particular—are practically Active volcano Mount St. Helens shortly after the
eruption of 18 May 1980
meaningless to scientists. They use classifications which refer to a
particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and resulting
shapes, which was explained above.

There is no real consensus among volcanologists on how to define an

"active" volcano. The lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to
several million years, making such a distinction sometimes
meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or even
civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted
dozens of times in the past few thousand years but are not currently
showing signs of eruption. Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes,
they are very active. By human lifespans, however, they are not.
Damavand, the highest volcano in Asia, is a
Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt potentially active volcano with fumaroles and
if it is currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual solfatara near its summit.

earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists

consider a volcano active if it has erupted in holocene times. Historic
times is another timeframe for active.[5] But it is important to note that
the span of recorded history differs from region to region. In China and
the Mediterranean, recorded history reaches back more than 3,000
years but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, it
reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and New Zealand,
only around 200 years.[6] The Smithsonian Global Volcanism
Program's definition of active is having erupted within the last 10,000
years (the 'holocene' period).

Presently there are about 500 active volcanoes in the world – the
majority following along the Pacific 'Ring of Fire' – and around 50 of
these erupt each year.[7] The United States is home to 50 active
volcanoes.[8] There are more than 1,500 potentially active volcanoes.[9]
An estimated 500 million people live near active volcanoes.[10]

Extinct Fresco of Bacchus and Agathodaemon with

Mount Vesuvius, as seen in Pompeii's House of
Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt
the Centenary.
again, because the volcano no longer has a lava supply. Examples of
extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian – Emperor
Volcano 236

seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the

Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is
famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a
volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since
"supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes
measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an
eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered
dormant instead of extinct.
Fourpeaked volcano, Alaska, in September 2007,
after being thought extinct for over 10,000 years.
Dormant

It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant one. Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if
there are no written records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes may remain dormant for a long period of time.
For example, Yellowstone has a repose/recharge period of around 700 ka, and Toba of around 380 ka.[11] Vesuvius
was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its famous eruption of
AD 79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before its catastrophic eruption of 1991, Pinatubo
was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas. Two other examples are the
long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be extinct before activity resumed in
1995 and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before
8000 BC and had long been thought to be extinct.

Notable volcanoes
The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:

Koryaksky volcano towering over

Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on Kamchatka
Peninsula, Far Eastern Russia.

Mount Teide on the island of Tenerife (Spain).

Volcano 237

• Avachinsky-Koryaksky, Kamchatka, Russia • Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan

• Nevado de Colima, Jalisco and Colima, Mexico • Santa Maria/Santiaguito, Guatemala
• Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy • Santorini, Cyclades, Greece
• Galeras, Nariño, Colombia • Taal Volcano, Luzon, Philippines
• Mauna Loa, Hawaii, USA • Teide, Canary Islands, Spain
• Mount Merapi, Central Java, Indonesia • Ulawun, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
• Mount Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo • Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan
• Mount Rainier, Washington, USA • Vesuvius, Naples, Italy

Effects of volcanoes
There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated
activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive
eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of
low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and
carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to
humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots and geysers
often accompany volcanic activity.

The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably

from one volcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the most
Volcanic "injection"
abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor and trace
gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal
chlorides.

Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon

Solar radiation reduction from volcanic eruptions
Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes.
dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl),
hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the
stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10–20 mi) above the
Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections
come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid (H2SO4),
which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate
aerosols. The aerosols increase the Earth's albedo—its reflection of
radiation from the Sun back into space – and thus cool the Earth's
lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat
radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several
eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average
temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit
scale) for periods of one to three years — sulfur dioxide from the
eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601
- 1603.[12]

One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra
island in Indonesia.[13]
Volcano 238

According to the Toba catastrophe theory to which some

anthropologists and archeologists subscribe, it had global
consequences,[14] killing most humans then alive and creating a
population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all
humans today.[15] The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora created global
climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a
Summer" because of the effect on North American and European
weather.[16] Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the
Northern Hemisphere, resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th
century.[17] The freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread
famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic
eruption.[18] Average concentration of sulfur dioxide over the
Sierra Negra Volcano (Galapagos Islands) from
It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the October 23 – November 1, 2005
End-Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, Late Devonian mass extinctions,
and possibly others. The massive eruptive event which formed the Siberian Traps, one of the largest known volcanic
events of the last 500 million years of Earth's geological history, continued for a million years and is considered to be
the likely cause of the "Great Dying" about 250 million years ago,[19] which is estimated to have killed 90% of
species existing at the time.[20]

The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and nitrogen
chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from
chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the aerosols grow
and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further
modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved
in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly
from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic
eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical
cycles.
Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain.
Volcanic activity releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to
255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year.[21] Volcanic
eruptions may inject aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large
injections may cause visual effects such as unusually colorful sunsets
and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also
provide the benefit of adding nutrients to soil through the weathering
process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist the growth of plants
Rainbow and volcanic ash with sulfur dioxide and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as
emissions from Halema`uma`u vent.
the magma cools and solidifies upon contact with the water.

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the particles can be
melted by the high operating temperature. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the eruption of Galunggung in
Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised awareness of this phenomenon. Nine
Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by the International Civil Aviation Organization to monitor ash
clouds and advise pilots accordingly. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused major disruptions to air travel in
Europe.
Volcano 239

Volcanoes on other planetary bodies

The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity,
although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.[22]
However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as maria (the darker
patches seen on the moon), rilles and domes.
The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism
played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major
global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago,[23] from what scientists can
tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are widespread
and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the
planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to
ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not
Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan
probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's
highest volcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the
northern flank.

There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield
volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons, Ascraeus
Olympus Mons (Latin, "Mount
Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These volcanoes
Olympus") is the tallest known
have been extinct for many millions of years,[24] but the European Mars Express mountain in our solar system, located
spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars on the planet Mars.
in the recent past as well.[24]

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar

system because of tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with
volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a
result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known
anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K
(1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions
in the solar system occurred on Io.[25] Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's
Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except
that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes
into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as cryovolcanism,
and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of
The Tvashtar volcano erupts a plume 330 km
the solar system.
(205 mi) above the surface of Jupiter's moon Io.
In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice
volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of Neptune, and in 2005 the
Cassini-Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.[26]
The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen, dust, or methane compounds. Cassini-Huygens also found
evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant
source of the methane found in its atmosphere.[27] It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the
Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, studied that tidal heating from the
host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to Io.[28]
Volcano 240

Traditional beliefs about volcanoes

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes, such as the actions of gods or demigods.
To the ancient Greeks, volcanoes' capricious power could only be explained as acts of the gods, while
16th/17th-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler believed they were ducts for the Earth's tears.[29] One early
idea counter to this was proposed by Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of Mount
Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire
connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal.
Various explanations were proposed for volcano behavior before the modern understanding of the Earth's mantle
structure as a semisolid material was developed. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive
materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted. Volcanic action was often attributed
to chemical reactions and a thin layer of molten rock near the surface.

Panoramas

Mount Bromo, East Java, Indonesia.

Crater of Mount Tangkuban Perahu, West Java, Indonesia.

Irazú Volcano, Costa Rica.

Volcano 241

Black Rock Volcano an extinct cinder cone near Fillmore, Utah.

Taal Volcano, Philippines.

Crater of Sierra Negra volcano, Isabela island, Galapagos, Ecuador.

Vulcano island with the north coast of Sicily in the background.

Volcano 242

Remote Binubulauan in Kalinga province, central northern Luzon, Philippines, April 2009

References
[1] Foulger, G.R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy (http:/ / www. wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/
productCd-1405161485. html). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6148-0. .
[2] Douglas Harper (November 2001). "Volcano" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=volcano). Online Etymology Dictionary. .
Retrieved 2009-06-11.
[3] " Iceland (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4-puvJH_lykC& pg=PA100& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Jane Simmonds
(1999). Langenscheidt. p.100. ISBN 0887291767
[4] Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010). Volcanoes: Global Perspectives (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=eJopFDVRgYMC&
pg=PA115& dq). p. 552. ISBN 978-1-4051-6250-0. .
[5] " Volcanoes (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ volc/ text. html)". U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
[6] " Mountains of fire: the nature of volcanoes (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-P83AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA7& dq& hl=en#v=onepage&
q=& f=false)". Robert Wayne Decker, Barbara Decker (1991). p.7. ISBN 0521312906
[7] " Volcanoes (http:/ / www. esa. int/ SPECIALS/ Space_for_our_climate/ SEM3XU2VQUD_0. html)". European Space Agency.
[8] " Volcano Environments (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ volc/ environments. html)". U.S. Geological Survey.
[9] " Sensing Remote Volcanoes (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Features/ monvoc/ )". NASA Earth Observatory.
[10] " Volcanoes (http:/ / www. alertnet. org/ db/ crisisprofiles/ VOLCANO. htm)". Reuters. December 12, 2009.
[11] Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991). "Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera
(Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" (http:/ / www. geo. mtu. edu/ ~raman/ papers/ ChesnerGeology. pdf). Geology 19: 200–203.
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2. . Retrieved 2010-01-20.
[12] University of California – Davis (2008, April 25). "Volcanic Eruption Of 1600 Caused Global Disruption" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/
releases/ 2008/ 04/ 080423135236. htm). ScienceDaily. .
[13] " Supervolcano Eruption – In Sumatra – Deforested India 73,000 Years Ago (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 11/
091123142739. htm)". ScienceDaily. November 24, 2009.
[14] " The new batch – 150,000 years ago (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ sn/ prehistoric_life/ human/ human_evolution/ new_batch1. shtml)". BBC –
Science & Nature – The evolution of man.
[15] "When humans faced extinction" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 2975862. stm). BBC. 2003-06-09. . Retrieved
2007-01-05.
[16] " Volcanoes in human history: the far-reaching effects of major eruptions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ipNcKc0Mv5IC&
pg=PA155& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Donald Theodore Sanders (2002). Princeton University Press.
p.155. ISBN 0691050813
[17] Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano
(Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra.
[18] " Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s8857. html)". Princeton University Press.
[19] " Yellowstone's Super Sister (http:/ / dsc. discovery. com/ convergence/ supervolcano/ others/ others_07. html)". Discovery Channel.
[20] Benton M J (2005). When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500285732.
[21] "Volcanic Gases and Their Effects" (http:/ / volcanoes. usgs. gov/ Hazards/ What/ VolGas/ volgas. html). U.S. Geological Survey. .
Retrieved 2007-06-16.
[22] M. A. Wieczorek, B. L. Jolliff, A. Khan, M. E. Pritchard, B. P. Weiss, J. G. Williams, L. L. Hood, K. Righter, C. R. Neal, C. K. Shearer, I.
S. McCallum, S. Tompkins, B. R. Hawke, C. Peterson, J, J. Gillis, B. Bussey (2006). "The Constitution and Structure of the Lunar Interior".
Volcano 243

Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 60 (1): 221–364. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3.

[23] D.L. Bindschadler (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics" (http:/ / www. agu. org/ journals/ rg/ rg9504S/
95RG00281/ index. html). American Geophysical Union. . Retrieved 2006-09-04.
[24] "Glacial, volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images" (http:/ / www. esa. int/ esaMI/ Mars_Express/ SEMLF6D3M5E_0. html).
European Space Agency. 2005-02-25. . Retrieved 2006-08-17.
[25] Exceptionally Bright Eruption on lo Rivals Largest in Solar System, Nov. 13, 2002 (http:/ / www2. keck. hawaii. edu/ news/ archive/
eruption/ )
[26] "Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus'" (http:/ / www. pparc. ac. uk/ Nw/ enceladus. asp). Pparc.ac.uk. . Retrieved
2010-10-24.
[27] "Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn7489). Newscientist.com. June 8, 2005. .
Retrieved 2010-10-24.
[28] Jaggard, Victoria (2010-02-05). ""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/
2010/ 02/ 100205-new-type-planet-corot-7b-io/ ). National Geographic web site daily news (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ ).
National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2010-03-11.
[29] Micheal Williams (11-2007). "Hearts of fire". Morning Calm (Korean Air Lines Co., Ltd.) (11-2007): 6.

Further reading
• Cas, R.A.F. and J.V. Wright, 1987. Volcanic Successions. Unwin Hyman Inc. 528p. ISBN 0-04-552022-4
• Macdonald, Gordon and Agatin T. Abbott. (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
441 p.
• Marti, Joan and Ernst, Gerald. (2005). Volcanoes and the Environment. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-59254-2.
• Ollier, Cliff. (1988). Volcanoes. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-631-15664-X (hardback), ISBN
0-631-15977-0 (paperback).
• Sigurðsson, Haraldur, ed. (1999) Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X. This is a
reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

External links
• Volcanoes (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Volcanoes/) at the Open Directory
Project
• Volcano Eruptions, Ancient & Modern (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/22994/
volcano-eruptions-ancient--modern) slideshow by Life magazine
• Volcano (http://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtm), U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency
FEMA
• Volcano World (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/)
Caldera 244

Caldera
A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land
following a volcanic eruption, such as the one at Yellowstone National Park in the US.
They are sometimes confused with volcanic craters. The word comes from Spanish
caldera, and this from Latin CALDARIA, meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the
English term cauldron is also used.
In 1815, the German geologist Leopold von Buch visited the Las Cañadas caldera of
Teide on Tenerife, and the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma, both in the Canary
Islands. When he published his memoirs he introduced the term caldera into the
geological vocabulary.

Example of the formation of a

caldera, the pictures show
Mount Mazama's eruption
timeline

Caldera formation
Animation of analogue experiment showing
origin of volcanic caldera in box filled with flour
thousands of square kilometers.
A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath
the volcano, usually as the result of a large volcanic eruption. If
enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the
weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the
ring fault, develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures
serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring
dykes. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As
the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring
fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a
single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a
series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds or
Caldera 245

Explosive calderas
If the magma is rich in silica, the caldera is often filled in with
ignimbrite, tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks. Silica-rich magma
does have a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like
basalt. As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure
within the magma. When the magma approaches the surface of the
Earth, the rapid off-loading of overlying material causes the trapped
gases to decompress rapidly, thus triggering explosive destruction of
the magma and spreading volcanic ash over wide areas. The lava of Landsat image of Lake Toba, on the island of
explosive calderas is called A'a. Further lava flows may be erupted. Sumatra, Indonesia. A resurgent dome formed the
island of Samosir. (100 kilometres long and 30
If volcanic activity continues, the centre of the caldera may be uplifted kilometres wide, caldera of the world's largest
in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at Cerro Galán, Lake class)

Toba, Yellowstone, and so on., by subsequent intrusion of magma. A

silicic or rhyolitic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event.
Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in
significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even
greater effects.

When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 640,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material (as
measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of
debris. By comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km3 (DRE) of ejecta. The
ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

Toba
About 75,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 km3 DRE of ejecta, the largest known
eruption within the Quaternary Period (last 1.8 million years) and probably the largest explosive eruption within the
last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose[1] proposed that a volcanic winter induced
by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000 - 20,000 individuals, resulting in a population
bottleneck (see Toba catastrophe theory). More recently several geneticists, including Lynn Jorde and Henry
Harpending have proposed that the human race was reduced to approximately five to ten thousand people.[2]
Whichever figure is right, the fact remains that the human race seemingly came close to extinction about 75,000
years ago.
Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, especially La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of
Colorado, where the 5,000 km3 Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a major single eruption about 27.8 million years
ago.
At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters
may be found in places such as the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (erupted during the Tertiary Period) or the Saint
Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic).
Caldera 246

Non-explosive calderas
Some volcanoes, such as shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa
(respectively the most active and the largest on Earth, both on the
island of Hawaii), form calderas in a different fashion. The magma
feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor. As a result, the
magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano,
and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by
explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on
calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For Fernandina Island in the Galapagos archipelago.

instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island underwent a collapse in

1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters.[3] Kilauea Caldera has an inner crater known as
Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake.

It is very frequent for a caldera to become emptied by drainage of melted lava through a breach on the caldera's rim.
The Caldera de Taburiente and the Caldereta, both in the island of La Palma (Canary Islands), are calderas emptied
by a river of lava some 500,000 years ago.

Extraterrestrial calderas
Since the early 1960s it has been known that volcanism exists on other planets and moons. Through the use of
manned and unmanned spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon and Io, a satellite of
Jupiter. None of these orbs has plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity
(the other 40% attributed to hot spot volcanism) (Wilson 2008). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary
bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km. The average caldera
diameter of Io is close to 40 km, and the mode is 6 km. Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera on Io with a
diameter of 290 km. The average caldera diameter of Mars is 48 km, smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the
smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6 to 80 km as a maximum (Gottsmann 2008).

The Moon
The Moon has an outer shell of low density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due
to a rapid creation. The craters of the moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have
been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but instead were formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in
the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle
was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place
generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the
base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally
are known to form (Wilson 2008).
Caldera 247

Mars
The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated on two major provinces, Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains
a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot
spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas (Wilson 2008).

Venus
Because there are no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is only lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes
enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes
that range in size from 150–400 km in diameter and 2–4 km high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have
summit calderas averaging 60 km across (Wilson 2008).

Io
Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and the neighboring large moons Europa
and Ganymede. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active and contains many
calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across (Wilson 2008).

Mineralization
Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. One of the world's best preserved mineralized calderas is the
Neoarchean Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northeastern Ontario, Canada.[4]

List of volcanic calderas

See also Category:Volcanic calderas
• Africa
• Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania, Africa)
• Menengai Crater (Kenya, Africa)
• Mount Elgon (Uganda/Kenya)
• Mount Fogo, Cape Verde
• Erta Ale, Ethiopia
• See Europe for calderas in the Canary Islands
• Asia
• East Asia
• Dakantou Candera (大墈头), Shanhuyan Village, Taozhu
Town, Linhai, Zhejiang, China
• Ma'anshan Candera (马鞍山), Shishan Town (石山镇),
Xiuying, Hainan, China
• Yiyang Candera (宜洋), Yiyang, Pingnan County, Fujian
(屏南县双溪镇宜洋村), China
• Aira Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
• Aso (Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan) Mt.Aso's caldera measures 25 km north-south and
• Kikai Caldera (Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan) 18 km east-west
• Towada (Aomori Prefecture, Japan)
• Tazawa (Akita Prefecture, Japan)
• Ashi (Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan)
• Mount Halla (Jeju-do, South Korea)
Caldera 248

• SEA
• Mount Pinatubo (Luzon, Philippines)
• Taal Volcano (Luzon, Philippines)
• Laguna de Bay (Luzon, Philippines)
• Batur (Bali, Indonesia)
• Krakatoa (Sunda Strait, Indonesia)
• Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia)
Mt.Pinatubo, Philippines

• Mount Tambora (Sumbawa, Indonesia)

• Russia
• Tao-Rusyr Caldera (Onekotan, Russia)
• Americas
• USA
• Mount Aniakchak (Aniakchak National Monument and
Preserve), (Alaska, US)
• Crater Lake on Mount Mazama (Crater Lake National Park,
Oregon, US)
• Mount Katmai (Alaska, US)
• La Garita Caldera (Colorado, US)
• Long Valley (California, US)
• Henry's Fork Caldera (Idaho, US)
Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC
• Island Park Caldera (Idaho, Wyoming, US)
• Newberry Volcano (Oregon, US)
• Mount Okmok (Alaska, US)
• Valles Caldera (New Mexico, US)
• Yellowstone Caldera (Wyoming, US)
• Canada
• Silverthrone Caldera (British Columbia, Canada)
• Mount Edziza (British Columbia, Canada)
• Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex (British Columbia/Yukon,
Canada) Aniakchak-caldera, Alaska
• Mount Pleasant Caldera (New Brunswick, Canada)
• Sturgeon Lake Caldera (Ontario, Canada)
• Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex (Yukon, Canada)
• Blake River Megacaldera Complex (Quebec/Ontario, Canada)
• New Senator Caldera (Quebec, Canada)
• Misema Caldera (Ontario/Quebec, Canada)
• Noranda Caldera (Quebec, Canada)
• Chile
• Chaitén, Chile Mount Pleasant Caldera, southwestern New
• Cordillera Nevada Caldera Brunswick, Canada
• Laguna del Maule, Chile
• Sollipulli, Chile
Caldera 249

• Ecuador
• Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve
• Cuicocha
• El Salvador
• Lake Ilopango
• Lake Coatepeque
• Other
• Masaya, Nicaragua
• Lake Atitlan, Guatemala
• Fernandina Island, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
• Galán, Argentina
• Europe
• Santorini (Greece)
• Nisyros (Greece)
• Askja (Iceland)
• Grímsvötn (Iceland)
• Katla (Iceland)
• Krafla (Iceland)
• Campi Flegrei (Italy)
• Lake Bracciano (Italy)
• Las Cañadas on Teide (Spain)
• Ardnamurchan (Scotland)
• Oceania
• Lake Rotorua (New Zealand)
• Lake Taupo (New Zealand)
• Maroa (New Zealand)
• Okataina (New Zealand)
• Reparoa (New Zealand)
• Kilauea (Hawaii, US)
• Moku‘āweoweo Caldera on Mauna Loa (Hawaii, US)
• Rano Kau (Easter Island, Chile)
• Tweed Volcano (New South Wales, Queensland), (Australia)
Satellite photo of Lake Taupo
• Antarctica
• Deception Island
• Indian Ocean
• Cirque de Mafate, Cirque de Salazie, Enclos Fouqué, and Cirque de Cilaos on Réunion
• Mars
• Olympus Mons Caldera
• Venus
• Maat Mons Caldera
Caldera 250

Eroded calderas
• Americas
• Mount Tehama (California, US)
• Europe
• Caldera de Taburiente (Spain)
• Oceania
• Mount Warning (Australia)

Notes
[1] Stanley Ambrose page at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (http:/ / www. anthro. illinois. edu/ people/ ambrose)
[2] Supervolcanoes (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ horizon/ 1999/ supervolcanoes_script. shtml), BBC2, 3 February 2000
[3] "Fernandina: Photo" (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1503-01=& volpage=photos& photo=062078). Global
Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. .
[4] UMD: Precambrian Research Center (http:/ / www. d. umn. edu/ prc/ workshops/ S08workshop. html)

References
• Clough, C. T; Maufe, H. B. & Bailey, E. B; 1909. "The cauldron subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated
Igneous Phenomena". Quarterly Journal of the Geological. Society. 65, 611-678.
• Gudmundsson, A (2008). Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses, and Rock Behavior
During Collapse Caldera Formation. In Gottsmann J. & Marti, J (Ed. 10) Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modeling,
and Response (314-346) Elsener, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
• Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland. ISBN. 0852725252. Pub. British
Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map.
• Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN
0-12-643140-X
• Williams, H; 1941. Calderas and their origin. California University Publ. Geol. Sci. 25, 239-346.
• Wilson, E & Wilson, L (2008). Volcanism on Other Planets. In Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology (190-212)
Malden, MA

External links
• USGS page on calderas (http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/caldera.php)
• List of Caldera Volcanoes (http://volcanodb.com/search.php?type=Caldera)
• Collection of references on collapse calderas (http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~gljhg/Workgroup/Workgroup_files/
Edited-list-publications_calderas-71206.pdf) (43 pages)
• The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano - Australia (http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.htm)
• Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan
volcanic field, Colorado (http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web CEV folder/lagarita.html)
• Supervolcanoes (http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes_script.shtml)
Crater Lake 251

Crater Lake
Crater Lake

Aerial view; note Wizard Island against the western rim

Bathymetric survey

Location Klamath County, Oregon

Coordinates 42°56′N 122°06′W

Lake type crater lake

Primary inflows precipitation and snowmelt only

Primary outflows evaporation and subsurface seepage only

Catchment area 23.3 sq mi (60 km )

2

Basin countries United States

Max. length 6 mi (9.7 km)

Max. width 5 mi (8.0 km)

Surface area 20.6 sq mi (53 km2)

Average depth 1148 ft (350 m)

Max. depth 1949 ft (594 m)

Water volume 4.49 cu mi (18.7 km3)

Residence time 157 years

Shore length1 21.8 mi (35.1 km)

Surface elevation 6178 ft (1883 m)

Islands Wizard Island

Phantom Ship

1
Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

Crater Lake is a caldera lake located in the south-central region of the U.S. state of Oregon. It is the main feature of
Crater Lake National Park and famous for its deep blue color and water clarity. The lake partly fills a nearly 2,148
Crater Lake 252

foot (655 m) deep caldera[1] that was formed around 7,700 (± 150) years ago[2] by the collapse of the volcano Mount
Mazama.
On June 12, 1853, John Wesley Hillman was reportedly the first person of European descent to see what he named
"Deep Blue Lake" in Oregon. The lake was renamed at least three times, as Blue Lake, Lake Majesty, and finally
Crater Lake.[3] [4]
Crater Lake is known for the "Old Man of the Lake", a full-sized tree which is now a stump that has been bobbing
vertically in the lake for more than a century.[5] Due to the cold water, the tree has been rather well preserved.
While having no indigenous fish population, the lake was stocked from 1888 to 1941 with a variety of fish. Several
species have formed self sustaining populations.[6] Since 2002, one of the state's regular-issue license plate designs
has featured Crater Lake.[7] The commemorative Oregon State Quarter, which was released by the United States
Mint in 2005, features an image of Crater Lake on its reverse.[8]

Dimensions and depth

Crater Lake is located in Klamath County, approximately 60 miles (97 km) northwest of the county seat of Klamath
Falls, and about 80 miles (130 km) northeast of the city of Medford.[9]
The lake is 5 by 6 miles (8 by 10 km) across with an average depth of 1148 feet (350 m). Its maximum depth has
been measured at 1949 feet (594 m),[1] [10] which fluctuates slightly as the weather changes.[1] This makes Crater
Lake the deepest lake that is completely in the United States, the second deepest lake in North America, and the
ninth deepest lake in the world (Lake Baikal is the deepest). Crater Lake is often cited as the seventh deepest lake in
the world, but this ranking excludes Lake Vostok, which is situated under nearly 13000 feet (4000 m) of Antarctic
ice, and the recent soundings of San Martín Lake, which is located on the border of Chile and Argentina.
However, on the basis of comparing average depths among the world's deepest lakes, Crater Lake becomes the
deepest lake in the Western Hemisphere and the third deepest in the world.[11] Comparing average depths among the
world's lakes whose basins are entirely above sea level, Crater Lake is the deepest.
The caldera rim of Crater Lake ranges in elevation from 7000 to 8000 feet (2100 to 2400 m).

Geology
Mount Mazama, part of the Cascade Range volcanic arc, was built up
mostly of andesite, dacite, and rhyodacite over a period of at least
400,000 years. The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption
that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama around 5700 BC: about
50 cubic kilometers (12 cubic miles) of rhyodacite was erupted in this
event. Since that time, all eruptions on Mazama have been confined to
the caldera.

Lava eruptions later created a central platform, Wizard Island, Merriam

Cone, and other, smaller volcanic features, including a rhyodacite
dome that was eventually created atop the central platform. Sediments
and landslide debris also covered the caldera floor.[12]
Eventually, the caldera cooled, allowing rain and snow to accumulate
and eventually form a lake. Landslides from the caldera rim thereafter Geologic map of the lake floor
formed debris fans and turbidite sediments on the lake bed. Fumaroles
and hot springs remained common and active during this period. Also after some time, the slopes of the lake's
caldera rim more or less stabilized, streams restored a radial drainage pattern on the mountain, and dense forests
began to revegetate the barren landscape. It is estimated that about 720 years was required to fill the lake to its
Crater Lake 253

present depth of 594 m. Much of this occurred during a period when the prevailing climate was less moist than at
present.[13]
Some hydrothermal activity remains along the lake floor, suggesting that at some time in the future Mazama may
erupt once again.[14]

Water quality
Due to several unique factors, most prominently that it has no inlets or
tributaries, the waters of Crater Lake are some of the purest in terms of
the absence of pollutants in North America.
Secchi disk clarity readings have consistently been in the
high-20 meter to mid-30 meter (80–115 ft) range, which is very clear
for any natural body of water. In 1997, scientists recorded a record
clarity of 43.3 meters (142 ft).
The lake has relatively high levels of dissolved salts, total alkalinity, A view of the clear blue water of Crater Lake
and conductivity. The average pH has generally ranged between 7 and
8.[15]

Sacred significance
The Klamath tribe of Native Americans, who may have witnessed the collapse of Mount Mazama and the formation
of Crater Lake, have long regarded the lake as a sacred site. Their legends tell of a battle between the sky god Skell
and Llao, the god of the underworld. Mount Mazama was destroyed in the battle, creating Crater Lake. The Klamath
people used Crater Lake in vision quests, which often involved climbing the caldera walls and other dangerous tasks.
Those who were successful in such quests were often regarded as having more spiritual powers. The tribe still holds
Crater Lake in high regard as a spiritual site.[16] [17]

Panoramic view of Crater Lake, with a portion of the original mountain's surface profile seen at left

Notes
[1] "Facts about Crater Lake" (http:/ / oregonexplorer. info/ craterlake/ facts. html). Oregon Explorer. Oregon State University. . Retrieved
2009-02-05.
[2] "Crater Lake" (http:/ / www. volcano. si. edu/ world/ volcano. cfm?vnum=1202-16-). Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution. .
Retrieved 2008-12-18.
[3] Tilden, Freeman (1968). The National Parks. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
[4] Runkel, H.J., "Crater Lake Discovery Centennial," Nature Notes from Crater Lake National Park (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ crla/ notes/
vol19b. htm), Vol. XIX (1953).
[5] Kartchnerand, W.E. & Doerr, J.E., Jr., "Wind Currents In Crater Lake As Revealed By The Old Man Of The Lake," Nature Notes from
Crater Lake National Park (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ crla/ notes/ vol11-3c. htm), Vol. XI, No. 3 (September 1938).
[6] "The Fish of Crater Lake" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ crla/ fish. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-02-23.
[7] Goetze, Janet (August 26, 2002). "Crater Lake plates aglow with color". The Oregonian, p. B4.
Crater Lake 254

[8] "The Oregon Quarter: The United States Mint" (http:/ / www. usmint. gov/ historianscorner/ ?action=coinDetail& id=29113). U.S.
Department of the Treasury. . Retrieved 2007-06-29.
[9] U.S. National Park Service. "Crater Lake National Park – Directions" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ crla/ planyourvisit/ directions. htm). .
Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[10] Gibbons, Helen (September, 2000). "CMG Maps Bottom of Crater Lake, Oregon" (http:/ / soundwaves. usgs. gov/ 2000/ 09/ fieldwork.
html). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[11] Juillerat, Lee. " Into the Deep: Crater Lake's ranking as one of the world's deepest lakes varies by how list is determined (http:/ / www.
craterlakeinstitute. com/ crater-lake-news/ owen-crater-lake-depth. htm)", Klamath Falls Herald and News, November 29, 2007. Retrieved on
December 20, 2007.
[12] Charles R. Bacon, James V. Gardner, Larry A. Mayer, Mark W. Buktenica, Peter Dartnell, David W. Ramsey, Joel E. Robinson (2002)
Morphology, volcanism, and mass wasting in Crater Lake, Oregon, Geological Society of America Bulletin v. 114, p. 675-692.
[13] Manuel Nathenson, Charles R. Bacon, and David w. Ramsey,(2007) Subaqueous geology and a filling model for Crater Lake, Oregon,
Hydrobiologia v. 574, p. 13-27.
[14] "Geologic History of Crater Lake" (http:/ / www. oregonexplorer. info/ craterlake/ geology. html). Oregon Explorer. Oregon State
University. . Retrieved 2009-02-05.
[15] "Facts and Figures about Crater Lake" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ crla/ brochures/ facts. htm). U.S. National Park Service. . Retrieved
2007-06-24.
[16] "Park History" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ crla/ crlacr. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-06-24.
[17] "Crater Lake as Sacred Site" (http:/ / www. sacred-destinations. com/ usa/ crater-lake. htm). Sacred Destinations. . Retrieved 2007-06-16.

References
• Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes, Stephen L. Harris, (Mountain Press
Publishing Company, Missoula; 1988) ISBN 0-87842-220-X
• Geology of National Parks: Fifth Edition, Ann G. Harris, Esther Tuttle, Sherwood D., Tuttle (Iowa, Kendall/Hunt
Publishing; 1997) ISBN 0-7872-5353-7
• Eruptive history and geochronology of Mount Mazama and the Crater Lake region, Oregon, Charles R. Bacon
and Marvin A. Lanphere, Geological Society of American Bulletin v. 118, p. 1331–1359 (2006) DOI:
10.1130/B25906.1

External links
• National Park Service: Crater Lake (http://www.nps.gov/crla)
• Crater Lake Data Clearinghouse (http://craterlake.wr.usgs.gov/) of the United States Geological Survey
• Crater Lake Digital Research Collection. [[Oregon Institute of Technology (http://craterlakelib.oit.edu)]].
Retrieved 2009-11-12.
Geyser 255

Geyser
A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent
discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied
by a vapour phase (steam). The word geyser comes
from Geysir, the name of an erupting spring at
Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, in turn, comes from
the Icelandic verb geysa, "to gush", the verb itself from
Old Norse.

The formation of geysers is due to particular

hydrogeological conditions, which exist in only a few
places on Earth, so they are a fairly rare phenomenon.
Generally all geyser field sites are located near active Strokkur geyser, Iceland
volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the
proximity of magma. Generally, surface water works
its way down to an average depth of around
2000 metres (6600 ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The
resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the
geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the
geyser's surface vent (a hydrothermal explosion).

About a thousand known geysers exist worldwide,

roughly half of which are in Yellowstone National
Park, Wyoming, United States. A geyser's eruptive
activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral
deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of
functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake
influences, and human intervention.[1]

Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as geysers, have Steam phase eruption of Castle Geyser demonstrates primary and
secondary rainbows and Alexander's band in Yellowstone National
been observed on several of the moons of the outer
Park
solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these
eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made
more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried
aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed
near the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus, while
nitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune's
moon Triton. There are also signs of carbon dioxide
eruptions from the southern polar ice cap of Mars. In
the latter two cases, instead of being driven by
geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar
heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect.
Geyser 256

Form and function

Geysers are temporary geological features. The life
span of a geyser is, at the most, only a few thousand
years. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic
areas.[2] As the water boils, the resulting pressure
forces a superheated column of steam and water to the
surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The
formation of geysers specifically requires the
combination of three geologic conditions that are
usually found in volcanic terrain.[2]

Intense heat
The heat needed for geyser formation comes Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park

from magma that needs to be near the surface of

the earth. The fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found near the earth's surface is the
reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where the
water is heated makes the boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures.
Water
The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the
earth's crust.
A plumbing system
In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system is required. This includes a reservoir to hold
the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.[2] The plumbing system is made
up of a system of fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes cavities. Constrictions in the system are
essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption.

Eruptions
Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground
until it meets rock heated by magma. The geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by
convection through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean
structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground
reservoirs of water.[3]

1. Steam rises from heated water 2. Pulses of water swell upward 3. Surface is broken 4. Ejected water spouts upward and falls back

As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel,
convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter
water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i.e.
to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-pressure boiling point.[3]
Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to
the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the
Geyser 257

weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure, the superheated
water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot
water then sprays out of the geyser vent.[2]
The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite. Geyserite—mostly silicon dioxide (SiO2), is
dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The
deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried
all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields.[3]
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated
groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and
time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds
every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours.[3]

General categorization
There are two types of geysers: fountain geysers which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense,
even violent, bursts; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as
geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Old Faithful, perhaps the
best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. Grand Geyser, the tallest
predictable geyser on earth, (although Geysir in Iceland is taller, it is not predictable), also at Yellowstone National
Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.[4]

1. Fountain geyser (erupting from the 2. Old Faithful geyser (cone geyser having mound of siliceous sinter) in Yellowstone National Park
pool) erupts approximately every 91 minutes

The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many volcanic
areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few with geysers. This is because in most
places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will
erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.
Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral
deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over
time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to
persist; as mentioned in the previous section.
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can "die". Many geysers have been destroyed by
people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power
plants. The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods,
eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactants to the
water.
Geyser 258

Biology of geysers
The specific colours of geysers derive from
the fact that despite the apparently harsh
conditions, life is often found in them (and
also in other hot habitats) in the form of
thermophilic prokaryotes. No known
eukaryote can survive over 60 °C
(140 °F).[5]

In the 1960s, when the research of biology

of geysers first appeared, scientists were
generally convinced that no life can survive
above around 73 °C maximum
(163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of
Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring,
cyanobacteria, as the structure of key
Yellowstone National Park
cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal
temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C average (131 °F).[5]

However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some
bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are known.[6]
Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C (122 to 158 °F), whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at
temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C (176 to 230 °F). As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even
at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and
biotechnology,[7] for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes
lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). The fact that such
bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies, both inside and outside of solar
system. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus.[8]

Major geyser fields and their distribution

Geysers are quite rare, requiring a
combination of water, heat, and fortuitous
plumbing. The combination exists in few
places on Earth.[9] [10]

Yellowstone National Park, U.S.

Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale,
containing thousands of hot springs, and
approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is
home to half of the world's total number of Distribution of major geysers in the world.
geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is
located mostly in Wyoming, USA, with small portions in Montana and Idaho.[11] Yellowstone includes the world's
tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin), as well as the renowned Old Faithful Geyser,
Beehive Geyser, Giantess Geyser, Lion Geyser, Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, Castle Geyser, Sawmill Geyser,
Grand Geyser, Oblong Geyser, Giant Geyser, Daisy Geyser, Grotto Geyser, Fan & Mortar Geysers, & Riverside
Geyser, all in the Upper Geyser Basin which alone contains nearly 180 geysers.[10]
Geyser 259

Valley of Geysers, Russia

The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geiserov" in Russian) located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the only
geyser field in Eurasia and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and
explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water
springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to vigorous volcanic activity. The peculiar way of eruptions
are an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser
cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.[10] On June 3, 2007 a massive mudflow influenced two
thirds of the valley.[12] It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.[13] Few days later,
waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of
the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active.[14]

El Tatio, Chile
The name "El Tatio" roughly translates as "the grandfather". El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes
surrounded by many active Volcanoes in Chile, South America at around 4200 metres (13800 ft) above mean sea
level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern
Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the
world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, tallest being only 6 metres
(20 ft) high, but with steam columns that can be over 20 metres (66 ft) high. The average geyser eruption height at El
Tatio is about 750 millimetres (30 in).[10] [15]

Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand

The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island. It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 km
wide (31 mi) and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while
the submarine Whakatane volcano (85 km/53 mi beyond White Island) is considered its northeastern limit.[16] Many
geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen
geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed
in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local
water table. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 metres (520 ft) and some superbursts are known to
have reached 500 metres (1600 ft).[10] Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be
as little as 5 kilometres (3 mi) thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma 50 km wide (31 mi) and 160 km long
(99 mi).[17]

Iceland
Iceland is home to some of the greatest geysers in the
world. Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the
island. Many of the geysers are located in Haukadalur.
Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other
areas on the island. The Great Geysir, which first erupted
in the 14th century, gave rise to the word geyser. By 1896,
Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year
caused eruptions to begin again, occurring several times a
day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout
much of the 20th century, eruptions, usually following
earthquakes, did happen from time to time. Some Eruption of White Dome Geyser in Yellowstone
Geyser 260

man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions.
Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The
nearby Strokkur geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some 30 metres (98 ft).[10] [18]

Extinct/Dormant geyser fields

There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they were destroyed by
the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and
lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained.[10]
Many of New Zealand’s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers
have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua.[19]
Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The Wairakei
field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupo Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was
deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886.

Misnamed geysers
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature
compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not
only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them
erupt. Such geysers are not true geysers but are yet referred as such as
they all emit water under pressure.
Artificial geysers
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have
been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to
erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, but are
tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called artificial
geysers, technically known as erupting geothermal wells, are not true
geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is an
example. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late
19th century. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book A Guide to
Geyser Gazing (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search
Geyser Andernach (Germany), the world's
for water. He had actually "simply opened up a dead geyser".[20] highest cold-water geyser

Cold-water geysers
Cold-water geysers' eruption is similar to that of their hot-water counterparts, except that CO2 bubbles drive the
eruption instead of steam. In cold-water geysers, CO2-laden water lies in a confined aquifer, in which water and CO2
are trapped by less permeable overlying strata. This water and CO2 can escape this strata only in weak regions like
faults, joints, or drilled wells. A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO2 to reach the
surface. The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on various factors such as plumbing depth, CO2
concentrations, aquifer yield etc. The column of water exerts enough pressure on the gaseous CO2 so that it remains
in the water in small bubbles. When the pressure decreases due to formation of a fissure, the CO2 bubbles expand.
This expansion displaces the water and causes the eruption. Cold-water geysers may look quite similar to their
steam-driven counterparts; however, often CO2-laden water is more white and frothy.[21] The best known of these is
probably Crystal Geyser, near Green River, Utah.[22] There are also two cold-water geysers in Germany, Brubbel
and Geysir Andernach, and one in Slovakia, Herlany.

Perpetual spouter
Geyser 261

This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly
called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers.[23]

Commercial uses of geysers

Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating
and tourism. Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. The
geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser
locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers
has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not
have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate.[24] Steam and hot water
from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland.
In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted
development of geothermal energy in the Geysers-Calistoga Known
Geothermal Resource Area (KGRA [25]) near Calistoga, California through
a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program.
The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental
impacts of geothermal development.[26]
The geyser Strokkur in Iceland; as a
tourist spot.

"Geysers" elsewhere in the Solar System

There are several bodies elsewhere in the Solar System where jet-like eruptions, often termed "geysers" and
"cryogeysers", have been observed or are believed to occur. Unlike geysers on Earth, these represent eruptions of
gas, together with entrained dust or ice particles, without liquid.
Geyser-like plumes of water vapor, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components (such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrocarbons and silicates), have been observed erupting from vents associated
with the "tiger stripes" in the south polar region of Saturn's moon Enceladus by the Cassini orbiter. The mechanism
by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be powered at least in part by tidal
heating resulting from orbital eccentricity due to a 2:1 mean motion orbital resonance with the moon Dione.[27]
These jets are believed to be the source of Saturn's E Ring.
One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989
was the discovery of geyser-like eruptions on its moon, Triton.
Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the
surface, and depositing material up to 150 km downwind.[28] These
plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen, together with dust.
All the geysers observed were located close to Triton's subsolar point,
indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions. It is thought that the
surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-transparent layer of
frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of
"solid greenhouse effect", heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the
ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an
eruption. Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show
Dark streaks deposited by geysers on Triton
many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.[29]
Geyser 262

Similar solar heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the south polar cap of Mars
each spring. While these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of dark spots
and lighter fans atop the dry ice, representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a spider-like pattern of
grooves created below the ice by the out-rushing gas.[30]

Notes
[1] Bryan, T.S. 1995
[2] How geysers form (http:/ / www. wyojones. com/ how__geysers_form. htm) Gregory L.
[3] Lee Krystek Weird Geology: Geysers (http:/ / www. unmuseum. org/ geysers. htm) unmuseum.org Retrieved on 2008-03-28
[4] Yellowstone thermal features (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071116174629/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ dmonteit/ ov_quick_guide.
htm) Yahoo! Inc. Retrieved on 2008-04-02
[5] Lethe E. Morrison, Fred W. Tanner; Studies on Thermophilic Bacteria Botanical Gazette, Vol. 77, No. 2 (Apr., 1924), pp. 171-185
[6] Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; Extremophiles (http:/ / atropos. as. arizona. edu/ aiz/ teaching/ a204/ extremophile. pdf)
atropos.as.arizona.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-01
[7] Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for Thermostability. Microbiology and
Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, 65(1), 1-34.
[8] Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase (http:/ / www. udel. edu/ chem/ bahnson/ chem645/ websites/ Heaton/ ) University of Delaware,
Retrieved on 2008-03-29 Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ 20071010114505/ http:/ / www. udel. edu/ chem/ bahnson/ chem645/ websites/
Heaton/ ) October 10, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
[9] Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995
[10] Glennon, J Allan "World Geyser Fields" (http:/ / www. uweb. ucsb. edu/ ~glennon/ geysers/ world. htm) Retrieved on 2008-04-04
[11] "Yellowstone geysers" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ yell/ naturescience/ geysers. htm) nps.gov Retrieved on 2008-03-20
[12] Mehta, Aalok (2008-04-16). "Photo in the News: Russia's Valley of the Geysers Lost in Landslide" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/
news/ 2007/ 06/ 070605-geyser-valley. html). National Geographic. . Retrieved 2007-06-07.
[13] Harding, Luke (2007-06-05). "Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka’s Valley of Geysers" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ russia/
article/ 0,,2095579,00. html). Guardian Unlimited. . Retrieved 2008-04-16.
[14] Shpilenok, Igor (2007-06-09). "June 2007 Special release - The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers" (http:/ / web. archive. org/
web/ 20080412111753/ http:/ / www. shpilenok. com/ new/ index. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. shpilenok. com/ new/
index. htm) on April 12, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-04-16.
[15] Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003)
[16] Gamble, J. A., I. C. Wright and J. A. Baker (1993). "Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the
Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand" (http:/ / www. rsnz. org/ publish/ nzjgg/ 1993/ 40. php). New Zealand
Journal of Geology and Geophysics 36: 417–435. doi:10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588. .
[17] Central North Island sitting on magma film (http:/ / www. stuff. co. nz/ 4202557a11. html) Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September
2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16
[18] Gardner Servian, Solveig "Geysers of Iceland" (http:/ / website. lineone. net/ ~polar. publishing/ geysersoficeland. htm) Retrieved on
2008-04-16
[19] "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village" (http:/ / www. whakarewarewa. com/ ) Retrieved 2008-04-04
[20] Jones, Wyoming "Old Faithful Geyser of California" (http:/ / www. wyojones. com/ of_califonia. htm) WyoJones' Geyser Pages Retrieved
on 2008-03-31
[21] Glennon, J. Alan "Carbon-Dioxide-Driven, Cold-Water Geysers" (http:/ / www. uweb. ucsb. edu/ ~glennon/ crystalgeyser/ ) Retrieved on
2008-04-01
[22] Glennon, J.A. 2005; Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff, R.M. 2005
[23] WyoJones "Thermal Feature Definitions" (http:/ / www. wyojones. com/ geyserdef. htm) WyoJones Retrieved on 2008-04-03
[24] Geysers and Energy (http:/ / www. american. edu/ TED/ geyser. htm) american.edu Retrieved on 2008-04-12
[25] http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/ 6817678-VCD58M/ 6817678. PDF
[26] Kerry O’Banion and Charles Hall Geothermal energy and the land resource: conflicts and constraints in The Geysers- Calistoga KGRA
(http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ servlets/ purl/ 6817678-VCD58M/ 6817678. PDF) osti.gov Retrieved on 2008-04-12
[27] Porco, C. C.; et al. (http:/ / ciclops. org/ team/ iss_team. php?js=1) (2006-03-10). "Cassini Observes the Active South Pole of Enceladus"
(http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 311/ 5766/ 1393). Science (AAAS) 311 (5766): 1393–1401.
doi:10.1126/science.1123013. PMID 16527964. . Retrieved 2008-09-13.
[28] "Triton (Voyager)" (http:/ / voyager. jpl. nasa. gov/ science/ neptune_triton. html). NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission). June 1, 2005.
. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
[29] Kirk, R.L., Branch of Astrogeology "Thermal Models of Insolation-driven Nitrogen Geysers on Triton" (http:/ / articles. adsabs. harvard.
edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST& bibcode=1990LPI. . . . 21. . 633K& letter=. & classic=YES& defaultprint=YES&
whole_paper=YES& page=633& epage=633& send=Send+ PDF& filetype=. pdf) Harvard Retrieved 2008-04-08
Geyser 263

[30] Burnham, Robert (2006-08-16). "Gas jet plumes unveil mystery of 'spiders' on Mars" (http:/ / www. asu. edu/ news/ stories/ 200608/
20060818_marsplumes. htm). Arizona State University web site. . Retrieved 2009-08-29.

References
• Bryan, T. Scott (1995). The geysers of Yellowstone. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN
0-87081-365-X
• Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2003). The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta
Region, Chile, Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31–78.
• Glennon, J.A. (2005). Carbon Dioxide-Driven, Cold Water Geysers (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/
crystalgeyser/index.htm), University of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted February 12, 2004, last
update 6 May 2005. Accessed 8 June 2007.
• Glennon, J.A. (2007). About Geysers (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/index.htm), University
of California, Santa Barbara. Originally posted January 1995, updated June 4, 2007. Accessed 8 June 2007.
• Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2005). The operation and geography of carbon-dioxide-driven, cold-water geysers,
GOSA Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 184–192.
• Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena
in the Neptune-Triton system, in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science
Conference. Part 2: 789-790.
• Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
• Schreier, Carl (2003). Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide) (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub.
ISBN 0-943972-09-4
• Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like
plumes — Discovery and basic characterization. Science 250: 410-415.
• Allen, E.T. and Day, A.L. (1935) Hot Springs of the Yellowstone National Park, Publ. 466. Carnegie Institute of
Washington, Washington, D.C., 525 p.
• Barth, T.F.W. (1950) Volcanic Geology: Hot Springs and Geysers of Iceland, Publ. 587. Carnegie Institute of
Washington, Washington, D.C., 174 p.
• Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) Fluctuations in geyser activity caused by variations in earth tidal forces, barometric
pressure, and tectonic stresses. Jour. Geophys. Res. 77, 342-350.
• Rhinehart, J.S. (1972) 18.6-year tide regulates geyser activity. Science 177, 346-347.
• Rhinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
• Silver, Paul G. and Valette-Silver, Nathalie J. (1992) Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern
California Earthquakes. Science 257, 1363-1368.
• White, D.E. (1967) Some principles of geyser activity mainly from Steamboat, Nevada. Amer. Jour. Sci. 265,
641-684.
• M.K. Bhat. Cellulases and related enzymes in biotechnology. Biotechnology Advances. 2000, 18, 355-383.
• Haki, G.D.; Rakshit, S.K. Developments in industrially important thermostable enzymes: a review. Bioresource
Review. 2003, 89, 17-34.
• Vielle, C.; Zeikus, G.J. Hyperthermophilic Enzymes: Sources, Uses, and Molecular Mechanisms for
Thermostability. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 2001, 65(1), 1-34.
• Schiraldi, C.; De Rosa,M. The production of biocatalysts and biomolecules from extremophiles. Trends in
Biotechnology. 2002, 20(12), 515-521.
• Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Kaiste, E.; Holst, O.; Eggertsson, G.; Palsdottier, A.; Kristjansson, J.K. An Extremely
Thermostable Cellulase from the Thermophilic Eubacterium Rhodothermus marinus. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology. 1996, 62(8), 3047-3049.
• Crennell, S.J.; Hreggvidsson, G.O.; Karisson, E.N. The Structure of Rhodothermus marinus Cel12A, A Highly
Thermostable Family 12 Endoglucanase, at 1.8Å Resolution. J. Mol. Biol. 2002, 320, 883-897.
Geyser 264

• Hirvonen, M.; Papageorgiou, A.C. Crystal Structure of a Family 45 Endoglucanases from Melanocarpus
albomyces: Mechanist Implications Based on the Free and Cellobiose-bound Forms. J. Mol. Biol. 2003, 329,
403-410.
• Iogen doubles EcoEthanol Capacity (http://www.iogen.ca/news/28_03_2003.html). April 28, 2003. (accessed
May 17, 2003).
• Pelach, M.A.; Pastor, F.J.; Puig, J.; Vilaseca, F.; Mutje, P. Enzymic deinking of old newspapers with cellulase.
Process Biochemistry. 2003, 38, 1063-1067.
• Dienes, D.; Egyhazi, A.; Reczey, K. Treatment of recycled fiber with Trichoderma cellulases. Industrial Crops
and Products. 2004, article in press.
• Csiszar, E.; Losonczi, A. Szakacs, G. Rusznak, I.; Bezur, L.; Reicher, J. Enzymes and chelating agent in cotton
pretreatment. Journal of Biotechnology. 2001, 89, 271-279.
• Ryback and L.J.P. Muffler, ed., Geothermal Systems: Principles and Case Histories (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1981), 26.
• Harsh K. Gupta, Geothermal Resources: An Energy Alternative (Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing,
1980), 186.
• The Earth Explored: Geothermal Energy, 19857 videocassette.
• Brimner, Larry Dane. Geysers. New York: Children's Press, 2000.
• Downs, Sandra. Earth's Fiery Fury. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books, 2000.
• Gallant, Roy A. Geysers: When Earth Roars. New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, 1997.

External links
• Geysers and How They Work by Yellowstone National Park (http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.
htm)
• Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) (http://www.geyserstudy.org/)
• Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions (http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/)
• About Geysers by Alan Glennon (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/)
• Cold Water Geysers by Alan Glennon (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/)
• Geysers, The UnMuseum (http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm)
• Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources (http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html)
• The Geology of the Icelandic geysers by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist (http://geysircenter.com/english/
geology.html)
• Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems by Meg Streepey (http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html)
Hotspot (geology) 265

Hotspot (geology)
The places known as hotspots or hot spots in geology are volcanic
regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot
compared with the mantle elsewhere. They may be on, near to, or far
from tectonic plate boundaries. There are two hypotheses to explain
them. One suggests that they are due to hot mantle plumes that rise as
thermal diapirs from the core-mantle boundary.[1] The other hypothesis
postulates that it is not high temperature that causes the volcanism, but
lithospheric extension that permits the passive rising of melt from
shallow depths.[2] [3] This hypothesis considers the term "hotspot" to be a
misnomer, asserting that the mantle source beneath them is, in fact, not
anomalously hot at all.

Diagram showing a cross section though the

Earth's lithosphere (in yellow) with magma
rising from the mantle (in red)

Background
The origins of the concept of "hotspots" lie in the work of J. Tuzo
Wilson, who postulated in 1963 that the Hawaiian Islands result from
the slow movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath the
surface.[4] It was later postulated that "hotspots" are fed by narrow
streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth's core-mantle boundary in a
structure called a mantle plume.[5] Whether or not such mantle plumes
exist is currently the subject of a major controversy in Earth science.[3]
[6]
Estimates for the numbers of "hotspots" postulated to be fed by Schematic diagram showing the physical
mantle plumes has ranged from about 20 to several thousands, over the processes inside the Earth that lead to the
generation of magma. Partial melting begins
years, with most geologists considering a few tens to exist. Hawaii,
above the fusion point.
Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland are some of the most
currently active volcanic regions to which the hypothesis is applied.

Most "hotspot" volcanoes are basaltic (e.g., Hawaii, Tahiti). As a result, they are less explosive than subduction zone
volcanoes, in which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where "hotspots" occur in continental regions,
basaltic magma rises through the continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can form violent
eruptions. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in
geologic history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be followed by eruptions of basaltic
magma rising through the same lithospheric cracks. An example of this activity is the Ilgachuz Range in British
Columbia, which was created by an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and late extrusion of a
sequence of basaltic lava flows.[7]
The "hotspot" hypothesis is now closely linked to the mantle plume hypothesis.
Hotspot (geology) 266

Comparison with island arc volcanoes

"Hotspot" volcanoes are considered to have a fundamentally different origin from island arc volcanoes. The latter
form over subduction zones, at converging plate boundaries. When one oceanic plate meets another, the denser plate
is forced downward into a deep ocean trench. This plate, as it is subducted, releases water into the base of the
over-riding plate, and this water causes some rock to melt. It is this that fuels a chain of volcanoes, such as the
Aleutian Islands, near Alaska.

"Hotspot" volcanic chains

The joint mantle plume/"hotspot"
hypothesis envisages the feeder
structures to be fixed relative to one
another, with the continents and
seafloor drifting overhead. The
hypothesis thus predicts that
time-progressive chains of volcanoes
are developed on the surface.
Examples are Yellowstone, which lies
Over millions of years, the Pacific Plate has moved over the Hawaii hotspot, creating a
at the end of a chain of extinct
trail of underwater mountains that stretch across the Pacific
calderas, which become progressively
older to the west. Another example is
the Hawaiian archipelago, where
islands become progressively older and
more deeply eroded to the northwest.

Geologists have tried to use "hotspot"

volcanic chains to track the movement
of the Earth's tectonic plates. This
effort has been vexed by the lack of
very long chains, by the fact that many
are not time-progressive (e.g. the
Galápagos) and by the fact that
"hotspots" do not appear to be fixed
relative to one-another (e.g., Hawaii
and Iceland.[8] ) Over millions of years, the Pacific Plate has moved over the Bowie hotspot, creating the
Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain in the Gulf of Alaska

Postulated "hotspot" volcano

chains
• Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain (Hawaii hotspot)
• Louisville seamount chain (Louisville hotspot)
• Walvis Ridge (Gough and Tristan hotspot)
• Kodiak-Bowie Seamount chain (Bowie hotspot)
• Cobb-Eickelberg Seamount chain (Cobb hotspot)
• New England Seamount chain (New England hotspot)
• Anahim Volcanic Belt (Anahim hotspot)
• Mackenzie dike swarm (Mackenzie hotspot)
• Great Meteor hotspot track (New England hotspot)
Hotspot (geology) 267

• St. Helena Seamount Chain - Cameroon Volcanic Line (Saint Helena hotspot)
• Réunion-Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive islands (Réunion hotspot)
• Ninety East Ridge (Kerguelen hotspot?)[9]
• Tuamoto-Line Island chain (Crough hotspot, it is probably not a hotspot trail)[1]
• Austral-Gilbert-Marshall chain (Macdonald hotspot)
• Juan Fernández Ridge (Juan Fernández hotspot)

List of volcanic regions postulated to be "hotspots"

Eurasian Plate

• Eifel hotspot (8)

• 50°12′N 6°42′E, w= 1 az= 082° ±8° rate= 12 ±2 mm/yr
• Iceland hotspot (14)
• 64°24′N 17°18′W
• Eurasian Plate, w= .8 az= 075° ±10° rate= 5 ±3 mm/yr
• North American Plate, w= .8 az= 287° ±10° rate= 15 An example of mantle plume locations suggested
[10]
by one recent group. Figure from Foulger
±5 mm/yr [3]
(2010).
• Related maybe with the North Atlantic continental rifting
(62 Ma), Greenland. Could be a primary hotspot.[11]
• Azores hotspot (1)
• 37°54′N 26°00′W
• Eurasian Plate, w= .5 az= 110° ±12°
• North American Plate, w= .3 az= 280° ±15°
• Jan Mayen hotspot (15)
• 71°N 9°W, it is probably not a hotspot
• Hainan hotspot
• 20°N 110°E, az= 000° ±15°, it is probably a hotspot

African Plate
• Mount Etna
• 37°45.304′N 14°59.715′E, no trail
• Hoggar hotspot (13)
• 23°18′N 5°36′E, w= .3 az= 046° ±12°
• Tibesti hotspot (40)
• 20°48′N 17°30′E, w= .2 az= 030° ±15°
• Jebel Marra/Darfur hotspot (6)
• 13°00′N 24°12′E, w= .5 az= 045° ±8°
• Afar hotspot
• 7°00′N 39°30′E, w= .2 az= 030° ±15° rate= 16 ±8 mm/yr
• Could be a primary hotspot (Afar Triple Junction, 30 Ma)
• Cameroon hotspot (17)
• 2°00′N 5°06′E, w= .3 az= 032° ±3° rate= 15 ±5 mm/yr
• Madeira hotspot
• 32°36′N 17°18′W, w= .3 az= 055° ±15° rate= 8 ±3 mm/yr
Hotspot (geology) 268

• Canary hotspot (18)

• 28°12′N 18°00′W, w= 1 az= 094° ±8° rate= 20 ±4 mm/yr
• New England/Great Meteor hotspot (28)
• 29°24′N 29°12′W, w= .8 az= 040° ±10°
• Cape Verde hotspot (19)
• 16°00′N 24°00′W, w= .2 az= 060° ±30°
• St. Helena hotspot (34)
• 16°30′N 9°30′E, w= 1 az= 078° ±5° rate= 20 ±3 mm/yr
• Gough hotspot, at 40°19' S 9°56' W.[12] [13]
• 40°18′S 10°00′E, w= .8 az= 079° ±5° rate= 18 ±3 mm/yr
• Tristan hotspot (42), at 37°07′ S 12°17′ W.
• 37°12′S 12°18′W, no trail
• Vema hotspot (Vema Seamount, 43), at 31°38' S 8°20' E.
• 32°06′S 6°18′W, it is perhaps a hotspot
• Related maybe to the Paraná and Etendeka traps (c. 132 Ma) through the Walvis Ridge.
• Discovery hotspot (Discovery Seamounts)
• 43°00′S 2°42′W, w= 1 az= 068° ±3°
• Bouvet hotspot
• 54°24′S 3°24′E, it is probably not a hotspot
• Shona/Meteor hotspot (27)
• 51°24′N 1°00′W, w= .3 az= 074° ±6°
• Réunion hotspot (33)
• 21°12′S 55°42′E, w= .8 az= 047° ±10° rate= 40 ±10 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the Deccan Traps (main events: 68.5-65 Ma). Could be a primary hotspot.
• Comoros hotspot (21)
• 11°30′S 43°18′E, w= .5 az=118 ±10° rate=35 ±10 mm/yr. It is probably not a hotspot, as the azimuth is wrong.
Many other things are probably interacting here.

Antarctic Plate
• Marion hotspot (25)
• 46°54′S 37°36′E, w= .5 az= 080° ±12°
• Crozet hotspot
• 46°06′S 50°12′E, w= .8 az= 109° ±10° rate= 25 ±13 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the Karoo-Ferrar geologic province (183 Ma)
• Kerguelen hotspot (20)
• 49°36′S 69°00′E, w= .2 az= 050° ±30° rate= 3 ±1 mm/yr
• Île Saint-Paul and Île Amsterdam could be part of the Kerguelen hotspot trail (St. Paul is probably not another
hotspot)
• Related maybe to the Kerguelen Plateau (130 Ma)
• Heard hotspot
• 53°06′S 73°30′E, w= .2 az= 030° ±20°
• Balleny hotspot (2)
• 67°36′S 164°48′E, w= .2 az= 325° ±7°
• Erebus hotspot
Hotspot (geology) 269

• 77°30′S 167°12′E, no trail

South American Plate

• Trindade/Martin Vaz hotspot (41)
• 20°30′S 28°48′W, w= 1 az= 264° ±5°
• Fernando hotspot (9)
• 3°48′S 32°24′W, w= 1 az= 266° ±7°
• Related maybe to the CAMP (c. 200 Ma)
• Ascension hotspot
• 7°54′S 14°18′W, it is perhaps a hotspot

North American Plate

• Bermuda hotspot
• 32°36′N 64°18′W, w= .3 az= 260° ±15°
• Yellowstone hotspot (44)
• 44°30′N 110°24′W, w= .8 az= 235° ±5° rate= 26 ±5 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the Columbia River Basalt Group (17-14 Ma). Could be a primary hotspot.[14]
• Raton hotspot (32)
• 36°48′N 104°06′W, w= 1 az= 240°±4° rate= 30 ±20 mm/yr
• Anahim hotspot (45)
• 52°54′0″N 123°44′0″W (Nazko Cone)[15]

Indo-Australian Plate
• Lord Howe hotspot (22)
• 34°42′S 159°48′E, w= .8 az= 351° ±10°
• Tasmanid hotspot (Gascoyne Seamount, 39)
• 40°24′S 155°30′E, w= .8 az= 007° ±5° rate= 63 ±5 mm/yr
• East Australia hotspot (30)
• 40°48′S 146°00′E, w= .3 az= 000° ±15° rate= 65 ±3 mm/yr

Nazca Plate
• Juan Fernández hotspot (16)
• 33°54′S 81°48′W, w= 1 az= 084° ±3° rate= 80 ±20 mm/yr
• San Felix hotspot (36)
• 26°24′S 80°06′W, w= .3 az= 083° ±8°
• Easter hotspot (7)
• 26°24′S 106°30′W, w= 1 az= 087° ±3° rate= 95 ±5 mm/yr
• Trail might begin near the Marquesas Islands. Could be a primary hotspot.
• Galápagos hotspot (10)
• 0°24′S 91°36′W
• Nazca Plate, w= 1 az= 096° ±5° rate= 55 ±8 mm/yr
• Cocos Plate, w= .5 az= 045° ±6°
• Related maybe to the Caribbean large igneous province (main events: 95-88 Ma). Could be a primary hotspot.
Hotspot (geology) 270

Pacific Plate
• Louisville hotspot (23)
• 53°36′S 140°36′W, w= 1 az= 316° ±5° rate= 67 ±5 mm/yr
• Related maybe with the Ontong Java Plateau (125-120 Ma). Could be a primary hotspot.
• Foundation hotspot
• 37°42′S 111°06′W, w= 1 az= 292° ±3° rate= 80 ±6 mm/yr
• Macdonald hotspot (24)
• 29°00′S 140°18′W, w= 1 az= 289° ±6° rate= 105 ±10 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the superplume under French Polynesia
• Arago hotspot (Arago Seamount)
• 23°24′S 150°42′W, w= 1 azim= 296° ±4° rate= 120 ±20 mm/yr
• North Austral/President Thiers (President Thiers Bank)
• 25°36′S 143°18′W, w= (1.0) azim= 293° ± 3° rate= 75 ±15 mm/yr, it is perhaps a hotspot
• Maria/Southern Cook hotspot (Îles Maria)
• 20°12′S 153°48′W, w= 0.8 az= 300° ±4°
• Samoa hotspot (35)
• 14°30′S 168°12′W, w= .8 az= 285°±5° rate= 95 ±20 mm/yr
• Could be a primary hotspot.
• Crough hotspot (Crough Seamount)
• 26°54′S 114°36′W, w= .8 az= 284° ± 2°
• Pitcairn hotspot (31)
• 25°24′S 129°18′W, w= 1 az= 293° ±3° rate= 90 ±15 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the superplume under French Polynesia
• Society/Tahiti hotspot (38)
• 18°12′S 148°24′W, w= .8 az= 295°±5° rate= 109 ±10 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the superplume under French Polynesia
• Marquesas hotspot (26)
• 10°30′S 139°00′W, w= .5 az= 319° ±8° rate= 93 ±7 mm/yr
• Caroline hotspot (4)
• 4°48′N 164°24′E, w= 1 az= 289° ±4° rate= 135 ±20 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the superplume under French Polynesia
• Hawaii hotspot (12)
• 19°00′N 155°12′W, w= 1 az= 304° ±3° rate= 92 ±3 mm/yr
• Related maybe to the Siberian Traps (251-250 Ma). Could be a primary hotspot.[16]
• Socorro/Revillagigedos hotspot (37)
• 19°00′N 111°00′W, it is probably not a hotspot
• Guadalupe hotspot (11)
• 27°42′N 114°30′W, w= .8 az= 292° ±5° rate= 80 ±10 mm/yr
• Cobb hotspot (5)
• 46°00′N 130°06′W, w= 1 az= 321° ±5° rate= 43 ±3 mm/yr
• Bowie/Pratt-Welker hotspot (3)
• 53°00′N 134°48′W, w=.8 az= 306° ±4° rate= 40 ±20 mm/yr
Hotspot (geology) 271

Former hotspots
• Euterpe/Musicians hotspot (Musicians Seamounts)
• Mackenzie hotspot
• Matachewan hotspot

References
[1] W. J. Morgan. "Convection Plumes in the Lower Mantle" (http:/ / www. mantleplumes. org/ Morgan1971. html). Nature 230(1971). .
[2] "Do plumes exist?" (http:/ / www. mantleplumes. org/ ). . Retrieved 2010-04-25.
[3] Foulger, G.R. (2010). Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy (http:/ / www. wiley. com/ WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/
productCd-1405161485. html). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-6148-0. .
[4] Wilson, J. Tuzo (1963). "A possible origin of the Hawaiian Islands" (http:/ / www. mantleplumes. org/ WebDocuments/ Wilson1963. pdf).
Canadian Journal of Physics 41: 863–870. .
[5] "Hotspots: Mantle thermal plumes" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ dynamic/ hotspots. html). United States Geological Survey. 1999-05-05. .
Retrieved 2008-05-15.
[6] Wright, Laura (2000-11). "Earth's interior: Raising hot spots" (http:/ / www. geotimes. org/ nov00/ hotspot. html). Geotimes. American
Geological Institute. . Retrieved 2008-06-15.
[7] Holbek, Peter (1983-11) (PDF). Report on Preliminary Geology and Geochemistry of the Ilga Claim Group (http:/ / www. em. gov. bc. ca/
DL/ ArisReports/ 12214. PDF). . Retrieved 2008-06-15.
[8] "What the hell is Hawaii?" (http:/ / www. mantleplumes. org/ HawaiiBend. html). . Retrieved 2011-01-07.
[9] E. V. Verzhbitsky. "Geothermal regime and genesis of the Ninety-East and Chagos-Laccadive ridges" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V9X-47MJ4CX-3& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c&
_acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=aa2e7686477bc607611955f2aba48558). Journal of Geodynamics
35/3 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(02)00068-6. .
[10] Courtillot, V.; Davaillie, A.; Besse, J.; Stock, J. (2003). "Three distinct types of hotspots in the Earth's mantle". Earth Sci. Planet. Lett. 205
(3–4): 295–308. Bibcode 2003E&PSL.205..295C. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01048-8.
[11] Nielsen, Søren B.; Stephenson, Randell; Thomsen, Erik (13 December 2007). "Letter:Dynamics of Mid-Palaeocene North Atlantic rifting
linked with European intra-plate deformations". Nature 450 (7172): 1071–1074. doi:10.1038/nature06379. PMID 18075591.
[12] O'Neill, C.; Müller, R. D.; Steinberger, B. (2003). "Revised Indian plate rotations based on the motion of Indian Ocean hotspots" (http:/ /
www. earthbyte. org/ people/ dietmar/ Pdf/ Muller-etal-hotspots-Geology1993. pdf). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 215: 151–168. .
[13] O'Connor, J. M.; le Roex, A. P. (1992). "South Atlantic hot spot-plume systems. 1: Distribution of volcanism in time and space". Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 113: 343–364. Bibcode 1992E&PSL.113..343O. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(92)90138-L.
[14] Smith, Robert B.; Jordan, Michael; Steinberger, Bernhard; Puskas, Christine M.; Farrell, Jamie; Waite, Gregory P.; Husen, Stephan; Chang,
Wu-Lung; O'Connell, Richard (20 November 2009). "Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hotspot and mantle plume: Seismic and GPS imaging,
kinematics and mantle flow" (http:/ / www. uusatrg. utah. edu/ PAPERS/ smith_jvgr2009complete. pdf). Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research 188 (1-3): 26–56. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.020. .
[15] "Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes- Anahim volcanic belt" (http:/ / gsc. nrcan. gc. ca/ volcanoes/ cat/ belt_anahim_e. php). Natural
Resources Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. . Retrieved 2008-06-14.
[16] "Guest Blog: Hermann Burchard on Siberian Hot Spot Tracks" (http:/ / cosmictusk. com/
guest-blog-hermann-burchard-on-siberian-hot-spot-tracks). The Cosmic Tusk. .

Further reading
• "Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy" (http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/
productCd-1405161485.html). Wiley-Blackwell. October 2010.
• Boschi, L.; Becker, T.W.; Steinberger, B. (2007). "Mantle plumes: Dynamic models and seismic images" (http://
geodynamics.usc.edu/~becker/preprints/bbs07.pdf). Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 8 (Q10006):
Q10006. Bibcode 2007GGG.....810006B. doi:10.1029/2007GC001733. ISSN 1525-2027.
• Clouard, Valérie; Gerbault, Muriel (2007). "Break-up spots: Could the Pacific open as a consequence of plate
kinematics?". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265: 195. Bibcode 2008E&PSL.265..195C.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.10.013.
• "Towards A Better Understanding Of Hot Spot Volcanism" (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/
080131094102.htm). SienceDaily. 4 February 2008.
Hotspot (geology) 272

External links
• Formation of Hotspots (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/hotspots.html)
• Raising Hot Spots (http://www.geotimes.org/nov00/hotspot.html)
• Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) (http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/)
• Maria Antretter, PhD Thesis (2001): Moving hotspots - Evidence from paleomagnetism and modeling (http://
edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/archive/00000427/01/Antretter_Maria.pdf)
• Do Plumes Exist? (http://www.mantleplumes.org/)

Mid-ocean ridge
A mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is a
general term for an underwater
mountain system that consists of
various mountain ranges (chains),
typically having a valley known as a
rift running along its spine, formed by
plate tectonics. This type of oceanic
ridge is characteristic of what is known
as an oceanic spreading center, which
is responsible for seafloor spreading.
The uplifted seafloor results from
Oceanic ridge
convection currents which rise in the
mantle as magma at a linear weakness
in the oceanic crust, and emerge as
lava, creating new crust upon cooling.
A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the
boundary between two tectonic plates,
and consequently is termed a divergent
plate boundary.

The mid-ocean ridges of the world are

connected and form a single global
mid-oceanic ridge system that is part
of every ocean, making the
mid-oceanic ridge system the longest
Diagram of oceanic ridge
mountain range in the world. The
continuous mountain range is
65000 km (40400 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range), and the
total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80000 km (49700 mi) long.[1]
Mid-ocean ridge 273

Description
Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active,
with new magma constantly emerging onto
the ocean floor and into the crust at and near
rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized
magma forms new crust of basalt (known as
MORB for Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt) and
gabbro.

The rocks making up the crust below the sea

floor are youngest at the axis of the ridge
and age with increasing distance from that
axis. New magma of basalt composition
emerges at and near the axis because of
World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges; USGS
decompression melting in the underlying
Earth's mantle.[2]

The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself: most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is
less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of "renewal" at the ocean ridges. Moving away from
the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic
crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The
crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere.
Slow spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge generally have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as big as 10–20
km (6.2–12 mi) wide and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have relief of up to a 1000 m (3300 ft). By
contrast, fast spreading ridges like the East Pacific Rise are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat
topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.

Formation processes
There are two processes, ridge-push and
slab pull, thought to be responsible for the
spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges, and
there is some uncertainty as to which is
dominant. Ridge-push occurs when the
growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of
the tectonic plate away from the ridge, often
towards a subduction zone. At the
subduction zone, "slab-pull" comes into
effect. This is simply the weight of the
tectonic plate being subducted (pulled)
below the overlying plate dragging the rest
of the plate along behind it.

The other process proposed to contribute to

Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted
the formation of new oceanic crust at back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor"
Mid-ocean ridge 274

(see image). However, there have been some

studies which have shown that the upper
mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic
(flexible) to generate enough friction to pull
the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in
the image above, mantle upwelling that
causes magma to form beneath the ocean
ridges appears to involve only its upper
400 km (250 mi), as deduced from seismic
tomography and from studies of the seismic
discontinuity at about 400 km (250 mi). The
relatively shallow depths from which the Diagram of oceanic ridge
upwelling mantle rises below ridges are
more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as
the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.

The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate, and is generally measured
in mm/yr. The common subdivisions of spreading rate are fast, medium and slow, whose values are generally >100
mm/yr, between 100 and 55 mm/yr and 55 to 20 mm/yr, respectively for full rates. The spreading rate of the north
Atlantic Ocean is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the Pacific region, it is 80–120 mm/yr. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr
are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges (e.g., the Gakkel ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Southwest Indian
Ridge) and they provide a much different perspective on crustal formation than their faster spreading brethren.
The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below
Curie points of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are
recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field in the oceanic crust record preserve a record of directions of
the Earth's magnetic field with time. Because the field has reversed directions at irregular intervals throughout its
history, the pattern of reversals in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age. Likewise, the pattern of
reversals together with age measurements of the crust is used to help establish the history of the Earth's magnetic
field.

History

Discovery
Mid-ocean ridges are generally submerged deep in the ocean. It was
not until the 1950s, when the ocean floor was surveyed in detail, that
their full extent became known.
The Vema, a ship of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of
Columbia University, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording data
about the ocean floor from the ocean surface. A team led by Marie
Tharp and Bruce Heezen analyzed the data and concluded that there
was an enormous mountain chain running along the middle of floor of Age of oceanic crust. The red is most recent, and
the Atlantic. Scientists gave the name "Mid-Atlantic Ridge" to the blue is the oldest.

submarine mountain range.

Mid-ocean ridge 275

At first, the ridge was thought to be a phenomenon specific to the

Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued
around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of
the mid-ocean ridge system. Although the ridge system runs down the
middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the ridge is located away from the center
of other oceans.

Impact
Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the
Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He plate tectonics theory
stated: the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic,
as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space
for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth.[3] However,
Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his
theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism
to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust, and the
theory became largely forgotten.

Following the discovery of the world-wide extent of the mid-ocean

ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an
enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s,
geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for sea floor Seafloor magnetic striping

spreading. Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for sea floor

spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of
geologists resulted in a major paradigm shift in geological thinking.

It is estimated that 20 volcanic eruptions occur each year along earth's

mid-ocean ridges and that every year 2.5 km2 (0.97 sq mi) of new sea
floor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 1 to 2 km
(0.62 to 1.2 mi), this amounts to about 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) of new
ocean crust formed every year.

List of oceanic ridges A demonstration of magnetic striping

• Aden Ridge
• Explorer Ridge
• Gorda Ridge
• Juan de Fuca Ridge
• Cocos Ridge
• American-Antarctic Ridge
• Chile Rise
• East Pacific Rise
• East Scotia Ridge
• Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge)
• Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
• Southeast Indian Ridge
• Central Indian Ridge
• Carlsberg Ridge
Mid-ocean ridge 276

• Southwest Indian Ridge

• Mid-Atlantic Ridge
• Knipovich Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
• Mohns Ridge
• Kolbeinsey Ridge (North of Iceland)
• Reykjanes Ridge (South of Iceland)

List of ancient oceanic ridges

• Aegir Ridge
• Alpha Ridge
• Bellingshausen Ridge
• Izanagi Ridge
• Kula-Farallon Ridge
• Pacific-Kula Ridge
• Pacific-Farallon Ridge
• Phoenix Ridge

References
[1] Cambridge Encyclopedia 2005 - Oceanic ridges
[2] Marjorie Wilson. (1993). Igneous petrogenesis. London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 9780412533105.
[3] Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912". Geology 9: 25–27.
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2.

External links
• An explanation of relevant tectonic forces (http://www.tectonic-forces.org)
• Mid-Ocenic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS) (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/
baseball.html)
• Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe (http://www.ridge2000.org/index.php)
Lava plain 277

Lava plain
A lava plain, also called a lava field or lava
bed, is a large expanse of nearly flat-lying
lava flows. Such features are generally
composed of highly-fluid basalt lava, and
can extend for tens or even hundreds of
miles across the underlying terrain. The
extent of large lava fields is most readily
grasped from the air or in satellite photos,
where their typically dark, nearly-black
color contrasts sharply with the rest of the
landscape.

Some of the most ancient geological Hell's Half Acre Lava Field, Idaho, USA
remnants of basaltic plains lie in Canada's
Precambrian Shield. Eruption of plateau lavas near the Coppermine River southwest of Coronation Gulf in the
Arctic, built an extensive plateau about 1200 million years ago with an area of about 170000 km2 (66000 sq mi)
representing a volume of lavas of at least 500000 km3 ( cu mi).

Volcanic plateau
A volcanic plateau is a plateau
produced by volcanic activity. There
are two main types: lava plateaus and
pyroclastic plateaus.

Lava plateau
Lava plateaus are formed by highly
fluid (runny) basaltic lava during
numerous successive eruptions through
numerous vents without violent
explosions (quiet eruptions). These
eruptions are quiet because of low
viscosity of mafic lava, so that it is
very fluid and contains small amount Rangipo Desert of the North Island Volcanic Plateau. Numerous tephra layers are visible.

of trapped gases. The resulting sheet

lava flows may be extruded from linear fissures or rifts or gigantic volcanic eruptions through multiple vents
characteristic of the prehistoric era which produced giant flood basalts. Multiple successive and extensive lava flows
cover the original landscape to eventually form a plateau, which may contain lava fields, cinder cones, shield
volcanoes and other volcanic landforms. In some cases, a lava plateau may be part of a single volcano. An example
is the massive Level Mountain Range shield volcano in northern British Columbia, Canada, which covers an area of
1800 km2 (690 sq mi) and a volume of 860 km3 (210 cu mi).[1]
Volcanic plateau 278

Perhaps the most extensive of all the subaerial basaltic plateaus existed during the Paleogene[2] and possibly
extended over 1,800,000 km2 (700,000 square miles) of the northern Atlantic Ocean region. This region, known as
the Thulean Plateau, is generally believed to have been broken up by foundering of the Earth's crust to form the
present ocean basin.
The Earth features numerous subaerial and submarine volcanic plateaus such as the Columbia River Plateau
(subaerial) and the vast Ontong Java Plateau (submarine).

Pyroclastic plateau
Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are produced by massive pyroclastic flows and they are underlain by pyroclastic rocks:
agglomerates, tephra, volcanic ashes cemented into tuffs, mafic or felsic.
Examples include Shirasu-Daichi, which covers almost all of Southern Kyūshū, Japan,[3] , and the North Island
Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand.

References
[1] Wood, Charles A.; Kienle, Jürgen (2001). Volcanoes of North America: United States and Canada. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9780521438117. OCLC 27910629.
[2] Brittle tectonism in relation to the Palaeogene evolution of the Thulean/NE Atlantic domain: a study in Ulster (http:/ / www3. interscience.
wiley. com/ cgi-bin/ abstract/ 61005289/ ABSTRACT) Retrieved on 2007-11-10
[3] Landforms of Kuyshu (http:/ / glgarcs. lad. jp/ landform_kys. html)

Volcanic crater
A volcanic crater is a circular depression in the ground caused by
volcanic activity.[1] It is typically a basin, circular in form within
which occurs a vent (or vents) from which magma erupts as gases,
lava, and ejecta. A crater can be of large dimensions, and
sometimes of great depth. During certain types of climactic
eruptions, the volcano's magma chamber may empty enough for an
area above it to subside, forming what may appear to be a crater
but is actually known as a caldera.

Craters on Mount Cameroon

Volcanic crater 279

Geomorphology
In the majority of typical volcanoes, the crater is situated atop the
mountain formed from the erupted volcanic deposits such as lava
flows and tephra. Volcanoes that terminate in such a summit
crater are usually of a conical form. Other volcanic craters may be
found on the flanks of volcanoes, and these are commonly referred
to as flank craters. Some volcanic craters may fill either fully or
partially with rain and/or melted snow, forming a crater lake.

Breached craters have a much lower rim on one side than the rest.
A crater may be breached during an eruption, either by explosions
or by lava, or through later erosion. The volcanic crater of a Tangkuban Parahu mount,
Some volcanoes, such as maars, consist of a crater alone, with West Java, Indonesia

scarcely any mountain at all. These volcanic explosion craters are

formed when magma rises through water-saturated rocks and causes a phreatic eruption. Volcanic craters from
phreatic eruptions often occur on plains away from other obvious volcanoes. Not all volcanoes leave craters.

Volcán Irazú, Costa Rica

Footnotes
[1] "Glossary of Terms: C" (http:/ / www. physicalgeography. net/ physgeoglos/ c. html). www.physicalgeography.net. . Retrieved 2008-04-12.
Volcanic plug 280

Volcanic plug
A volcanic plug, also called a volcanic neck or lava neck, is a
volcanic landform created when magma hardens within a vent on an
active volcano. When forming, a plug can cause an extreme build-up of
pressure if volatile-charged magma is trapped beneath it, and this can
sometimes lead to an explosive eruption. If a plug is preserved, erosion
may remove the surrounding rock while the erosion-resistant plug
remains, producing a distinctive upstanding landform. Examples
include Shiprock, New Mexico; The Nut, Australia; and the Pitons of
Saint Lucia.
Volcanic plug near Rhumsiki, Far North Region,
Cameroon

Glacial erosion can lead to exposure of the plug on one side, while a
long slope of material remains on the lee side. Such landforms are
called crag and tail. An example is the Castle Rock in Edinburgh,
Scotland.

Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is built upon an

ancient volcanic plug

Further examples of volcanic plugs in the United States include Morro

Rock, California; Lizard Head, Colorado; and Laurel Hill, New Jersey.
Devils Tower in Wyoming, as well as Little Devils Postpile located in
Yosemite National Park, are also thought to be a volcanic plug by
many geologists. The only example of a volcanic plug in the eastern
USA is the highly eroded Stark's Knob basaltic structure located along
the Hudson River near Saratoga Springs, New York. However, some
geologists believe Stark's Knob is not a plug at all, but merely an
outcrop of an ancient submarine lava flow.
Volcanic plug in the Ochoco National Forest of
The Ailsa Craig, Bass Rock, North Berwick Law and Dumgoyne hill Oregon, USA
are examples of volcanic plugs located in Scotland. Borgarvirki is a
volcanic plug located in north Iceland. A volcanic plug is situated in the town of Motta Sant'Anastasia in Italy.
Volcanic plug 281

There are several volcanic plugs in New Zealand, including the

Pinnacles in the Coromandel Peninsula, Bream Head, Paritutu and
adjacent Sugar Loaf Islands, and Piha's Lion Rock, which hosted a
fortified Maori pa. Australia's Mount Warning is a volcanic plug.

New Zealand's Lion Rock was fortified as a

refuge for local Maori.

Another example is Sigiriya (Lion's rock), the hardened magma plug

from an extinct and long-eroded volcano. The rock rises 370m and is
sheer on all sides, in many places overhanging the base.[1] It hosts an
ancient rock fortress and ruins of a castle, one of the seven World
Heritage Sites (Ref:202) in Sri Lanka.[2] [3]

Sigiriya Rock Fortress, Sri Lanka.

Another building on a volcanic plug is the 14th century Trosky Castle

in the Czech Republic.

Trosky Castle ("Panna" Tower), Czech Republic.

Petit Piton in Saint Lucia, part of a UNESCO

World Heritage site; the mountain rises to a
height of nearly 2500 ft.
Volcanic plug 282

References
[1] "Encyclopædia Britannica Article about Sigiriya" (http:/ / www.
britannica. com/ eb/ article-9067705/ Sigiriya) (html). Encyclopædia
Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[2] "UNESCO page - Ancient City of Sigiriya" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/
list/ 202) (html). UNESCO.org. . Retrieved 2008-01-18.
[3] "Exploring Sigiriya Rock" (http:/ / www. asiaexplorers. com/ srilanka/
sigiriya. htm). AsiaExplorers.com. . Retrieved 2008-05-05.

Taung Kalat,Myanmar

Wall rock
Wall rock is the rock that constitutes the wall of an area undergoing geologic activity. Examples are the rock along
the neck of a volcano, on the edge of a pluton that is being emplaced, along a fault plane, enclosing a mineral
deposit, or where a vein or dike is being emplaced.
In volcanoes, wall rock can often become broken off of the wall and incorporated into the erupted volcanic rock as
xenoliths. These xenoliths are important to geologists because they can come from rock units that are otherwise not
exposed at the Earth's surface.

References
WordNet [1]

External links
• Volcanoes [2] at the Open Directory Project

References
[1] http:/ / wordnetweb. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn?s=wall%20rock
[2] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Earth_Sciences/ Geology/ Volcanoes/
Lava dome 283

Lava dome
In volcanology, a lava dome is a roughly circular
mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow
extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. The
geochemistry of lava domes can vary from basalt to
rhyolite although most preserved domes tend to have
high silica content.[1] The characteristic dome shape is
attributed to high viscosity that prevents the lava from
flowing very far. This high viscosity can be obtained in
two ways: by high levels of silica in the magma, or by
degassing of fluid magma. Since viscous basaltic and
andesitic domes weather fast and easily break apart by Image of the rhyolitic lava dome of Chaitén Volcano during its
2008–2009 eruption.
further input of fluid lava, most of the preserved domes
have high silica content and consists of rhyolite or
dacite.

Dome dynamics
Lava domes are dynamic structures that evolve over
time undergoing various processes such as growth,
collapse, solidification and erosion.
Lava domes grow by endogenic dome growth or
exogenic dome growth. The first one implies dome
One of the Mono Craters, an example of a rhyolite dome.
interior expansion to accommodate new lava and the
second one refers to superficial piling up of lava.[1] It is
the high viscosity of the lava that prevents it from
flowing far from the vent from which it extrudes,
creating a dome-like shape of sticky lava that then
cools slowly in situ. Domes may reach heights of
several hundred meters, and can grow slowly and
steadily for months (e.g. Unzen volcano), years (e.g.
Soufrière Hills volcano), or even centuries (e.g. Mount
Merapi volcano). The sides of these structures are
composed of unstable rock debris. Due to the
intermittent build up of gas pressure, erupting domes
can often experience episodes of explosive eruption
Lava domes in the crater of Mount St. Helens
over time. If part of a lava dome collapses while it is
still molten, it can produce pyroclastic flows, one of the
most lethal forms of volcanic event. Other hazards associated with lava domes are the destruction of property, forest
fires, and lahars triggered by pyroclastic flows near mud, snow and ice. Lava domes are one of the principal
structural features of many stratovolcanoes worldwide. Lava domes cause explosions to become more dangerous
since they contain rhyolitic silicarich lava.

Characteristics of lava dome eruptions include shallow, long-period and hybrid seismicity, which is attributed to
excess fluid pressures in the contributing vent chamber. Other characteristics of lava domes include their
Lava dome 284

hemispherical dome shape, cycles of dome growth over long periods, and sudden onsets of violent explosive
activity.[2] The average rate of dome growth may be used as a rough indicator of magma supply, but it shows no
systematic relationship to the timing or characteristics of lava dome explosions.[3]

Related landforms

Cryptodomes
A cryptodome (from Greek κρυπτός, kryptos, "hidden,
secret") is a dome-shaped structure created by
accumulation of viscous magma at a shallow depth.
One example of a cryptodome was in the May 1980
eruption of Mount St. Helens, where the explosive
eruption began after a landslide caused the side of the
volcano to fall, leading to explosive decompression of
the subterranean cryptodome.

Lava coulees
Coulees are lava domes that have experienced some Photo showing the bulging cryptodome of Mt. St. Helens on April
27, 1980.
flow away from their original position, thus resembling
both lava domes and lava flows.[1]

Examples of lava domes

Lava domes
Dome or volcano name Country Volcanic area Composition Last dome
eruption
or growth episode

Chaitén Chile Southern Volcanic Zone Rhyolite 2009

Cordón Caulle Chile Southern Volcanic Zone Rhyodacite to Rhyolite Holocene

Galeras Colombia Northern Volcanic Zone

Katla Iceland Iceland Hotspot Rhyolite [4]

1999 onwards

Lassen Peak California, USA Cascade Volcanic Arc Basalt 1917

Mount Meager British Columbia, Canada Cascade Volcanic Arc Dacite 2350 BP

Mount Merapi Indonesia Sunda Arc

Nea Kameni Greece

Volcán Nuevo Chile Southern Volcanic Zone Dacite 1986

Puy-de-Dôme France Chaîne des Puys ca. 5760 BC

Santiaguito Guatemala Central America Volcanic Arc Dacite 2009

Sollipulli Chile Southern Volcanic Zone Andesite to Dacite

Soufrière Hills Montserrat Lesser Antilles 2009

Mount St. Helens Washington, USA Cascade Volcanic Arc Basalt 2008

Torfajökull Iceland Iceland Hotspot Rhyolite

Lava dome 285

Unnamed Japan Japan Arc Dacite [5]

Miocene

Wizard Island Oregon, USA Cascade Volcanic Arc Basalt 2850 BC

References
[1] Fink, Jonathan H., Anderson, Steven W. (2001). "Bernard Lewis". In Sigursson, Haraldur. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press.
pp. 307–319.
[2] Sparks, R.S.J. (1997)
[3] Newhall, C.G., W.G. Melson (1983)
[4] http:/ / volcanism. wordpress. com/ 2010/ 03/ 04/ eyjafjallajokull-and-katla-restless-neighbours/
[5] Yoshihiko Goto and Nobutaka Tsuchiya. Morphology and growth style of a Miocene submarine dacite lava dome at Atsumi, northeast Japan.
2004 Elsevier B.V.

• Global Volcanism Program: Lava Domes (http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/tpgallery.cfm?category=Lava

Domes)
• USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms: Lava dome (http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaDome.
php)
• Sparks, R.S.J. (August 1997), "Causes and consequences of pressurisation in lava dome eruptions" (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V61-4177RWJ-1&_user=778111&_coverDate=08/31/
1997&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000043085&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=778111&md5=c0def50303a799fcb146e880c79fb89d), Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 150 (3-4): 177–189, Bibcode 1997E&PSL.150..177S, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00109-X
• Newhall, C.G.; Melson., W.G. (September 1983), "Explosive activity associated with the growth of volcanic
domes" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VCS-48B0RF7-2W&
_user=778111&_coverDate=09/30/1983&_fmt=abstract&_orig=search&_cdi=5962&view=c&
_acct=C000043085&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=778111&
md5=8da52641a1e571b220630bba6cf622f3&ref=full), Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 17
(1-4): 111–131, doi:10.1016/0377-0273(83)90064-1
Submarine volcano 286

Submarine volcano
Submarine volcanoes are underwater fissures in the Earth's surface
from which magma can erupt. They are estimated to account for 75%
of annual magma output. The vast majority are located near areas of
tectonic plate movement, known as ocean ridges. Although most are
located in the depths of seas and oceans, some also exist in shallow
water, which can spew material into the air during an eruption.
Hydrothermal vents, sites of abundant biological activity, are
commonly found near submarine volcanoes.
Submarine volcano in the Bransfield Strait,
The presence of water can greatly alter the characteristics of a volcanic Antarctica
eruption and the explosions made by these. For instance, the increased
thermal conductivity of water causes magma to cool and solidify much
more quickly than in a terrestrial eruption, often turning it into a
volcanic glass. Below ocean depths of about 2200 meters where the
pressure exceeds 218 atmospheres, the critical pressure of water, it can
no longer boil; it becomes a supercritical fluid. Without boiling sounds,
deep-sea volcanoes are difficult to detect at great distances using
hydrophones.
Ocean ridge
The lava formed by submarine volcanoes is quite different from
terrestrial lava. Upon contact with water, a solid crust forms around the
lava. Advancing lava flows into this crust, forming what is known as
pillow lava.
Scientists still have much to learn about the location and activity of
underwater volcanoes. The Kolumbo underwater volcano in the
Aegean Sea

submarine volcano, West Mata, May 2009

Pillow lava formed by a submarine volcano

Submarine volcano 287

was discovered in 1650 when it burst

from the sea and erupted, killing 70
people on the nearby island of
Santorini. More recently, NOAA's
Office of Ocean Exploration has
funded missions to explore submarine
volcanoes. Most notably, these have
been the Ring of Fire missions to the
Mariana Arc in the Pacific Ocean.
Using Remote Operated Vehicles,
scientists studied underwater eruptions,
Spreading ridges volcanoes map
ponds of molten sulfur, black smoker
chimneys and even marine life adapted
to this deep, hot environment.

Many submarine volcanoes are usually

found as seamounts. These are
typically formed from extinct
volcanoes, that rise abruptly and are
usually found rising from a seafloor of
1,000 - 4,000 meters depth. They are
defined by oceanographers as
independent features that rise to at
least 1,000 meters above the seafloor. Map of world's major seamounts

The peaks are often found hundreds to

thousands of meters below the surface,
and are therefore considered to be
within the deep sea.[1] An estimated
30,000 seamounts occur across the
globe, with only a few having been
studied. However, some seamounts are
also unusual. For example, while the
summits of seamounts are normally
hundreds of meters below sea level, the
Bowie Seamount in Canada's Pacific
waters rises from a depth of about
3,000 meters to within 24 meters of the
sea surface.

Map of world's major hotspots

References
[1] Nybakken, James W. and Bertness, Mark
D., 2005. Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach. Sixth Edition. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco

External links
• Volcano Information from the Deep Ocean Exploration Institute (http://www.whoi.edu/institutes/doei/
viewTopic.do?o=read&id=121), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Submarine volcano 288

• Volcano World (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/) - now maintained by the Department of Geosciences at

Oregon State University
• Britannica - Submarine Volcanoes (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-24467)
• United States Geological Survey (http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/SubmarineVolcano/
description_submarine_volcano.html)
• Ring of Fire Exploration Mission (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/welcome.html)

Guyot
For the French viticulturist, see Jules Guyot. For the Old French name, see Guiot.
A guyot English pronunciation: /ˈɡiːjoʊ/,
also known as a tablemount, is an
isolated underwater volcanic mountain
(seamount), with a flat top over 200
meters (660 feet) below the surface of
the sea. The diameters of these flat
summits can exceed 10 km (6 miles).[1]
The Bear Seamount, a Guyot
The guyot was named after the
Swiss-American geographer and
geologist Arnold Henry Guyot (died 1884). The term was coined by Harry Hammond Hess. Guyots are most
commonly found in the Pacific Ocean. Guyots show evidence of having been above the surface with gradual
subsidence through stages from fringed reefed mountain, coral atoll, and finally a flat topped submerged mountain.
Their flatness is due to erosion by waves, winds, and atmospheric processes.[1] The steepness gradient of most
guyots is about 20 degrees. To technically be considered a guyot or tablemount, they must stand at least 3000 ft (900
m) tall. However, there are many undersea mounts that can range from just less than 300 ft to around 3000 ft. Very
large oceanic volcanic constructions, hundreds of kilometers across, are called oceanic plateaus.[2] Seamounts are
made by extrusion of lavas piped upward in stages from sources within the Earth's mantle to vents on the seafloor.
Seamounts provide data on movements of tectonic plates on which they ride, and on the rheology of the underlying
lithosphere. The trend of a seamount chain traces the direction of motion of the lithospheric plate over a more or less
fixed heat source in the underlying asthenosphere part of the Earth's mantle.[3] There are thought to be an estimated
2,000 seamounts in the Pacific basin. The Emperor Seamounts are an excellent example of an entire volcanic chain
undergoing this process and contain many guyots among their other examples.

Another factor contributing to the guyots being underwater has to do with the oceanic ridges, such as the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean. Mid-ocean ridges gradually spread apart over time, due to molten lava
being pushed up under the surface of the earth and creating new rock. As the mid-ocean ridges spread apart, the
guyots move with them, thus continually sinking deeper into the depths of the ocean. Thus, the greater amount of
time that passes, the deeper the guyots become.[4] Although guyots can be hundreds of millions of years old, there
have been some recently discovered guyots that were only formed within the last 1 million years, including Bowie
Seamount on the coast of British Columbia, Canada.
One guyot in particular, the Great Meteor Tablemount in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, stands at more than 4000 m
(13,120 ft). The guyot's diameter is 110 km (70 mi).[5] Guyots are also associated with specific lifeforms and varying
amounts of organic matter. Local increases in chlorophyll a, enhanced carbon incorporation rates and changes in
phytoplankton species composition were associated with the seamount.[6]
Guyots were first recognized by Harry Hammond Hess in 1965 who collected data using echo-sounding equipment
on a ship he commanded during World War II. The data showed the configuration of the seafloor where he saw that
Guyot 289

some undersea mountains had flat tops. The geology building at Princeton University is, and was, called Guyot Hall
(being named after the 18th century geographer Arnold Henry Guyot.[7] Guyot Hall has a flat roof, so Hess called
these undersea mountains guyots (because they resembled Guyot Hall). Hess postulated they were once volcanic
islands that were beheaded by wave action yet they are now deep under sea level. This idea was used to help bolster
the theory of plate tectonics.

References
[1] Guyot (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 250080/ guyot) Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2010. Retrieved January 14, 2010.
[2] Seamount and guyot: Information and Much More from Answers.com (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/
seamount-and-guyot?cat=technology)
[3] Seamounts are made by extrusion of lavas piped upward in stages from sources within the Earth's mantle to vents on the seafloor. Seamounts
provide data on movements of tectonic plates on which they ride, and on the rheology of the underlying lithosphere. The trend of a seamount
chain traces the direction of motion of the lithospheric plate over a more or less fixed heat source in the underlying asthenosphere part of the
Earth's mantle.
[4] Guyot (http:/ / www. utdallas. edu/ ~pujana/ oceans/ guyot. html)
[5] Great Meteor Tablemount (volcanic mountain, Atlantic Ocean) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/
topic-243463/ Great-Meteor-Tablemount)
[6] |Sahfos|| (http:/ / www. sahfos. ac. uk/ bibliography_M. htm)
[7] http:/ / etcweb. princeton. edu/ CampusWWW/ Companion/ guyot_arnold. html Guyot, Arnold in A Princeton Companion

External links
• Wilde guyot map from Texas A&M (http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter03/
chapter03_03.htm)

Desert
A desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low
amount of precipitation, less than enough to support growth of most
plants. Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual
precipitation of less than 250 millimetres (10 in) per year,[1] [2] or as
areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as Largest non-polar deserts
precipitation.[3] In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts
are classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk (temperate desert). In the
Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified
as arid megathermal climates.[4] [5]

Hills in the Judean desert

Desert 290

Geography
Deserts are part of a wide classification of regions that, on an average
annual basis, have a moisture deficit (i.e. they can potentially lose
more than is received). Deserts are located where vegetation cover is
sparse to almost nonexistent.[1] [6] Deserts take up about one fifth
(20%) of the Earth's land surface.[1] Hot deserts usually have a large
diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime
temperatures, and low nighttime temperatures (due to extremely low
A satellite image of the Sahara, the world's
humidity). In hot deserts the temperature in the daytime can reach 45
largest hot desert.
°C/113 °F or higher in the summer, and dip to 0 °C/32 °F or lower at
nighttime in the winter. Water vapor in the atmosphere acts to trap long
wave infrared radiation from the ground, and dry desert air is incapable
of blocking sunlight during the day (due to absence of clouds) or
trapping heat during the night. Thus, during daylight most of the sun's
heat reaches the ground, and as soon as the sun sets the desert cools
quickly by radiating its heat into space. Urban areas in deserts lack
large (more than 14 °C/25 °F) daily temperature variations, partially
due to the urban heat island effect.

Many deserts are formed by rain shadows; mountains blocking the path
The snow surface at Dome C Station in
of precipitation to the desert (on the lee side of the mountain). Deserts
Antarctica is representative of the majority of the
are often composed of sand and rocky surfaces. Sand dunes called ergs continent's surface.
and stony surfaces called hamada surfaces compose a minority of
desert surfaces. Exposures of rocky terrain are typical, and reflect
minimal soil development and sparseness of vegetation. The soil is rocky because of the low chemical weathering,
and the relative absence of a humus fraction.

Bottomlands may be salt-covered flats. Eolian processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes. Polar deserts
(also seen as "cold deserts") have similar features, except the main form of precipitation is snow rather than rain.
Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert (composed of about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock).
Some of the barren rock is to be found in the so-called Dry Valleys of Antarctica that almost never get snow, which
can have ice-encrusted saline lakes that suggest evaporation far greater than the rare snowfall due to the strong
katabatic winds that evaporate even ice.
The largest hot desert is the Sahara in northern Africa, covering 9 million square kilometres and 12 countries.
Deserts sometimes contain valuable mineral deposits that were formed in the arid environment or that were exposed
by erosion. Due to extreme and consistent dryness, some deserts are ideal places for natural preservation of artifacts
and fossils.
Desert 291

The ten largest deserts

Rank Desert Area (km²) Area (mi²)

1 Antarctic Desert (Antarctica) 13,829,430 5,339,573

2 Sahara Desert (Africa) 9,100,000+ 3,320,000+

3 Arctic Desert (Arctic) 2,600,000+ 1,003,600+

4 Arabian Desert (Middle East) 2,330,000 900,000

5 Gobi Desert (Asia) 1,300,000 500,000

6 Kalahari Desert (Africa) 900,000 360,000

7 Patagonian Desert (South America) 670,000 260,000

8 Great Victoria Desert (Australia) 647,000 250,000

9 Syrian Desert (Middle East) 520,000 200,000

10 Great Basin Desert (North America) 492,000 190,000

Etymology
English desert and its Romance cognates (including Italian and
Portuguese deserto, French désert and Spanish desierto) all come from
the ecclesiastical Latin dēsertum (originally "an abandoned place"), a
participle of dēserere, "to abandon." (See desertion.) The correlation
between aridity and sparse population is complex and dynamic,
varying by culture, era, and technologies; thus the use of the word
desert can cause confusion. In English prior to the 20th century, desert
was often used in the sense of "unpopulated area", without specific
The Thar Desert near Jaisalmer, India.
reference to aridity; but today the word is most often used in its
climate-science sense (an area of low precipitation)—and a desert may
be quite heavily populated, with millions of inhabitants. Phrases such as "desert island" and "Great American Desert"
in previous centuries did not necessarily imply sand or aridity; their focus was the sparse population. However, the
connotation of a hot, parched, and sandy place often influences today's popular interpretation of those phrases.

Classification
In 1961, Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three
categories according to the amount of precipitation they received. In
this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least 12
consecutive months without rainfall, arid lands have less than 250 mm
(10 in) of annual rainfall, and semiarid lands have a mean annual
precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm (10–20 in). Arid and
extremely arid lands are deserts, and semiarid areas are generally Tadrart Acacus desert in western Libya, part of
referred to as steppes.[1] the Sahara.

Definition
Desert 292

Measurement of rainfall alone cannot provide an accurate definition of what a desert is because being arid also
depends on evaporation, which depends in part on temperature. For example, Phoenix, Arizona receives less than
250 millimeters (10 in) of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert due to its
arid adapted plants. The North Slope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 millimeters (10 in) of
precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert.[7] Other regions of the world have cold deserts,
including areas of the Himalayas[8] and other high altitude areas in other parts of the world.[9] Polar deserts cover
much of the ice free areas of the arctic and Antarctic.[10] [11]
Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of rainfall in providing a scientific measurement-based
definition of a desert. The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P − PE ± S, wherein P is
precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water. Evapotranspiration
is the combination of water loss through atmospheric evaporation and through the life processes of plants. Potential
evapotranspiration, then, is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region. As an example, Tucson,
Arizona receives about 300 millimeters (12 in) of rain per year, however about 2500 millimeters (100 in) of water
could evaporate over the course of a year. In other words, about 8 times more water could evaporate from the region
than actually falls. Rates of evapotranspiration in cold regions such as Alaska are much lower because of the lack of
heat to aid in the evaporation process.
There are different forms of deserts. Cold deserts can be covered in snow or ice; frozen water unavailable to plant
life. These are more commonly referred to as tundra if a short season of above-freezing temperatures is experienced,
or as an ice cap if the temperature remains below freezing year-round, rendering the land almost completely lifeless.
Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night (for the latitude) because of the lack of the moderating
effect of water. In some parts of the world, deserts are created by a rain shadow effect in which air masses lose much
of their moisture as they move over a mountain range; other areas are arid by virtue of being very far from the
nearest available sources of moisture.
Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant
weather pattern as trade wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal,
monsoon, or polar deserts. Former desert areas presently in non-arid
environments are paleodeserts.
Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude; the most
prominent example is found north of the Himalayas, especially in
Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, in parts of the Kunlun
Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau. Many locations within this
category have elevations exceeding 3,000 meters (10,000 ft) and the
The Agasthiyamalai hills cut off Tirunelveli in
thermal regime can be hemiboreal. These places owe their profound India from the monsoons, creating a rainshadow
aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40 mm or region.
1.5 in) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture.
Montane deserts are normally cold.

Rain shadow deserts form when tall mountain ranges block clouds from reaching areas in the direction the wind is
going. As the air moves over the mountains, it cools and moisture condenses, causing precipitation on the windward
side. When that air reaches the leeward side, it is dry because it has lost the majority of its moisture, resulting in a
desert. The air then warms, expands, and blows across the desert. The warm, desiccated air takes with it any
remaining moisture in the desert.
Desert 293

Desert features
Sand covers only about 20% of Earth's deserts. Most of the sand is in
sand sheets and sand seas—vast regions of undulating dunes
resembling ocean waves "frozen" in an instant of time. In general,
there are five forms of deserts:
• Mountain and basin deserts
• Hamada deserts, which consist of plateau landforms
• Regs, which consist of rock pavements
• Ergs, which are formed by sand seas
• Intermontane Basins
Nearly all desert surfaces are plains where eolian deflation—removal
of fine-grained material by the wind—has exposed loose gravels
consisting predominantly of pebbles but with occasional cobbles.
The remaining surfaces of arid lands are composed of exposed bedrock
outcrops, desert soils, and fluvial deposits including alluvial fans,
playas, desert lakes, and oases. Bedrock outcrops occur as small Satellite view of Al-Dahna desert in Saudi Arabia
mountains surrounded by extensive erosional plains. showing different depositional features

Several different types of dunes exist. Barchan dunes are produced by

strong winds blowing across a level surface and are crescent-shaped. Longitudinal or seif dunes are dunes that are
parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction. Transverse dunes run at a right angle to the constant
wind direction. Star dunes are star-shaped and have several ridges that spread out around a point.
Oases are vegetated areas moistened by springs, wells, or by irrigation. Many are artificial. Oases are often the only
places in deserts that support crops and permanent habitation.

Fauna and flora

Deserts have a reputation for supporting very little life, but in reality
deserts often have high biodiversity, including animals that remain
hidden during daylight hours to control body temperature or to limit
moisture needs. Some fauna includes the kangaroo rat, coyote, jack
rabbit, and many lizards. These animals adapted to live in deserts are
called xerocoles. Many desert animals (and plants) show especially
clear evolutionary adaptations for water conservation or heat tolerance,
and so are often studied in comparative physiology, ecophysiology,
and evolutionary physiology. One well-studied example is the
Prickly pear flower
specializations of mammalian kidneys shown by desert-inhabiting
species.[12] Many examples of convergent evolution have been
identified in desert organisms, including between cacti and Euphorbia, kangaroo rats and jerboas, Phrynosoma and
Moloch lizards.

Some flora includes shrubs, Prickly Pears, Desert Holly, and the Brittlebush. Most desert plants are drought- or
salt-tolerant, such as xerophytes. Some store water in their leaves, roots, and stems. Other desert plants have long
taproots that penetrate to the water table if
Desert 294

present, or have adapted to the weather by having wide-spreading roots

to absorb water from a greater area of the ground. Another adaptation
is the development of small, spiny leaves which shed less moisture
than deciduous leaves with greater surface areas. The stems and leaves
of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand-carrying winds and
protect the ground from erosion. Even small fungi and microscopic
plant organisms found on the soil surface (so-called cryptobiotic soil)
can be a vital link in preventing erosion and providing support for
other living organisms.
Organ Pipe cactus in Arizona
Deserts typically have a plant cover that is sparse but enormously
diverse. The giant saguaro cacti of the Sonoran Desert provide nests
for desert birds and serve as "trees" of the desert. Saguaro grow slowly
but may live up to 200 years. When 9 years old, they are about 15
centimeters (6 in) high. After about 75 years, the cacti develop their
first branches. When fully grown, saguaro cacti are 15 meters (50 ft)
tall and weigh as much as 10 tons. They dot the Sonoran and reinforce
the general impression of deserts as cactus-rich land.

Although cacti are often thought of as characteristic desert plants, other

types of plants have adapted well to the arid environment. They
include the pea and sunflower families. Cold deserts have grasses and Saguaro cacti in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona.
shrubs as dominant vegetation.

Flora of Baja California Desert, Cataviña region,

Mexico

Water
Atacama is the driest place on Earth[13] [14] [15] [16] and is virtually
sterile because it is blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes
mountains and by the Chilean Coast Range. The cold Humboldt
Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific are essential to keep the dry
climate of the Atacama. The average rainfall in the Chilean region of
Antofagasta is just 1 mm per year. Some weather stations in the
Atacama have never received rain. Evidence suggests that the Atacama
may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971. It is so
[13]
Atacama, the world's driest desert
Desert 295

arid that mountains that reach as high as 6,885 meters (22,590 feet) are completely free of glaciers and, in the
southern part from 25°S to 27°S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary, though permafrost extends
down to an altitude of 4,400 meters and is continuous above 5,600 meters.
Rain does fall occasionally in deserts, and desert storms are often
violent. A record 44 millimeters (1.7 in) of rain once fell within 3
hours in the Sahara. Large Saharan storms may deliver up to 1
millimeter per minute. Normally dry stream channels, called arroyos or
wadis, can quickly fill after heavy rains, and flash floods make these
channels dangerous.

A thunderstorm hits Wah Wah Valley, Utah

Though little rain falls in deserts, deserts receive runoff from

ephemeral, or short-lived, streams fed considerable quantities of
sediment for a day or two. Although most deserts are in basins with
closed or interior drainage, a few deserts are crossed by 'exotic' rivers
that derive their water from outside the desert. Such rivers infiltrate
soils and evaporate large amounts of water on their journeys through
the deserts, but their volumes are such that they maintain their
continuity. The Nile River, the Colorado River, and the Yellow River
are exotic rivers that flow through deserts to deliver their sediments to
A flash flood in the Gobi
the sea. Deserts may also have underground springs, rivers, or
reservoirs that lie close to the surface, or deep underground. Plants that
have not completely adapted to sporadic rainfalls in a desert environment may tap into underground water sources
that do not exceed the reach of their root systems.

While deserts are well-known for their lack of water, some groups have adapted ways to find water in this harsh
environment. The Bedouin, for example, turn over half-buried stones just before dawn so dew forms on them.[17]
Lakes form where rainfall or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are generally shallow,
temporary, and salty. Because these lakes are shallow and have a low bottom gradient, wind stress may cause the
lake waters to move over many square kilometers. When small lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or hardpan. The
flat area of clay, silt, or sand encrusted with salt that forms is known as a playa or a sink. There are more than a
hundred playas in North American deserts. Most are relics of large lakes that existed during the last ice age about
12,000 years ago. Lake Bonneville was a 52,000-square-kilometer (20,000 mi²) lake almost 300 meters (1000 ft)
deep in Utah, Nevada, and Idaho during the Ice Age. Today the remnants of Lake Bonneville include Utah's Great
Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake. Because playas are arid landforms from a wetter past, they contain useful
clues to climatic change.
When the occasional precipitation does occur, it erodes the desert rocks quickly.
The flat terrains of hardpans and playas make them excellent racetracks and natural runways for airplanes and
spacecraft. Ground-vehicle speed records have been established on the flat lakebeds of the Black Rock Desert in
Nevada and Bonneville Speedway in Utah. Space shuttles and flight-test aircraft land on Rogers Lake Playa at
Edwards Air Force Base in California.
Desert 296

Formation of hot deserts

There are four main, interlinked causes of hot deserts:
• The formation of the subtropical high-pressure cell.
• The rain shadow effect in the belt of easterly trade winds.
• The effect of the cold currents off the west coast of the continents at these latitudes.
• The depositing sands of a desert along its border into the fertile land
Hot deserts (like cold deserts) may result in average temperature cooling[18] because they reflect more of the
incoming light (their albedo is higher than that of water or forests).

Mineral resources
Deserts may contain great amounts of mineral resources over their
entire surface. This occurrence in minerals also determines the color.
For example, the red color of many sand deserts is a result of the
occurrence of laterite.[19]
Some mineral deposits are formed, improved, or preserved by geologic
processes that occur in arid lands as a consequence of climate. Ground
water leaches ore minerals and redeposits them in zones near the water
table. This leaching process concentrates these minerals as ore that can
be mined.
A mining plant near Jodhpur, India
Evaporation in arid lands enriches mineral accumulation in their lakes.
Lake beds known as playas may be sources of mineral deposits formed by evaporation. Water evaporating in closed
basins precipitates minerals such as gypsum, salts (including sodium nitrate and sodium chloride), and borates. The
minerals formed in these evaporite deposits depend on the composition and temperature of the saline waters at the
time of deposition.
Significant evaporite resources occur in the Great Basin Desert of the United States, mineral deposits made famous
by the "20-mule teams" that once hauled borax-laden wagons from Death Valley to the railroad. Boron, from borax
and borate evaporites, is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of glass, enamel, agricultural chemicals, water
softeners, and pharmaceuticals. Borates are mined from evaporite deposits at Searles Lake, California, and other
desert locations. The total value of chemicals that have been produced from Searles Lake substantially exceeds US$1
billion.
The Atacama Desert of Chile is unique among the deserts of the world in its great abundance of saline minerals.
Sodium nitrate has been mined for explosives and fertilizer in the Atacama since the middle of the 19th century.
Nearly 3 million metric tons were mined during World War I.
Valuable minerals located in arid lands include copper in the United States, Chile, Peru, and Iran; iron and lead-zinc
ore in Australia; and gold, silver, and uranium deposits in Australia and the United States. Nonmetallic mineral
resources and rocks such as beryllium, mica, lithium, clays, pumice, and scoria also occur in arid regions. Sodium
carbonate, sulfate, borate, nitrate, lithium, bromine, iodine, calcium, and strontium compounds come from sediments
and near-surface brines formed by evaporation of inland bodies of water, often during geologically recent times.
The Green River Formation of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah contains alluvial fan deposits and playa evaporites
created in a huge lake whose level fluctuated for millions of years. Economically significant deposits of trona, a
major source of sodium compounds, and thick layers of oil shale were created in the arid environment.
Some of the more productive petroleum areas on Earth are found in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and the
Mideast, although the oil fields were originally formed in shallow marine environments. Recent climate change has
placed these reservoirs in an arid environment. It's noteworthy that Ghawar, the world's largest and most productive
Desert 297

oilfield is mostly under the Empty Quarter and Al-Dahna deserts.

Other oil reservoirs, however, are presumed to be eolian in origin and are presently found in humid environments.
The Rotliegendes, a hydrocarbon reservoir in the North Sea, is associated with extensive evaporite deposits. Many of
the major U.S. hydrocarbon resources may come from eolian sands. Ancient alluvial fan sequences may also be
hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Solar energy resources

Deserts are increasingly seen as sources for solar energy. The Negev Desert and the surrounding area, including the
Arava Valley, are the sunniest parts of Israel and little of this land is arable, which is why it has become the center of
the Israeli solar industry.[20] David Faiman, a world expert on solar energy, feels the energy needs of a country like
Israel could be met by building solar energy plants in the Negev.[21] Faiman also feels the technology now exists to
supply all of the world's electricity needs with 10% of the Sahara.[21] Solel has nine fields of solar collectors in the
Mojave Desert of California.[22] It recently signed a contract to build the Mojave Solar Park, which will be the
world's largest solar generating plant.[23] [24]

Human life in deserts

A desert is a hostile, potentially deadly environment for unprepared
humans. In hot deserts, high temperatures cause rapid loss of water due
to sweating, and the absence of water sources with which to replenish
it can result in dehydration and death within a few days. In addition,
unprotected humans are also at risk from heatstroke. Humans may also
have to adapt to sandstorms in some deserts, not just in their adverse
effects on respiratory systems and eyes, but also in their potentially
harmful effects on equipment such as filters, vehicles and
communication equipment. Sandstorms can last for hours, sometimes
Mahktesh Gadol, an erosional basin in the Negev
even days. This makes surviving in the desert quite difficult for
Desert of southern Israel
humans.

Cooking in a desert

Despite this, some cultures have made hot deserts their home for thousands of years, including the Bedouin, Tuareg
and Pueblo people. Modern technology, including advanced irrigation systems, desalinization and air conditioning
have made deserts much more hospitable. In the United States and Australia for example, desert farming has found
extensive use. In cold deserts, hypothermia and frostbite are the chief hazards, as well as dehydration in the absence
of a source of heat to melt ice for drinking. Falling through pack-ice or surface ice layers into freezing water is a
particular danger requiring emergency action to prevent rapid hypothermia. Starvation is also a hazard; in low
Desert 298

temperatures the body requires much more food energy to maintain body heat and to move. As with hot deserts,
some people such as the Inuit have adapted to the harsh conditions of cold deserts. Most traditional human life in
deserts is nomadic. It depends in hot deserts on finding water, and on following infrequent rains to obtain grazing for
livestock. In cold deserts, it depends on finding good hunting and fishing grounds, on sheltering from blizzards and
winter extremes, and on storing enough food for winter. Permanent settlement in both kinds of deserts requires
permanent water and food sources and adequate shelter, or the technology and energy sources to provide it.
Many deserts are flat and featureless, lacking landmarks, or composed
of repeating landforms such as sand dunes or the jumbled ice-fields of
glaciers. Advanced skills or devices are required to navigate through
such landscapes and inexperienced travellers may perish when supplies
run out after becoming lost. In addition sandstorms or blizzards may
cause disorientation in severely reduced visibility.

Kolob Canyon, part of Zion National Park, Utah,

United States is part of the larger desert the
Colorado Plateau.

The danger represented by wild animals in deserts has been featured in explorers' accounts but does not cause higher
rates of death than in other environments such as rain forests or savanna woodland, and generally does not by itself
affect human distribution. Defense against polar bears may be advisable in some areas of the Arctic, as may
precautions against venomous snakes and scorpions in choosing sites at which to camp in some hot deserts.

References
[1] "What is a desert?" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ deserts/ what/ ). Pubs.usgs.gov. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[2] According to What is a desert? (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ gip/ deserts/ what/ ), the 250 mm threshold definition is attributed to Peveril Meigs.
[3] "desert" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-70815/ desert). Encyclopædia Britannica online. . Retrieved 2008-02-09.
[4] Fredlund, D.G.; Rahardjo, H. (1993) (PDF). Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils (http:/ / www. soilvision. com/ subdomains/
unsaturatedsoil. com/ Docs/ chapter1UST. pdf). Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0471850083. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.
[5] Glossary of Meteorology. Megathermal Climate. (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=megathermal-climate1) Retrieved
on 2008-05-21.
[6] 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica (http:/ / encyclopedia. jrank. org/ Cambridge/ entries/ 066/ desert. html)
[7] Heinrich Walter; Siegmar-W. Breckle (2002). Walter's Vegetation of the earth: the ecological systems of the geo-biosphere (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=SdaCSwxK5bIC& pg=PA457). Springer. pp. 457–. ISBN 9783540433156. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[8] S.S. Negi (1 March 2002). Cold Deserts of India (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=54RgJ6FgMl0C& pg=PA9). Indus Publishing. pp. 9–.
ISBN 9788173871276. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[9] Robert V. Rohli; Anthony J. Vega (2008). Climatology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Zhbqbrg2XswC& pg=PA207). Jones & Bartlett
Learning. pp. 207–. ISBN 9780763738280. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[10] David Neville Thomas; Gordon Elliott Fogg; P. Convey; C.H. Fritsen, J.-M. Gili (2008). The biology of polar regions (http:/ / books.
google. com/ ?id=-ErSVcvhI4oC& pg=PA64). Oxford University Press. pp. 64–. ISBN 9780199298136. . Retrieved 24 July 2010.
[11] W. Berry Lyons; C. Howard-Williams; Ian Hawes (1997). Ecosystem processes in Antarctic ice-free landscapes: proceedings of an
International Workshop on Polar Desert Ecosystems : Christchurch, New Zealand, 1–4 July 1996 (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=VKtCnLa5uaYC& pg=PA3). Taylor & Francis. pp. 3–. ISBN 9789054109259. . Retrieved 25 July 2010.
[12] Al-kahtani, M.A.; C. Zuleta, E. Caviedes-Vidal, and T. Garland, Jr. (2004). "Kidney mass and relative medullary thickness of rodents in
relation to habitat, body size, and phylogeny" (http:/ / www. biology. ucr. edu/ people/ faculty/ Garland/ Al-kahtaniEA2004. pdf).
Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77 (3): 346–365. doi:10.1086/420941. PMID 15286910. .
[13] "Nationalgeographic.com" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ ngm/ 0308/ feature3/ ). Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved
2010-10-16.
[14] "Extremescience.com" (http:/ / www. extremescience. com/ DriestPlace. htm). Extremescience.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[15] "NASA.gov" (http:/ / quest. nasa. gov/ challenges/ marsanalog/ egypt/ AtacamaAdAstra. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
Desert 299

[16] Boehm, Richard G.; Editors and writers of The World and Its People (2006). The World and Its People (2005 ed.). Columbus, Ohio:
Glencoe. p. 276. ISBN 0-07-860977-1.
[17] "PBS.org" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ lawrenceofarabia/ revolt/ water. html). PBS.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[18] "Celsias.com" (http:/ / www. celsias. com/ article/ all-about-albedo-lighter-world-cooler-world/ ). Celsias.com. 2008-12-26. . Retrieved
2010-10-16.
[19] Tsjaad by Dorrit van Dalen
[20] Head of Kibbutz Movement: We will not be discriminated against by the government (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/
Satellite?cid=1205420713036& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ Printer), Ehud Zion Waldoks, Jerusalem Post, March 10, 2008.
[21] Giant solar plants in Negev could power Israel's future (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2008/ 01/ 25/ faiman_negev_solar_plan/ ), John
Lettice, The Register, January 25, 2008
[22] "Israel21c.org" (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ bin/ en. jsp?enDispWho=Articles^l1721& enPage=BlankPage& enDisplay=view&
enDispWhat=object& enVersion=0& enZone=Technology). Israel21c.org. 2007-07-26. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[23] Looking to the sun (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ reportsfromabroad/ parry/ 20070815. html), Tom Parry, Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation, August 15, 2007.
[24] Sandler, Neal (2006-02-14). "Businessweek.com" (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ technology/ content/ feb2006/ tc20060214_533101.
htm). Businessweek.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-16.

External links
• "The Desert Biome" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/deserts.html). University of
California Museum of Paleontology. 1996.
• "Global Deserts Outlook" (http://www.unep.org/geo/gdoutlook/). United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). 2006., a report in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) series.
• Map with biodiversity scenarios for desert areas, from the Global Deserts Outlook (http://maps.grida.no/go/
graphic/relative_biodiversity_scenarios_for_deserts_2000_2050).
• Finding Water in the Desert (http://www.wikihow.com/Find-Water-in-the-Desert) - wikiHow page

Dry lake
Dry lakes are ephemeral lakebeds, or a remnant of an endorheic lake.
Such flats consist of fine-grained sediments infused with alkali salts.
Dry lakes are also referred to as alkali flats, sabkhas, playas or mud
flats. If the surface is primarily salt then they are called salt pans,
pans, hardpan or salt flats. (remnants of salt lakes)

Terminology
The Spanish word playa (pronounced [ˈplaʝa]) literally means "beach". Devil's Golf Course in Death Valley National
Park, western United States
Dry lakes are known by this name in some parts of Mexico and the
western United States. This term is also used on the Llano Estacado
and other parts of the Southern High Plains.
In South America, the usual term for a dry lake is salar, Spanish for "salt pan".
Pan is the term used in most of South Africa. These may include the small round highveld pans, typical of the
Chrissiesmeer area, to the extensive pans of the Northern Cape province, which are sometimes employed for land
speed record attempts. It is also used in Australia. Distinguished are salt pans and clay pans.
Dry lake 300

Hardpan is a dry terminus of an internally drained basin in a dry

climate, typically used in the Great Basin of the western US.
In Arabic, an alkali flat is called a sabkha (also spelled sabkhah,
subkha or sebkha) or shott (chott).
In Central Asia, a similar "cracked mud" salt flat is known as a takyr.

Black Rock Desert lakebed (Nevada, United

States)

In Iran salt flats are called kavir.

Formation
The surface of a dry lake is typically dry, hard and
rough during the dry season, but wet and very soft in
the rainy season. Dry lakes are generally small, round
depressions in the surface of the landscape.
A playa lake is formed when rain fills a round
depression in the landscape, creating a small lake. The
water is generally freshwater, When all of the water
evaporates, a playa is formed. The playa appears as a
flat bed of clay, generally encrusted with precipitated
salts. These evaporate minerals are a concentration of
weathering products that have been left behind. Some
examples of evaporite minerals are sodium carbonate,
The rarely-flooded Badwater Basin after the exceptionally wet winter
borax, and other salts. Playas are often found in
and spring of 2005, Death Valley National Park.
bajadas, a depositional landform of desert
environments.[1]

Dry lakes can also form when the water table intersects the surface and water seeps into them.
Dry lakes are typically formed in semi-arid to arid regions of the world. The largest concentration of dry lakes in the
world (nearly 22,000) is in the southern High Plains of Texas and eastern New Mexico.
Most dry lakes are small, however Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, near Potosí, the largest salt flat in the world is of 4,085
square miles (10,582 square km).
Many dry lakes contain shallow water during the rainy season, especially during wet years. If the layer of water is
thin and is moved around the dry lake by wind, an exceedingly hard and smooth surface may develop. Thicker layers
of water may result in a "cracked-mud" surface and "teepee" structure desiccation features. Very little water can
result in dune formation.
Dry lake 301

Ecology
While the dry lake itself will be devoid of vegetation, they are commonly ringed by shadscale, saltbrush and other
salt-tolerant plants that provide critical winter fodder for livestock and other herbivores.
Threats to dry lakes include pollution from concentrated animal feeding operations such as cattle feedlots and
dairies, erosion, fertilizer, pesticide and sediment runoff from farms, and overgrazing.

Human use
The extremely flat, smooth and hard surfaces of dry lakes make them
ideal for motor vehicles and bicycles. Furthermore, large-sized dry
lakes are excellent spots for pursuing land speed records, as the
smoothness of the surface allows low-clearance vehicles to travel very
fast without any risk of disruption by surface irregularities, and the
path traveled has no obstacles to avoid. The dry lakes at Bonneville
Salt Flats in Utah and Black Rock Desert in Nevada have both been
The Mosaic Company chemical plant processes
used for setting land speed records. Dry lake beds that do not fill with brines from Searles Dry Lake to make such
water at any time are sometimes used as locations for air bases, for products as trona
similar reasons. Examples include Area 51 in Nevada, and Edwards
Air Force Base (originally known as Muroc Dry Lake) in California.

Brines from the subsurface of dry lakes are often exploited for valuable minerals in solution. See, for example
Searles Dry Lake and Lithium resources.

United States regulation

Under United States law, a "playa lake" may be considered isolated wetlands, and may be eligible to enroll in the
new wetlands component of the Conservation Reserve Program, enacted in the 2002 farm bill(P.L. 107-171, Sec.
2101).[2]

Gallery

The dry lake Salt harvesting in Salar de Uyuni, A closeup photograph of salt Etosha Pan in
and shore of Bolivia, the world's largest salt growths on the crust of a dry northern
Lake Hart, an flat. lake. Namibia
endorheic desert
lake in South
Australia.
Dry lake 302

References
[1] Grotzinger, John, Thomas H. Jordan, Frank Press and Raymond Siever; Understanding Earth, Freeman, 5th Ed., 2006, ISBN
978-0716766827
[2] "CRS Report for Congress: Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition - Order Code 97-905" (http:/ / ncseonline.
org/ nle/ crsreports/ 05jun/ 97-905. pdf). . Retrieved November 30, 2009. "A temporary lake created in the lowest elevation of a basin in an
arid area that has no surface drain into another water body, such as a perennial stream or river. Lake water is removed either by evaporation
into the air or seepage into the ground."

Bibliography
• Briere, Peter R. (May 2002). "Playa, playa lake, sabkha: Proposed definitions for old terms". Journal of Arid
Environments (Elsevier) 45 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1006/jare.2000.0633.
• John H. Wellington, "Southern Africa: a geographical study", Chapter 16 LAKES AND PANS

Dune
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by
aeolian processes. Dunes occur in different forms and
sizes, formed by interaction with the wind. Most kinds of
dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is
pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the
lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is
called a slack. A "dune field" is an area covered by
extensive sand dunes. Large dune fields are known as
ergs.

Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes

running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the
beach. In most cases the dunes are important in
protecting the land against potential ravages by storm
waves from the sea. Although the most widely
distributed dunes are those associated with coastal
regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland
in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea
beds.

Dunes also form under the action of water flow (alluvial

processes), and on sand or gravel beds of rivers,
estuaries and the sea-bed.
The modern word "dune" came into English from French
Erg Chebbi, Morocco
circa 1790. In ancient times,
Dune 303

words cognate to "dune" probably had the

meaning of a built-up hill or citadel
fortification.[1]

Conservation
Dune habitats provide niches for highly
specialized plants and animals, including
numerous rare species and some endangered
species. Due to widespread human
population expansion, dunes face
Dunes of Maspalomas in Gran Canaria
destruction through land development and
recreational usages, as well as alteration to
prevent the encroachment of sand onto
inhabited areas. Some countries, notably the
United States, Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, the United Kingdom, and
Netherlands, have developed significant
programs of dune protection through the use
of sand dune stabilization. In the U.K., a
Biodiversity Action Plan has been
developed to assess dunes loss and to
prevent future dunes destruction. Avalanche deposits on a crest of the Kelso Dunes, Mojave National Preserve,
California.

Dunes in Taklamakan Desert as seen from outer space by NASA Landsat-7

Dune 304

Aeolian dune shapes

Crescentic
Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider
than they are long. The slipfaces are on the
concave sides of the dunes. These dunes form
under winds that blow consistently from one
direction, and they also are known as barchans,
or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic
dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces
than any other type of dune. A group of dunes
moved more than 100 metres per year between
1954 and 1959 in the China's Ningxia Province,
and similar speeds have been recorded in the
Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic
dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths
of more than 3 kilometres, are in China's
Taklamakan Desert.

Linear
Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes. They
may be more than 160 kilometres (99 mi) long. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many
form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement.
Linear loess hills known as pahas appear to be superficially similar. These hills appear to have been formed during
the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation.

Star
Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from
the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow
upward rather than laterally. They dominate the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around
the margins of the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of China,
the star dunes are up to 500 metres tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.

Dome
Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare, and these occur at the far upwind
margins of sand seas.

Parabolic
U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. These dunes are formed
from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a U-shaped depression. The elongated arms are
held in place by vegetation; the largest arm known on Earth reaches 12 km. Sometimes these dunes are called
U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their
crests point upwind. The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.
Dune 305

In plan view, these are U-shaped or V-shaped mounds of well-sorted, very fine to medium sand with elongated arms
that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune. There are slip faces that often occur on the outer side of the
nose and on the outer slopes of the arms.
These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower parts of the dune and
underlying soils. Parabolic dunes are dependent on the vegetation that covers them—grasses,shrubs,and trees, which
help anchor the trailing arms. In inland deserts, parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from
blowouts in sand sheets only partly anchored by vegetation. They can also originate from beach sands and extend
inland into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes.
Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their nose, where vegetation
stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand.
Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose. Compound parabolic
dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms. Complex parabolic dunes include subsidiary
superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or linear shapes.
Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly unidirectional. Although
these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind speeds, the effective winds associated with the
growth and migration of both the parabolic and crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction.
The grain size for these well-sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm. Parabolic dunes have loose
sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks. The inner slopes are mostly well packed and anchored by
vegetation, as are the corridors between individual dunes. Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction,
and, the inter-dune corridors are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in
between the trailing arms of the dune. However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing arms, can
be very difficult. Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is usually made up of loose sand
without much if any vegetation.

Longitudinal (Seif) dunes

Longitudinal dunes (also called Seif dunes, after the Arabic word for
"sword"), elongate parallel to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a
larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif dunes are
sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m
(980 ft) in height and 300 km (190 mi) in length. In the southern third
of the Arabian Peninsula, a region called the Empty Quarter because of
its total lack of population, a vast erg called Rub al Khali contains seif
dunes that stretch for almost 200 km and reach heights of over 300 m.
Seif dunes.
Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of the
usual wind direction occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the
development of a new wing and the over development of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then
becomes dominant for a lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing.
Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually it will be supplied
with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow under both wind conditions, thus
producing a seif dune. On a seif dune the slip face
Dune 306

develops on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the
slip face of a barchan faces the direction of movement. In the
sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans
may be formed because the wind is unidirectional.
A transverse dune is perpendicular to the prevailing wind,
probably caused by a steady build-up of sand on an already
existing minuscule mound.

Rub' al Khali seen by the ASTER instrument on

NASA's Terra satellite

Reversing dunes
Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing
dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically
have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions.
All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple, compound,
and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number
of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large
dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation
are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more
dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its
Complex dune: Dune 7 in the Namib desert, one
crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a of the tallest in the world.
wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the
formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has
changed.

Dune types

The Great Dune of Pyla is the largest dune in

Europe.
Dune 307

Sub-aqueous dunes
Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes (also known in geology as
megaripples) form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of
water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and
estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes
move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment
deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform
construction.[2]

These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing

remarkable similarity in wavelength and height. Sub-aqueous lithified dune (megaripple) from
Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, Utah.

their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding.

Lithified dunes
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune
becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals,
which can alter the color of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching
patterns, such as those seen in the Zion National Park in the western United States.
A slang term that is used in the Southwestern States (of the U.S.A.) for those consolidated and hardened sand dunes
is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels
could not gain traction on the rock.

Coastal dunes
Dunes form where constructive waves encourage the accumulation of
sand, and where prevailing onshore winds blow this sand inland.
There need to be obstacles for example, vegetation, pebbles and so on.
to trap the moving sand grains. As the sand grains get trapped they
start to accumulate, starting dune formation. The wind then starts to
affect the mound of sand by eroding sand particles from the windward
Coastal dunes on the Kurnell Peninsula in
side and depositing them on the leeward side. Gradually this action Southern Sydney
causes the dune to “migrate” inland, as it does so it accumulates more
and more sand. Dunes provide privacy and shelter from the wind.
Dune 308

Ecological succession on coastal dunes

As a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The

conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt
spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The
dune is well drained and often dry, and composed
of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting
seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients
to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune.
These pioneer species are marram grass, sea wort
grass and other sea grasses in the United Kingdom.
These plants are well adapted to the harsh
conditions of the fore-dune typically having deep
roots which reach the water table, root nodules that
Coastal dunes in Curonian spit.
produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma,
reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind
the sand together, and the dune grows into a fore dune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add
nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths
and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce
transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil
pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching.[3] Coniferous forests and
heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems.

Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching
occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed
tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune
slacks soil to be waterlogged and where only marsh plants can survive. These plants would include: creeping willow,
cotton grass, yellow ins, reeds, and rushes. As for the species, there is a tendency for natterjack toads to breed here.

Desertification
Sand dunes can have a negative impact on humans when they encroach
on human habitats. Sand dunes move via a few different means, all of
them helped along by wind. One way that dunes can move is by
saltation, where sand particles skip along the ground like a bouncing
ball. When these skipping particles land, they may knock into other
particles and cause them to move as well, in a process known as creep.
With slightly stronger winds, particles collide in mid-air, causing sheet
flows. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of metres through
One way of preventing sand from accumulating
such sheet flows. Also as in the case of snow, sand avalanches, falling
in roadways is planting trees and vegetation along
down the slipface of the dunes - that face away from the winds - also the road.
move the dunes forward.

Sand threatens buildings and crops in Africa, the Middle East, and China. Drenching sand dunes with oil stops their
migration, but this approach is quite destructive to the dunes' animal habitats and uses a valuable resource. Sand
fences might also slow their movement to a crawl, but geologists are still analyzing results for the optimum fence
designs. Preventing sand dunes from overwhelming towns, villages, and agricultural areas has become a priority for
the United Nations Environment Programme. Planting dunes with vegetation also helps to stabilise them.
Dune 309

Examples

Africa
• Alexandria Coastal Dunefields, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa [4]
• Western Sahara

Asia
• Akrotiri Sand Dune, Lemesos, Cyprus
• The dunes in the Thar desert in Rajasthan, India
Sand dunes of Khongoryn Els, Gurvansaikhan
• Tottori Sand Dunes, Tottori Prefecture, Japan
NP, Mongolia.
• Rig-e Jenn in the Central Desert of Iran.
• Rig-e Lut in the Southeast of Iran.
• The Ilocos Norte Sand Dunes in the Philippines, particularly Paoay Sand Dunes.
• Mer'eb Dune (also written as Merheb) in United Arab Emirates, used as an arena for motor sports and skiing.

Europe
• The Dune of Pyla, not far from Bordeaux, France, is the largest known sand dune in Europe
• Sands of Forvie within the Ythan Estuary complex, Aberdeenshire, Scotland.
• Oxwich Dunes, near Swansea, is on the Gower Peninsula in Wales.
• Winterton Dunes – Norfolk, England
• Słowiński National Park, Poland

North America
• The Athabasca Sand Dunes, the northmost sand dunes in the world,
located in the Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park,
Saskatchewan.
• The Kelso Dunes in the Mojave Desert of California.
• Great Sand Dunes National Park, Colorado.
• White Sands National Monument, New Mexico.
• Little Sahara Recreation Area, Utah.
• Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Indiana, on the south shore of
Gypsum sand at White Sands NM
Lake Michigan.
• Warren Dunes State Park and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, on the east shore of Lake
Michigan.
• Grand Sable Dunes, in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan.
• Algodones Dunes near Brawley, California.
• Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, on the central coast of California.
• Monahans Sandhills State Park near Odessa, Texas.
• Beaver Dunes State Park near Beaver, Oklahoma.
• The Killpecker sand dunes of the Red Desert in southwestern Wyoming.
• Jockey's Ridge State Park – on the Outer Banks, North Carolina.
• Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area near Florence, Oregon, on the Pacific Coast.
• Bruneau Dunes State Park - Owyhee Desert, Idaho
Dune 310

South America
• Lençóis Maranhenses National Park in the state of Maranhão, Brazil
• Jericoacoara National Park, in the state of Ceará, Brazil
• Genipabu in Natal, Brazil
• Medanos de Coro National Park near the town of Coro, in Falcón State, Venezuela
• Cerro Blanco in Ica Province in Peru
• Cerro Medanoso in Atacama Region in Chile

World's highest dunes

Note: This table is based on estimates and incomplete information.

Dune Height from Height from Sea Location Notes
Base feet/metres Level feet/metres

Cerro Blanco ~3860/1176 ~6791/2,080 Sechura Desert, Nazca, Peru Highest in the world

Badain Jaran ~1640/500 ~6640/2,020 Badain Jaran Desert, Alashan Plain, Inner World's tallest stationary dunes and
Dunes Mongolia, Gobi Desert, China [5]
highest in Asia

Rig-e Yalan Dune ~1542/470 ~3117/950 Lut Desert, Kerman, Iran Near World the hottest place (Gandom
Beryan)

Average Highest 1,526/465? ~6,500/~1,980? Isaouane-n-Tifernine Sand Sea, Algerian Highest in Africa
Area Dunes Sahara

1,256/383 ~1,870/570 Sossusvlei Dunes, Namib Desert, according to the Namibian Ministry of
Big Daddy/Dune
Namibia / Near Walvis Bay Namib Environment & Tourism the highest
7
[6] Desert, Namibia dune in the world
(Big Mama?)

Mount Tempest ~920/280 ~920/280 Moreton Bay, Brisbane, Australia Highest in Australia

Star Dune >750/230 ~8,950/2,730 Great Sand Dunes National Park and Highest in North America
Preserve, Colorado, USA

Dune of Pyla ~345/105 ~699/130 Bay of Arcachon, Aquitaine, France Highest in Europe

Ming-Sha Dunes ? 5,660/1,725 Dunhuang Oasis, Taklamakan Desert,

Gansu, China

Medanoso Dune ~1805/550 ~5446/1660 Atacama Desert, Chile Highest in Chile, second in Highest in
the World

Sand dune systems

(coastal dunes featuring succession)
• Ashdod Sand Dune, Israel
• Crymlyn Burrows, Wales
• Kenfig Burrows, Wales
• Margam burrows, Wales
• Studland, Dorsetshire, England
• Athabasca Sand Dunes Provincial Park, Alberta and Saskatchewan
• Murlough Sand Dunes, Newcastle, Co Down, Northern Ireland
• Morfa Harlech sand dunes, Gwynedd, Wales An example of fencing at Studland
• Newborough Warren, North Wales
• Bamburgh Dunes, Northumberland, England
Dune 311

• Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, near North Bend, Oregon

• Circeo National Park, a Mediterranean dune area on the southwest coast of the Lazio region of Italy
• Winterton, Norfolk, England
• Ynyslas Sand Dunes, Wales
• Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan

Extraterrestrial dunes
Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown.
Dunes are common on Mars, and they have also been observed in the equatorial regions of Titan using the radar
system of the Cassini space probe.
Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20–30 km. The regions are not topographically
confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented
parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow. The sand is likely
composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in.[7]

Images

A diagram showing the formation Mesquite Flat Erg Awbari Some dunes
of a dune with a slipface Dunes in Death (Idehan are suitable
Valley National Ubari) in the for
Park Sahara dune-boarding
desert
region of
Fezzan in
Libya

Sand dunes in Death Valley A footbridge provides beach A sand dune in Namibia A dune in Morocco
National Park. The image shows access and protects dunes
coppice dunes,which are formed
around vegetation

Sand dunes with scattered Parabolic dune Sand blowing off a crest in A cat-shaped sand dune on-laps
vegetation in UAE partially the Kelso Dunes of the onto the Cronese Mountains,
stabilized by Mojave Desert, California California
marram grass
Dune 312

Satellite image of dune Dune by the sea in Jericoacoara.

fields near Luís Correia.

References and notes

[1] dune - Definitions from Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ search?q=dune)
[2] Prothero, D. R. and Schwab, F., 1996, Sedimentary Geology, pg. 45-49, ISBN 0-7167-2726-9
[3] Miles, J. (1985). "The pedogenic effects of different species and vegetation types and the implications of succession". European Journal of
Soil Science 36 (4): 571. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1985.tb00359.x.
[4] "Alexandria Coastal Dunefields" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ tentativelists/ 5453/ ). UNESCO World Heritage. . Retrieved 11 January 2010.
[5] Mystery of world's tallest sand dunes solved - 24 November 2004 - New Scientist (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn6712)
[6] Big Mama highest dune (http:/ / www. met. gov. na/ dpwm/ parkprof/ Sossusvlei/ 2nd Fact sheet Sossusvlei. pdf)
[7] Peeking Through the Haze: Titan's Surface, part II - The Planetary Society Blog | The Planetary Society (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/
article/ 00000733/ )

• "Nouakchott, Mauritania" (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.

php3?img_id=17168). NASA Earth Observatory. Retrieved 2006-04-28.
• V. Badescu, R. B. Cathcart and A. A. Bolonkin, "Sand Dune Fixation: a solar-powered Sahara seawater pipeline
macroproject", in: Land Degradation & Development; 19, (2008): doi: 10.1002/ldr.864.
• "Types of Dunes" (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/dunes/). USGS. Retrieved 2010-10-06.
• "Summary: Dunes, Parabolic" (http://www.agc.army.mil/research/products/desert_guide/lsmsheet/lspara.
htm). Desert Processes Working Group; Knowledge Sciences, Inc.. Retrieved 2010-10-06.
• "Fighting wind erosion. One aspect of the combat against desertification" (http://www.csf-desertification.org/
index.php/bibliotheque/publications-csfd/les-dossiers-du-csfd-english/doc_details/
142-mainguet-monique-a-dumay-frederic-2011-fighting-wind-erosion-). Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD.
Retrieved 2011-01-04.

Further reading
• Bagnold, Ralph ([1941] 2005). The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Dover Publications.
ISBN 978-0486439310.
• Anthony J. Parsons, A. D. Abrahams, ed (2009). Geomorphology of Desert Environments. Springer.
ISBN 978-1402057182.
• Pye, Kenneth; Tsoar, Haim (2009). Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes. Springer. ISBN 978-3540859093.
Dune 313

External links
• Coastal Sand Dunes (http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical/coastal/dunes.html)
• Magilligan Dunes, Northern Ireland (http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Magilligan/Mag_intro.html)
• Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army (http://www.tec.army.mil/research/products/desert_guide/lpisheet/
lpdunes1.htm)
• Treading Lightly: Minimum Impact Dune Hiking (http://www.backcountryattitude.com/lnt_dune_hiking.
html)
• Dune Racers of the Empty Quarter (http://www.andycarvin.com/archives/2005/06/dune_racers_of.html) –
video of sand dunes in the United Arab Emirates
• The Bibliography of Aeolian Research (http://www.lbk.ars.usda.gov/wewc/biblio/bar.htm)
• Sahara sand dunes forms (http://www.saharasafaris.org/sand-dunes) – as investigated by native offroaders
from Egypt
• Gold Coast Dune Management Policy (http://www.goldcoastcity.com.au/dunepolicy)
• USGS page on dune types (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/dunes/)
• Great Sand Dunes National Park (http://alamosa.org/GreatSandDunes.aspx)

Sandhill
A sandhill is a type of ecological
community or xeric wildfire-maintained
ecosystem. It is not the same as a sand dune.
It features very short fire return intervals,
one to five years. Without fire, sandhills
undergo ecological succession and become
more oak dominated.

Entisols are the typical sandhill soil, deep

well-drained and nutrient poor. In Florida,
sandhills receive 130 cm (51 in) cm of
rainfall per year, just like the more hydric
ecosystems surrounding them. Sandhills are
xeric because they have poor water holding Sandhills near Monahans, Texas
capacity.

Dominant vegetation includes Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris), American Turkey Oak (Quercus laevis), and
Wiregrass (Aristida stricta). A number of rare animals are typical of this habitat including the Gopher Tortoise
(Gopherus polyphemus), Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis), Sherman's Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger
shermani), and Striped Newt (Notophthalmus perstriatus). Invasive species that are a problem on sandhills include
Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica), Camphor laurels (Cinnamomum camphora), and Natal grass (Melinis repens).
Sandhill 314

References

External links
• Natural Communities Definitions for Florida (http://www.fnai.org/PDF/Natural_Communities_Guide.pdf)
• The Bibliography of Aeolian Research (http://www.lbk.ars.usda.gov/wewc/biblio/bar.htm)

Building
In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate
development the word building may refer to one of the
following:
1. Any human-made structure used or intended for supporting
or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or
2. An act of construction (i.e. the activity of building, see also
builder)
In this article, the first usage is generally intended unless
otherwise specified.
Buildings come in a wide amount of shapes and functions, and A building and skybridge in Munich, Germany.
have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of
factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions,
to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic
reasons.
Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter
from weather and as general living space{though in certain
situations have been known to be used as venues for animal
husbandry}. to provide privacy, to store belongings and to
comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a
physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and
safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and
Example of a religious building : the Great Mosque of
harmful). some, in todays modern society resort to somewhat Kairouan, founded in 670, dates in its present state from
dodgy methods. e.g not properly bracing or strapping down the 9th century; situated in Kairouan, Tunisia.
frames or structual roofs. due to somewhat small chicken arms
commonly refered to as puney or undersizes biceps, since the invention of power tools it is hoped that these dodgy
practises will be greatly reduced.

Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have also become objects or canvasess of artistic expression. In recent
years, interest in sustainable planning and building practices has also become part of the design process of many new
buildings.
Building 315

Definitions
Building is defined in many aspects as:
• As a Civil Engineering structures such as a house,worship centre,Factories etc. that has a foundation,wall,roof etc.
that protect human being and their properties from direct harsh effect of weather like rain,wind,sun etc.
• The act of constructing, erecting, or establishing.
• The art of constructing edifices, or the practice of civil architecture.
• That which is built; a fabric or edifice constructed, as a house, a church, castle, arena/ stadium, etc.
• The act of constructing or building something; "during the construction we had to take a detour"; "his hobby was
the building of boats"
• The commercial activity involved in constructing buildings; "their main business is home construction"; "workers
in the building trades"
• A structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place; "there was a three-storey
building on the corner"; "it was an imposing edifice"
• The occupants of a building; "the entire building complained about the noise"
To differentiate buildings in the usage of this article from other buildings and other structures that are not intended
for continuous human occupancy, the latter are called non-building structures or simply structures.
Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level.
Depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts
used as antennas are not generally included.
The definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is
considered low-rise.

History
The first shelter on Earth constructed by a relatively close ancestor to humans is believed to be built 500,000 years
ago by an early ancestor of humans, Homo erectus.[1]

Types

Residential
Residential buildings are called houses/homes, though buildings
containing large numbers of separate dwelling units are often
called apartment buildings or apartment blocks to differentiate
them from the more 'individual' house.
Building types may range from one-room wood-framed, masonry,
or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar high-rise buildings able
to house thousands of people. Increasing settlement density in
buildings (and closer distances between buildings) is usually a
response to high ground prices resulting from many people
A timber framing house in Marburg, Germany.
wanting to live close to work or similar attractors.
Building 316

Multi-storey
A multi-storey building is a building that
has multiple floors above ground in the
building.
Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the
area of the building without increasing the
area of the land the building is built on,
hence saving land and, in most cases, money
(depending on material used and land prices
in the area).

Some of Denver's multi-storey buildings. Creation

The practice of designing, constructing, and
operating buildings is most usually a collective effort of different groups of professionals and trades. Depending on
the size, complexity, and purpose of a particular building project, the project team may include:
• A real estate developer who secures funding for the project;
• One or more financial institutions or other investors that provide the funding
• Local planning and code authorities
• A Surveyor who performs an ALTA/ACSM and construction surveys throughout the project;
• Construction managers who coordinate the effort of different groups of project participants;
• Licensed architects and engineers who provide building design and prepare construction documents;
• Landscape architects;
• Interior designers;
• Other consultants;
• Contractors who provide construction services and install building systems such as climate control, electrical,
plumbing, Decoration, fire protection, security and telecommunications;
• Marketing or leasing agents;
• Facility managers who are responsible for operating the building.
Regardless of their size or intended use, all buildings in the US must comply with zoning ordinances, building codes
and other regulations such as fire codes, life safety codes and related standards.
Vehicles—such as trailers, caravans, ships and passenger aircraft—are treated as "buildings" for life safety purposes.

Ownership and funding

• Mortgage loan
• Real estate developer

Planning and design

• Architecture
• Building construction
• Civil engineering
• Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing design
• Quantity surveying
• Structural engineering
• Urban planning
Building 317

Building services

Physical plant
Any building requires a certain amount of internal infrastructure to function, which includes such elements like
heating / cooling, power and telecommunications, water and wastewater etc. Especially in commercial buildings
(such as offices or factories), these can be extremely intricate systems taking up large amounts of space (sometimes
located in separate areas or double floors / false ceilings) and constitute a big part of the regular maintenance
required.

Conveying systems
Systems for transport of people within buildings:
• Elevator
• Escalator
• Moving sidewalk (horizontal and inclined)
Systems for transport of people between interconnected buildings:
• Skyway
• Underground city

Building damage
Buildings may be damaged during the construction of the building or
during maintenance. There are several other reasons behind building
damage like accident.[2] Buildings also may suffer from fire damage
and flooding in special circumstances.[3]

References
[1] "World's oldest building discovered" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/
662794. stm). BBC News. 2000-03-01. . Retrieved 2010-01-02.
[2] Building Damage (http:/ / www. pb. unimelb. edu. au/ emergency/ emergencies/ A building in Massueville, Quebec, Canada
internal/ buildingdamage. html) engulfed by fire.
[3] Euro-House.ru (http:/ / www. euro-house. ru/ )

ltg:Statne
Bridge 318

Bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span
physical obstacles such as a body of
water, valley, or road, for the purpose
of providing passage over the obstacle.
Designs of bridges vary depending on
the function of the bridge, the nature of
the terrain where the bridge is
constructed, the material used to make
it and the funds available to build it.

Etymology
The Oxford English Dictionary traces
the origin of the word bridge to an Old The Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, the world's longest suspension span.
English word brycg, of the same
meaning, derived from a hypothetical
Proto-Germanic root brugjō. There are
cognates in other Germanic languages.

The Si-o-se Pol bridge over Zayandeh River is the epitome of Safavid dynasty
(1502–1722) bridge design. Esfahan, Iran

History
The first bridges were made by nature itself — as simple as a
log fallen across a stream or stones in the river. The first
bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden
logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support
and crossbeam arrangement. Some early Americans used
trees or bamboo poles to cross small caverns or wells to get
from one place to another. A common form of lashing sticks,
logs, and deciduous branches together involved the use of
long reeds or other harvested fibers woven together to form a
connective rope which was capable of binding and holding in
place materials used in early bridges.
Bamboo bridge over the Serayu River in Java, Indonesia
(ca.1910-40)
Bridge
The Arkadiko Bridge in Greece (13th century BC), one
of the oldest arch bridges in existence
An English 18th century example of a bridge in the
Palladian style, with shops on the span: Pulteney
Bridge, Bath
Roman bridge of Córdoba, Spain, built in the 1st century
[1]
BC.
319
The Arkadiko Bridge is one of four Mycenaean corbel arch
bridges part of a former network of roads, designed to
accommodate chariots, between Tiryns to Epidauros in the
Peloponnese, in Greece. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age
(13th century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in
existence and use. Several intact arched stone bridges from
the Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese in
southern Greece[2]
The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient
Romans.[3] The Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts
that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy
earlier designs. Some stand today.[4] An example is the
Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The
Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of
strength found in natural stone.[5] One type of cement, called
pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock.
Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as
the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.
The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of
dams and bridges.[6] A Mauryan bridge near Girnar was
surveyed by James Princep.[7] The bridge was swept away
during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief
architect of emperor Chandragupta I.[7] The bridge also fell
under the care of the Yavana Tushaspa, and the Satrap Rudra
Daman.[7] The use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo
and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th
century.[8] A number of bridges, both for military and
commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal
administration in India.[9]
Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction
existed at the time of the Warring States, the oldest surviving
stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595
to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also
historically significant as it is the world's oldest
open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European
segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar
Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous
Roman era Trajan's Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel
segmental arches in wooden construction.
Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used
by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South
America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th
century.
Bridge 320

During the 18th century there were many innovations in the

design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich, Johannes
Grubenmann, and others. The first book on bridge
engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. A major
breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of
the Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale, England in 1779. It used
cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn.

With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss

systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges,
but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine.
loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile
strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the
ideas of Gustave Eiffel.

In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first

welded road bridge in the world which was later built across
the river Słudwia Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929. In
1995, the American Welding Society presented the Historic
Welded Structure Award for the bridge to Poland.[10]

Types of bridges
There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever A Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) Chinese miniature model
of two residential towers joined by a bridge
bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, cable-stayed
bridges and truss bridges.

Beam bridges
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by
abutments, hence their structural name of simply supported.
When there is more than one span the intermediate supports
are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple
logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In
modern times, beam bridges are large box steel girder
bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes straight down on
the abutments at either end of the bridge.[11] They are made One of the most famous historical bridges in the world: Ponte
up mostly of wood or metal. Beam bridges typically do not Vecchio
exceed 250 feet (76 m) long. The longer the bridge, the
weaker. The world's longest beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in southern Louisiana in the United States,
at 23.83 miles (38.35 km), with individual spans of 56 feet (17 m).[12]
Bridge 321

Cantilever bridges
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal
beams that are supported on only one end. Most cantilever
bridges use a pair of continuous spans extending from
opposite sides of the supporting piers, meeting at the center
of the obstacle to be crossed. Cantilever bridges are
constructed using much the same materials & techniques as
beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of the
forces through the bridge. The largest cantilever bridge is the
549-metre (1801 ft) Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada. Lomonosov Bridge in St. Petersburg

Arch bridges
Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The earliest known
arch bridges were built by the Greeks and include the
Arkadiko Bridge. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the
abutments at either side. Dubai in the United Arab Emirates
is currently building the Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing
which is scheduled for completion in 2012. When completed,
it will be the largest arch bridge in the world.[13]

Stone arch bridge in Shaharah, Yemen

Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest
suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with
pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from
towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The
caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a
lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the world is
the 12826 feet (3909 m) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan.[14]
See simple suspension bridge, stressed ribbon bridge,
underspanned suspension bridge, suspended-deck suspension
bridge, and self-anchored suspension bridge.

Cable-stayed bridges Primitive suspension bridge over the River Astore

Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by

cables. However, in a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are
proportionately shorter.[15] The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher.[16] The
longest cable-stayed bridge is the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China.
Bridge 322

Movable bridges
Movable bridges are designed to move out of the way of
boats or other kinds of traffic, which would otherwise be too
tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered.

Double-decked bridges
Double-decked or double-decker bridges have two levels,
such as the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge, with two
road levels. Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in
Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their Continuous under-deck truss bridge
lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks for MTR
metro trains. Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward
Viaduct has four lanes of motor traffic on its upper deck and
a pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth subway line. Some
double-decker bridges only use one level for street traffic;
the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its
lower level for automobile traffic and its upper level for
pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the
University of Minnesota).

Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River

Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne, completed in 1849, is an early
example of a double-deck bridge. The upper level carries a Over-deck truss bridge with steel girders and wooden
carriageway
railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic. Another
example is Craigavon Bridge in Derry, Northern Ireland. The
Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen and Malmö consists of
a four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway
tracks at the lower level.

The George Washington Bridge between New Jersey and

New York has two roadway levels. It was built with only the
upper roadway as traffic demands did not require more
capacity. A truss work between the roadway levels provides
stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of the upper
level when installed. Tower Bridge is different example of a
double-decker bridge, with the central section consisting of a
low level bascule span and a high level footbridge.
"Metrobridge" Vorobyovy Gory (ru:Метромост) double-deck
Old Yamuna Bridge(Delhi) or Bridge No. 249 in technical bridge in Moscow carries the Moscow Metro

railway parlance, was constructed in 1866 by the East India

Railway at a cost of £16,16,335. It was built with a total length of 2,640 feet and consisted of 12 spans of 202.5 feet
each. With the completion of this bridge, two principal cities of North India, Kolkata and Delhi, were connected by
the Railways; this being the last link of the trunk line on this
Bridge 323

route. In 1913, this was converted into a double line by

adding down line girders of 12 spans of 202 feet each and 2
end spans of 42 feet to the bridge. For the movement of road
traffic, two road bridges were provided below the lines. The
entry of trains into Delhi Junction Railway Station, in such
close proximity to the Red Fort, never ceases to impress the
rail traveller, reminding all that after the Uprising of 1857,
Delhi was a fortified city. The old Yamuna Bridge has an
identical twin, a bridge further downstream at Naini on the
Allahabad — Mughalsarai section of the now North Central
Railways
Old Bridge in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina

By use
A bridge is designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic, a
pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. An
aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct,
which is a bridge that connects points of equal height.A
road-rail bridge carries both road and rail traffic.
Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas
underneath some bridges have become makeshift shelters
and homes to homeless people, and the undersides of bridges
all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some
bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known
Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad, Bosnia and
as suicide bridges.
Herzegovina
To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much
taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-Asian style gardens, is called a Moon bridge, evoking a rising
full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an
impression of a stream. Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to
an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the
Forbidden City in Beijing, the People's Republic of China. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of
the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants.

Structure
Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed
through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will
predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in
tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of
members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified
by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram.

Efficiency
A bridge's structural efficiency may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge mass, given a specific set
of material types. In one common challenge students are divided into groups and given a quantity of wood sticks, a
distance to span, and glue, and then asked to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive
Bridge 324

addition of load at the center of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most structurally
efficient. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a
fixed quantity of materials provided and determine the multiple of this weight that the bridge can carry, a test that
emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints (see balsa wood bridge).
A bridge's economic efficiency will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of,
for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. The lifetime cost is composed of materials, labor,
machinery, engineering, cost of money, insurance, maintenance, refurbishment, and ultimately, demolition and
associated disposal, recycling, and replacement, less the value of scrap and reuse of components. Bridges employing
only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are
available near the site and the cost of labor is low. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most
economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The
longest spans usually require suspension bridges.

Other functions
• Some bridges carry special
installations such as the tower of
Nový Most bridge in Bratislava
which carries a restaurant. Other
suspension bridge towers carry
transmission antennas.
• A bridge can carry overhead power
lines as does the Storstrøm Bridge. Juscelino Kubitschek bridge in Brasília, Brazil

• Costs and cost overruns in bridge

construction have been studied by Flyvbjerg et al. (2003). The average cost overrun in building a bridge was
found to be 34%.[17]
• In railway parlance, an overbridge is a bridge crossing over the course of the railway. In contrast, an underbridge
allows passage under the line.

Bridge failures
The failure of bridges is of special concern for structural engineers in trying to learn lessons vital to bridge design,
construction and maintenance. The failure of bridges first assumed national interest during the Victorian era when
many new designs were being built, often using new materials.
In the United States, the National Bridge Inventory tracks the structural evaluations of all bridges, including
designation as "structurally deficient" and "functionally obsolete".

Visual index
Types of bridges

Arch bridge Bascule Bridge Beam bridge Blind Arcade Box girder bridge
Cavity wall
Viaduct
Bridge 325

Cable-stayed Cantilever bridge Cantilever spar Clapper bridge Concrete Arch Bridge
bridge cable-stayed bridge

Through arch Girder bridge Log bridge Movable bridge Pigtail bridge
bridge

Plate girder bridge Pontoon bridge Segmental bridge Self-anchored suspension Side-spar
bridge cable-stayed bridge

Simple suspension bridge Step-stone bridge Stressed ribbon Suspension bridge Transporter bridge
bridge

Trestle Truss arch Truss bridge Tubular bridge

bridge

Related topics

Aqueduct Bailey bridge Balsa wood bridge Bridge of boats Bridges in art
breaking under load
Bridge 326

Brown truss Burr Arch Caisson Covered Eyebar

Truss bridge

Hoogholtje bridge Inca rope bridge Jet bridge Lattice girder Lattice truss
(laced strut or (Town's lattice
tie) truss)

Medium Girder Bridge Moon bridge Packhorse Continuous span Toll bridge
bridge girder bridge

Vierendeel bridge Water bridge Weigh bridge Viaduct Wooden bridge

Underside of the wooden

Kintai Bridge

References
Notes
[1] Roman Bridge in Cordoba ( 1st century B.C.) (http:/ / en. structurae. de/ structures/ data/ index. cfm?id=s0001269)
[2] T.H. Nielsen and J. Roy. Defining ancient Arkadia: symposium April 1–4, 1998. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selska, 1998. p. 253. (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=Aa9IFGkrhi8C& pg=PA253& dq=Hellenistic+ Bridge+ Xerokampi& ei=96aQS9L2FaSclQT5m6SpDQ&
cd=2#v=onepage& q=Hellenistic Bridge Xerokampi& f=false)
[3] Context for World Heritage Bridges (http:/ / www. icomos. org/ studies/ bridges. htm)
[4] History of BRIDGES (http:/ / www. historyworld. net/ wrldhis/ PlainTextHistories. asp?historyid=ab97)
[5] Lessons from Roman Cement and Concrete (http:/ / www. pubs. asce. org/ WWWdisplay. cgi?0103045)
[6] Dikshitar, pg. 332
[7] Dutt, pg 46
[8] "suspension bridge" in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
[9] Nath, pg. 213
Bridge 327

[10] Sapp, Mark E. (February 22, 2008). "Welding Timeline 1900-1950" (http:/ / www. weldinghistory. org/ whistoryfolder/ welding/
wh_1900-1950. html). WeldingHistory.org. . Retrieved 2008-04-29.
[11] "Beam bridges" (http:/ / www. design-technology. org/ beambridges. htm). Design Technology. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.
[12] "A big prefabricated bridge". Life 40 (22): 53–60. 28 May 1956.
[13] Glass, Amy. "Dubai to build world's longest arch bridge" (http:/ / www. arabianbusiness. com/
509621-worlds-longest-arch-bridge-for-dubai?ln=en). Arabian Business. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.
[14] Sigmund, Pete (2007-02-07). "The Mighty Mac: A Sublime Engineering Feat" (http:/ / www. constructionequipmentguide. com/ story.
asp?story=8153& headline=The Mighty Mac: A Sublime Engineering Feat). Construction Equipment Guide. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.
[15] Johnson, Andy. "Cable Stay vs Suspension Bridges" (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ eng99/ eng99373. htm). U.S. Department
of Energy. .
[16] "Bridges" (http:/ / www. nyc. gov/ html/ dot/ html/ bridges/ reconstruction. shtml). NYCDOT. . Retrieved 2008-05-14.
[17] Flyvbjerg, Bent, Nils Bruzelius, and Werner Rothengatter, 2003. Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press). (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0521009464& id=RAV5P-50UjEC& printsec=frontcover&
dq=megaprojects+ and+ Risk:+ An+ Anatomy+ of+ Ambition)

Bibliography
• Brown, David J. Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature. Richmond Hill, Ont: Firefly Books, 2005.
ISBN 1-55407-099-6.
• Sandak, Cass R. Bridges. An Easy-read modern wonders book. New York: F. Watts, 1983. ISBN 0-531-04624-9.
• Whitney, Charles S. Bridges of the World: Their Design and Construction. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications,
2003. ISBN 0-486-42995-4 (Unabridged republication of Bridges : a study in their art, science, and evolution.
1929.)
• Dikshitar, V. R. R. Dikshitar (1993). The Mauryan Polity. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1023-6.
• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2000). A History of Civilisation in Ancient India: Vol II. Routledge. ISBN
0-415-23188-4.
• Nath, R. (1982). History of Mughal Architecture. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-159-8.
• Kinney, A. R.; el al. (2003). Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java. University of Hawaii
Press. ISBN 0-8248-2779-1.
• Buck, William; el al. (2000). Ramayana. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22703-4

External links
• Digital Bridge: Bridges of the Nineteenth Century (http://bridges.lib.lehigh.edu/), a collection of digitized
books at Lehigh University
• Structurae (http://en.structurae.de/) - International Database and Gallery of Engineerings Structures with over
10000 Bridges.
• U.S. Federal Highway Administration Bridge Technology (http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/)
• Bridge enthusiast site (http://www.nireland.com/bridgeman/index.htm)
• Video on how bridges are made (http://www.webcastgroup.com/client/start.asp?wid=0670524062530)
(Grade school level educational film by National Association of Manufactures.)
• The Museum of Japanese Timber Bridges (http://tbl.tec.fukuoka-u.ac.jp/index-en.shtml) Fukuoka University
• "en.Broer.no": site for bridges (http://www.en.broer.no)
• (http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/none/24-worlds-most-amazing-bridges-062644) (CNN) 24 of the
World's Most Amazing Bridges -retrieved 30 Apr 2011
Canal 328

Canal
Canals are man-made channels for water. There are two types of canal:
1. Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance
and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal
uses, and agriculture irrigation. Rills and acequias are small
versions.
2. Waterways: navigable transportation canals used for carrying ships
and boats shipping goods and conveying people.
• Those connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Included are The Alter Strom, in the sea resort of
inter-basin canals, such as the Suez Canal, Erie Canal, and the Warnemünde, Germany.
Panama Canal.
• Those connected in a city network: such as the Canal Grande and
others of Venice Italy; the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways
of Bangkok.

The Royal Canal in Ireland.

Types of artificial waterways

Canals are created in one of three ways, or a combination of the
three, depending on available water and available path:
• A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. The
body of the canal is either dug or the sides are created by piling
dirt, stone, concrete, or other building materials. The water for the
canal must be provided from an external source like other streams
or reservoirs. Examples include canals that connect valleys over a
higher body of land, like Canal du Midi and Canal de Briare.
• A stream can be canalized to make its navigable path more
The Danube-Black Sea Canal in Romania
predictable and easier to maneuver. Canalization modifies the
stream to more safely carry traffic by controlling the flow of the
stream with dredging, damming, and modifying its path. Examples include Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer
de la Moselle, and Aisne River. Riparian zone restoration may be required.
• When a stream is too difficult to modify with canalization, a second stream can be created next to the existing
stream. This is called a lateral canal. The existing stream usually acts as the water source and its banks provide a
path for the new body. Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne
Lateral Canal, and Canal latéral à l'Aisne.
Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an
inland port (e.g.: Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g.: Caledonian Canal, Panama
Canal 329

Canal).

Features
The flight of 16 consecutive locks at Caen Hill on
the Kennet and Avon Canal, Wiltshire, England
At their simplest, canals consist of a trench filled with water.
Depending on the stratum the canal passes through, it may be
necessary to line the cut with some form of watertight material such as
clay or concrete. When this is done with clay this is known as
puddling.
Canals need to be level, and while small irregularities in the lie of the
land can be dealt with through cuttings and embankments, for larger
deviations, other approaches have been adopted. The most common is
the pound lock which consists of a chamber within which the water
level can be raised or lowered connecting either two pieces of canal at
a different level or the canal with a river or the sea. When there is a hill
to be climbed, flights of many locks in short succession may be used.

Prior to the development of the pound lock in 984AD in China by

Chhaio Wei-Yo[1] and later in Europe in the 15th century, either flash
locks consisting of a single gate were used or ramps, sometimes
equipped with rollers, were used to change level. Flash locks were only
practical where there was plenty of water available.
Locks use a lot of water, so builders have adopted other approaches.
These include boat lifts, such as the Falkirk wheel, which use a caisson
of water in which boats float while being moved between two levels;
A canal boat traverses the longest and highest
aqueduct in the UK, at Pontcysyllte in
and inclined planes where a caisson is hauled up a steep railway.
Denbighshire, Wales To cross a stream or road, the solution is usually to bridge with an
aqueduct. To cross a wide valley (where the journey delay caused by a
flight of locks at either side would be unacceptable) the centre of the valley can be spanned by an aqueduct - a
famous example in Wales is the Pontcysyllte aqueduct across the valley of the River Dee.
Another option for dealing with hills is to tunnel through them. An example of this approach is the Harecastle
Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels are only practical for smaller canals.
Some canals attempted to keep changes in level down to a minimum. These canals known as contour canals would
take longer winding routes, along which the land was a uniform altitude. Other generally later canals took more
direct routes requiring the use of various methods to deal with the change in level.
Canals have various features to tackle the problem of water supply. In some cases such as the Suez Canal the canal is
simply open to the sea. Where the canal is not at sea level a number of approaches have been adopted. Taking water
from existing rivers or springs was an option in some cases, sometimes supplemented by other methods to deal with
seasonal variations in flow. Where such sources were unavailable, reservoirs, either separate from the canal, or built
into its course, and back pumping was used to provide the required water. In other cases water pumped from mines
was used to feed the canal. In certain cases extensive "feeder canals" were built to bring water from sources located
far from the canal.

Where large amounts of goods are loaded or unloaded such as at the end of a canal a canal basin may be built. This
would normally be a section of water wider than the general canal. In some cases the canal basins contain wharfs and
cranes to assist with movement of goods.
Canal 330

When a section of the canal needs to be sealed off so it can be drained for maintenance stop planks are frequently
used. These consist of planks of wood placed across the canal to form a dam. They are generally placed in pre
existing grooves in the canal bank. On more modern canals, "guard locks" or gates were sometimes placed to allow a
section of canal to be quickly closed off, either for maintenance, or to prevent a major loss of water due to a canal
breach.

History

Ancient canals
The oldest known canals were irrigation canals, built in Mesopotamia
circa 4000 BC, in what is now modern day Iraq and Syria. The Indus
Valley Civilization, in Pakistan and North India, (circa 2600 BC) had
sophisticated irrigation and storage systems developed, including the
reservoirs built at Girnar in 3000 BC.[2] In Egypt, canals date back at
least to the time of Pepi I Meryre (reigned 2332–2283 BC), who
ordered a canal built to bypass the cataract on the Nile near Aswan.[3]

In ancient China, large canals for river transport were established as far The Grand Canal of China at Suzhou
back as the Warring States (481–221 BC), the longest one of that
period being the Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), which according to the ancient historian Sima Qian
connected the old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei.[4] By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal
of China, still the longest canal in the world today. It is 1794 kilometres (1115 mi) long and was built to carry the
Emperor Yang Guang between Beijing and Hangzhou. The project began in 605 and was completed in 609, although
much of the work combined older canals, the oldest section of the canal existing since at least 486 BC. Even in its
narrowest urban sections it is rarely less than 30 metres (98 ft) wide.

Greek engineers were the first to use canal locks, by which they regulated the water flow in the Ancient Suez Canal
as early as the 3rd century BC.[5] [6] [7]

Canals in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, water transport was cheaper and
faster than transport overland. This was because roads
were unpaved and in poor condition and greater
amounts could be transported by ship. The first
artificial canal in Christian Europe was the Fossa
Carolina built at the end of the 8th Century under
personal supervision of Charlemagne. More lasting and
of more economic impact were canals like the Naviglio
Grande built between 1127 and 1257, the most
important of the lombard “navigli”,[8] Later, canals were
built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the
polders and assist the transportation of goods.
Thal Canal, Punjab, Pakistan.
Canal building was revived in this age because of
commercial expansion from the 12th century AD. River navigations were improved progressively by the use of
single, or flash locks. Taking boats through these used large amounts of water leading to conflicts with watermill
owners and to correct this, the pound or chamber lock first appeared, in 10th century AD in China and in Europe in
1373 in Vreeswijk, Netherlands.[9] Another important development was the mitre gate which was probably
Canal 331

introduced in Italy by Bertola da Novate in the 16th century. This allowed wider gates and also removed the height
restriction of guillotine locks.
To break out of the limitations caused by river valleys, the first summit level canals were developed with the Grand
Canal of China in 581–617 AD whilst in Europe the first, also using single locks, was the Stecknitz Canal in
Germany in 1398. The first to use pound locks was the Briare Canal connecting the Loire and Seine (1642), followed
by the more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) connecting the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. This included a staircase
of 8 locks at Béziers, a 157 metres (515 ft) tunnel and three major aqueducts.
Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with three great rivers, the Elbe, Oder
and Weser being linked by canals. In post-Roman Britain, the first canal built appears to have been the Exeter Canal,
which opened in 1563. The oldest canal built for industrial purposes in North America is Mother Brook in Dedham,
MA. It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills. In Russia, the Volga-Baltic Waterway, a
nationwide canal system connecting the Baltic and Caspian seas via the Neva and Volga rivers, was opened in 1718.

Industrial revolution
Canals were important for industrial development. The greatest
stimulus to canal system building came from the Industrial
Revolution with its need for cheap transport of unprecedented
quantities of raw materials and manufactured items.
In Europe, particularly Britain and Ireland, and then in the young
United States and the Canadian colonies, inland canals preceded
the development of railroads during the earliest phase of the
Industrial Revolution. The opening of the Sankey Canal in 1757,
followed by the Bridgewater Canal in 1761, which halved the Lowell's power canal system
price of coal in Liverpool and Manchester, respectively, triggered
a period of "canal mania" in Britain so that between 1760 and 1820 over one hundred canals were built.

The Blackstone Canal in Massachusetts and Rhode Island fulfilled a similar role in the early industrial revolution
between 1828–48. The Blackstone Valley was a major contributor of the American Industrial Revolution where
Samuel Slater built his first mill.
In addition to their transportation purposes, parts of the United States, particularly in the Northeast, had enough
fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after
the American Civil War. For example, Lowell, Massachusetts, considered to be "The Cradle of the American
Industrial Revolution," has 6 miles (9.7 km) of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power
and a means of transportation for the city. The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower.[10] Other
cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence, Massachusetts, Holyoke, Massachusetts, Manchester,
New Hampshire, and Augusta, Georgia.
Canal 332

The 19th century

Competition from the railway network from the 1830s, and in the 20th
century the roads, made the smaller canals obsolete for most
commercial transportation, and many of the British canals fell into
decay. Only the Manchester Ship Canal and the Aire and Calder Canal
bucked this trend. Yet in other countries canals grew in size as
construction techniques improved. During the 19th century in the US,
the length of canals grew from 100 miles (161 km) to over 4,000, with
a complex network making the Great Lakes navigable, in conjunction
with Canada, although some canals were later drained and used as
railroad rights-of-way.

In the United States, navigable canals reached into isolated areas and
US canals circa 1825
brought them in touch with the world beyond. By 1825 the Erie Canal,
363 miles (584 km) long with 82 locks, opened up a connection from
the populated Northeast to the Great Lakes. Settlers flooded into regions serviced by such canals, since access to
markets was available. The Erie Canal (as well as other canals) was instrumental in lowering the differences in
commodity prices between these various markets across America. The canals caused price convergence between
different regions because of their reduction in transportation costs, which allowed Americans to ship and buy goods
from farther distances for much lower prices compared to before. Ohio built many miles of canal, Indiana had
working canals for a few decades, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi
River system until replaced by a channelized river waterway.

Three major canals with very different purposes were built in what is now Canada. The first Welland Canal, which
opened in 1829 between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, bypassing Niagara Falls and the Lachine Canal (1825) which
allowed ships to skirt the nearly impassable rapids on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal were built for commerce.
The Rideau Canal, completed in 1832, connects Ottawa, on the Ottawa River to Kingston, Ontario on Lake Ontario.
The Rideau Canal was built as a result of the War of 1812 to provide military transportation between the British
colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada as an alternative to part of the St. Lawrence River which was
susceptible to blockade by the United States.
In France, a steady linking of all the river systems—Rhine, Rhône, Saône and Seine—and the North Sea was boosted
in 1879 by the establishment of the Freycinet gauge which specified the minimum size of locks so that canal traffic
doubled in the first decades of the 20th century.[11]
Many notable sea canals were completed in this period, starting with the Suez Canal (1869), and the Kiel Canal
(1897), which carries tonnage many times that of most other canals, though the Panama Canal was not opened until
1914.
In the 19th century, a number of canals were built in Japan including the Biwako canal and the Tone canal. These
canals were partially built with the help of engineers from the Netherlands and other countries.[12]
Canal 333

Modern uses
Large scale ship canals such as the Panama Canal and Suez Canal
continue to operate for cargo transportation; as do European barge
canals. Due to globalization, they are becoming increasingly important,
resulting in expansion projects such as the Panama Canal expansion
project.
The narrow early industrial canals, however, have ceased to carry
significant amounts of trade and many have been abandoned to
navigation, but may still be used as a system for transportation of Canals can disrupt water circulation in marsh
systems.
untreated water. In some cases railways have been built along the canal
route, an example being the Croydon Canal.

A movement that began in Britain and France to use the early industrial canals for pleasure boats, such as hotel
barges, has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. In some cases abandoned canals such as the Kennet
and Avon Canal have been restored and are now used by pleasure boaters. In Britain canalside housing has also
proven popular in recent years.
The Seine-Nord Europe Canal is being developed into a major transportation waterway, linking France with
Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands.
Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as easements for the installation of fibre optic
telecommunications network cabling avoiding having them buried in roadways while facilitating access and reducing
the hazard of being damaged from digging equipment.
Canals are still used to provide water for agriculture. An extensive canal system exists within the Imperial Valley in
the Southern California desert to provide irrigation to agriculture within the area.

Cities on water
Canals are so deeply identified with Venice that many canal cities have
been nicknamed "the Venice of…". The city is built on marshy islands,
with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that the land is
man-made rather than the waterways. The islands have a long history
of settlement; by the 12th century, Venice was a powerful city state.
Amsterdam was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles.
It became a city around 1300.
Other cities with extensive canal networks include: Alkmaar,
An intersection of two canals (Grachten) in
Amsterdam, Netherlands. Amersfoort, Bolsward, Brielle, Delft, Den Bosch, Dokkum, Dordrecht,
Enkhuizen, Franeker, Gouda, Haarlem, Harlingen, Leeuwarden,
Leiden, Sneek and Utrecht in the Netherlands, Brugge and Gent in Flanders, Belgium, Birmingham in England —
which has 35 miles of canals, to Venice's 26 miles —, Saint Petersburg in Russia, Hamburg in Germany, Berlin in
Germany , Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Cape Coral, Florida in the United States.
Canal 334

Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City is a UNESCO World Heritage

Site near the centre of Liverpool, England, where a system of
intertwining waterways and docks now being developed for
mainly residential and leisure use.
Canal Estates (commonly known as bayous) are a form of
subdivision popular in cities like Miami, Florida, Texas City,
Texas and the Gold Coast, Queensland; the Gold Coast has over
700 km of residential canals. Wetlands are difficult areas upon
which to build housing estates, so dredging part of the wetland
down to a navigable channel provides fill to build up another part Griboyedov Canal in St. Petersburg, Russia.
of the wetland above the flood level for houses. Land is built up in
a finger pattern that provides a suburban street layout of waterfront housing blocks.

Boats
Inland canals have often had boats specifically built for them. An
example of this is the British narrowboat, which is up to 72 feet
(21.95 m) long and 7 feet (2.13 m) wide and was primarily built for
British Midland canals. In this case the limiting factor was the size of
the locks. This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where
Panamax ships are limited to a length of 294.1 m (965 ft) and a width
of 32.3 m (106 ft). For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for
Suezmax ships is generally draft, which is limited to 16 m (52.5 ft). At
the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the Bude Canal were Two Panamax ships in the Miraflores Locks on
the Panama Canal, Panama.
limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the
capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts. Most canals have a limit
on height imposed either by bridges or tunnels.

Lists of canals
• Europe
• Canals of France
• Canals of Amsterdam
• Canals of Germany
• Canals of Ireland
• Canals of Russia
• Canals of the United Kingdom
• North America
• Canals of Canada Amsterdam gracht
• Canals of the United States
Canal 335

References

Notes
[1] Hadfield 1986, p. 22.
[2] Rodda 2004, p. 161.
[3] Hadfield 1986, p. 16.
[4] Needham 1971, p. 269.
[5] Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): "Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111
(99–101)
[6] Froriep, Siegfried (1986): "Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen", Antike Welt, 2nd Special
Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)
[7] Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43
(33–35)
[8] Calvert 1963, p. .
[9] (PDF) The International Canal Monuments List (http:/ / www. icomos. org/ studies/ canals. pdf), , retrieved 2008-10-08
[10] Lowell National Historical Park — Lowell History Prologue (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ lowe/ loweweb/ Lowell History/ prologue.
htm), , retrieved 2008-10-08
[11] Edwards 2002, p. .
[12] Hadfield 1986, p. 191.

Bibliography
• Calvert, Roger (1963), Inland Waterways of Europe, George Allen and Unwin
• Edwards-May, David (2002), European Waterways - map and concise directory, Euromapping
• Hadfield, Charles (1986), World Canals: Inland Navigation Past and Present, David and Charles,
ISBN 0-7153-8555-0
• Needham, J (1971), Science and Civilisation in China, C.U.P. Cambridge
• Rodda, J. C. (2004), The Basis of Civilization - Water Science?, International Association of Hydrological
Sciences

External links
• British Waterways' leisure website - Britain's official guide to canals, rivers and lakes (http://www.waterscape.
com/)
• Leeds Liverpool Canal Photographic Guide (http://www.towpathtreks.co.uk/)
• Triumphs of Canal Building (http://www.engwonders.orgfree.com/e043.html)
• Information and Boater's Guide to the New York State Canal System (http://www.nycanals.com/)
• "Canals and Navigable Rivers" by James S. Aber, Emporia State University (http://academic.emporia.edu/
aberjame/wetland/canal/canals.htm)
• National Canal Museum (USA) (http://www.canals.org/)
• London Canal Museum (UK) (http://www.canalmuseum.org.uk/)
• Canals in Amsterdam (http://www.world-city-photos.org/Amsterdam/photos/Canals_and_Bridges/)
• Canal du Midi (http://www.canaldumidi.com)
• Canal des Deux Mers (http://www.canaldumidi.com/Canal-des-Deux-Mers.php)
• Canal flow measurement using a sensor (http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/water/bubbler/index.
htm).
Dam 336

Dam
A dam is a barrier that impounds water or
underground streams. Dams generally serve
the primary purpose of retaining water,
while other structures such as floodgates or
levees (also known as dikes) are used to
manage or prevent water flow into specific
land regions. Hydropower and
pumped-storage hydroelectricity are often
used in conjunction with dams to generate
electricity. A dam can also be used to collect
water or for storage of water which can be
evenly distributed between locations.

Hoover Dam, a concrete arch-gravity dam in Black Canyon of the Colorado

River. Lake Mead in the background is impounded by the dam.

Glen Canyon Dam

Dam 337

History
The word dam can be traced back to Middle
English,[1] and before that, from Middle
Dutch, as seen in the names of many old
cities.[2] Early dam building took place in
Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams
were used to control the water level, for
Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite
unpredictable.

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in

Jordan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of
the capital Amman. This gravity dam
featured a 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 1 m
(3 ft 3 in) wide stone wall, supported by a
The sizable Roman Harbaqa Dam in Syria is 21 m (69 ft) high and 365 m (1198 ft)
50 m (160 ft) wide earth rampart. The
long.
structure is dated to 3000 BC.[3] [4] The
Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at
Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km
(16 mi) south of Cairo, was 102 m (335 ft)
long at its base and 87 m (285 ft) wide. The
structure was built around 2800[5] or 2600
B.C.[6] as a diversion dam for flood control,
but was destroyed by heavy rain during
construction or shortly afterwards.[5] [6] By
the mid-late third century BC, an intricate
water-management system within Dholavira
in modern day India, was built. The system
included 16 reservoirs, dams and various
channels for collecting water and storing
it.[7] The Roman dam at Cornalvo in Spain has been in use for almost two millennia.

Roman dam construction was characterized

by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize
engineering construction on a grand
scale".[8] Roman planners introduced the
then novel concept of large reservoir dams
which could secure a permanent water
supply for urban settlements also over the
dry season.[9] Their pioneering use of
water-proof hydraulic mortar and
particularly Roman concrete allowed for
much larger dam structures than previously
built,[8] such as the Lake Homs Dam, Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri in Tamil Nadu, South India (19th century on
1st-2nd century foundation)
Dam 338

possibly the largest water barrier to date,[10] and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam
was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m (160 ft) remained unsurpassed until its accidental
destruction in 1305.[11]
Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity
dams.[12] Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam
designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams,[13] arch dams,[14] buttress dams[15]
and multiple arch buttress dams,[16] all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of
Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.[17]
Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It's thought to be from the time of the Hittite
empire between the 15th and 13 century BC.
The Kallanai is a massive dam of unhewn stone, over 300 m (980 ft) long, 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 20 m (66 ft) wide,
across the main stream of the Kaveri river in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 1st century
AD.[18] and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still
in use.[19] The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the fertile Delta region for irrigation
via canals.It is considered to be the oldest dam still in use.
Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was
finished in 251 B.C. A large earthen dam, made by the Prime Minister of Chu (state), Sunshu Ao, flooded a valley in
modern-day northern Anhui province that created an enormous irrigation reservoir 100 km (62 mi) in
circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.[20]
In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water wheels, which often
powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam bridge in Dezful,[21] which could raise
water 50 cubits in height for the water supply to all houses in the town. Also diversion dams were known.[22] Milling
dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the
River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world.[22] Water was conducted
from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill.[23] In the 10th century,
Al-Muqaddasi described several dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m (3000 ft)
long,[22] and that and it had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into
reservoirs of the city.[22] Another one, the Band-i-Amir dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.[22]
In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level
and to prevent the sea from entering the marsh lands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city
because it was easy to cross the river at such a place, and often gave rise to the respective place's names in Dutch.
For instance the Dutch capital Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam) started with a dam through the river Amstel in
the late 12th century, and Rotterdam started with a dam through the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe
Maas. The central square of Amsterdam, covering the original place of the 800 year old dam, still carries the name
Dam Square or simply the Dam.
French engineer Benoît Fourneyron developed the first successful water turbine in 1832. The era of large dams was
initiated after Hoover Dam was completed on the Colorado River near Las Vegas in 1936. By 1997, there were an
estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m (49 ft) high.[24]
Dam 339

Types of dams
Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers.
Man-made dams are typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

By structure
Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as timber dams, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or
masonry dams, with several subtypes.

Arch dams

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and

gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of
the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the
distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical
cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness of the
dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face
is sloped the distribution is more complicated. The normal
component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch
action, while the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as
described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable supports at the
abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more
important. The most desirable place for an arch dam is a narrow
canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[25] The
safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall
abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the
side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully
inspected.

Gordon Dam, Tasmania is an arch dam.

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the

Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a multiple-arch buttress dam.
constant-angle and the constant-radius dam. The
constant-radius type employs the same face radius at all
elevations of the dam, which means that as the channel
grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the
central angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes
smaller. Jones Falls Dam, in Canada, is a constant
radius dam. In a constant-angle dam, also known as a
variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept a
constant and the variation in distance between the
abutments at various levels are taken care of by varying
the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common
than constant-angle dams. Parker Dam is a
constant-angle arch dam.
Dam 340

A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City, Nevada in the United
States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the amount of concrete necessary for
construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch
dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague appearance of a concave lens as viewed
from downstream.
The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting
abutments, as for example the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as
many buttresses as the hollow gravity type, but requires good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

Gravity dams

In a gravity dam, stability is secured by making it of such a size

and shape that it will resist overturning, sliding and crushing at the
toe. The dam will not overturn provided that the moment around
the turning point, caused by the water pressure, is smaller than the
moment caused by the weight of the dam. This is the case if the
resultant force of water pressure and weight falls within the base
of the dam. However, in order to prevent tensile stress at the
upstream face and excessive compressive stress at the downstream
face, the dam cross section is usually designed so that the resultant
The Grand Coulee Dam is an example of a solid
falls within the middle at all elevations of the cross section (the
gravity dam.
core). For this type of dam, impervious foundations with high
bearing strength are essential.

When situated on a suitable site, gravity dams can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built
on a carefully studied foundation, the gravity dam probably represents the best developed example of dam building.
Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions, gravity dams are being built in some instances where
an arch dam would have been more economical.
Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. This is
called "zoning". The core of the dam is zoned depending on the availability of locally available materials, foundation
conditions and the material attributes. The solid form is the more widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is
frequently more economical to construct. Gravity dams can also be classified as "overflow" (spillway) and
"non-overflow." Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and Itaipu Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

Arch-gravity dams

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an

arch-gravity dam for areas with massive amounts of water flow
but less material available for a purely gravity dam.

The Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity

dam.
Dam 341

Barrages

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam which consists of a line of

large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of
water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers
which are responsible for supporting the water load. They are
often used to control and stabilize water flow for irrigation
systems.
Barrages that are built at the mouth of rivers or lagoons to prevent
tidal incursions or utilize the tidal flow for tidal power are known
as tidal barrages.[26]
The Prakasham barrage is an example of a barrage.
Embankment dams

Embankment dams are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams.
Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like the gravity dams made from concrete.

Rock-fill dams
Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth
utilized often contains a large percentage of large particles hence the term rock-fill. The impervious zone may be on
the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The
impervious zone may also be within the embankment in which case it is referred to as a core. In the instances where
clay is utilized as the impervious material the dam is referred to as a composite dam. To prevent internal erosion of
clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically graded soil
designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable material is at hand, transportation is
minimized leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes.
However, inadequate quality control during construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment
which can lead to liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by
keeping susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An
example of a rock-fill dam is New Melones Dam in California.

Earth-fill dams

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen, rolled-earth or simply earth

dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well compacted
earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of
one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep
water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar
material, typically a locally plentiful shell with a watertight clay
core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain
zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve the integrity
of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth
The Atatürk Dam in Turkey is an embankment dam.
dam construction utilized a hydraulic fill to produce a watertight
core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or
core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. An interesting type of temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes
is the frozen-core dam, in which a coolant is circulated through pipes inside the dam to maintain a watertight region
of permafrost within it.

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan. It is located about 50 km (31 mi) northwest of Islamabad,
and a height of 485 ft (148 m) above the river bed and a reservoir size of 95 sq mi (250 km2) makes it the largest
Dam 342

earth filled dam in the world. The principal element of the project is an embankment 9,000 feet (2743 meters) long
with a maximum height of 465 feet (143 meters). The total volume of earth and rock used for the project is
approximately 200 million cubic yards (152.8 million cu. Meters) which makes it the largest man made structure in
the world , except for the Great Chinese Wall which consumed somewhat more material.
Because earthen dams can be constructed from materials found on-site or nearby, they can be very cost-effective in
regions where the cost of producing or bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

Asphalt-concrete core
A third type of embankment dam is built with asphalt concrete core. The majority of such dams are built with rock
and/or gravel as the main fill material. Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first
such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete core dams built so far have an excellent performance record.
The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plastic material that can adjust to the movements and deformations
imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlements in the foundation. The flexible properties of the asphalt
make such dams especially suited in earthquake regions.

By size
International standards (including International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD) define large dams as higher
than 15 meters and major dams as over 150 meters in height.[27] The Report of the World Commission on Dams also
includes in the large category, dams, such as Barrages, which are between 5 and 15 meters high with a reservoir
capacity of more than 3 million cubic meters.[26]
The tallest dam in the world is the 300-meter-high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan.[28]

By use

Saddle dam
A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a
higher water elevation and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is
constructed in a low spot or saddle through which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is
contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for
reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake. This is similar to a levee, which is a wall or embankment built along
a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

Weir
A weir (also sometimes called an overflow dam) is a type of small overflow dam that is often used within a river
channel to create an impoundment lake for water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow
measurement.

Check dam
A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a
structure that only partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.
Dam 343

Dry dam
A dry dam is a dam designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the channel to flow
freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

Diversionary dam
A diversionary dam is a structure designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course.

By material

Steel dams

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with in around

the turn of the 19th-20th Century which uses steel plating (at an
angle) and load bearing beams as the structure. Intended as
permanent structures, steel dams were an (arguably failed)
experiment to determine if a construction technique could be
devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks,
but sturdier than timber crib dams.

Red Ridge steel dam, b. 1905, Michigan.

Timber dams

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial
revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of
construction. Rarely built in modern times because of relatively
short lifespan and limited height to which they can be built, timber
dams must be kept constantly wet in order to maintain their water
retention properties and limit deterioration by rot, similar to a
barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to
build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or
difficult to transport, and either a low head diversion dam is
required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once
A timber crib dam in Michigan, photographed in 1978. numerous, especially in the North American west, but most have
failed, been hidden under earth embankments or been replaced
with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber dams were the crib and the plank.

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled
with earth or rubble. The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams
were timber crib dams used to help float logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Timber plank dams were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods utilizing heavy
timbers to support a water retaining arrangement of planks.
Dam 344

Other types

Cofferdams

A cofferdam is a (usually temporary) barrier constructed to

exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. Made
commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are
used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams,
bridges, and similar structures. When the project is completed, the
cofferdam may be demolished or removed. See also causeway and
retaining wall. Common uses for cofferdams include construction
and repair of off shore oil platforms. In such cases the cofferdam is
fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air
A cofferdam during the construction of locks at the
is pumped into the space, displacing the water allowing a dry work Montgomery Point Lock and Dam.
environment below the surface. Upon completion the cofferdam is
usually deconstructed unless the area requires continuous maintenance.

Beaver dams

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of
land, beavers can navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators.
The flooded region also allows beavers access to food, especially during the winter.

Construction elements

Power generation plant

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the
world's electricity, and over 63% of renewable energy.[29] Much of this is
generated by large dams, although China uses small scale hydro generation on a
wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of
power.[29]
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator; to boost the power generation capabilities
of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe called a penstock before the
turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped storage hydroelectricity to
Hydraulic turbine and electrical
produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water
generator.
between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand,
excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When
there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. (For example see Dinorwic
Power Station.)
Dam 345

Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

Spillways
A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the upstream side of
a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have floodgates designed to
control the flow through the spillway. Types of spillway include: A service
spillway or primary spillway passes normal flow. An auxiliary spillway releases
flow in excess of the capacity of the service spillway. An emergency spillway is
designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the service
spillway. A fuse plug spillway is a low embankment designed to be over topped
and washed away in the event of a large flood. Fusegate elements are
independent free-standing block set side by side on the spillway which work
without any remote control. They allow to increase the normal pool of the dam
without compromising the security of the dam because they are designed to be
gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weir most of the
time allowing overspilling for the common floods.
Spillway on Llyn Brianne dam,
Wales soon after first fill.
The spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or
turbulence of the water flowing over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the
inadequate design of the spillway which led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown,
Pennsylvania, resulting in the infamous Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").
Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the
spillway into a curve that minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

Dam creation

Common purposes
Dam 346

Function Example

Power generation Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world. Many countries that have rivers with adequate water flow,
that can be dammed for power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River in South America
generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the energy consumed by Paraguay and 20% of that consumed by Brazil as of 2005.

Water supply Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water abstracted from rivers pent up behind low dams or weirs. Examples
include London - with water from the River Thames and Chester with water taken from the River Dee. Other major sources
include deep upland reservoirs contained by high dams across deep valleys such as the Claerwen series of dams and reservoirs.

Stabilize water [30]

Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for agricultural purposes and irrigation. Others such as the
flow / irrigation [31]
Berg Strait dam can help to stabilize or restore the water levels of inland lakes and seas, in this case the Aral Sea.

Flood prevention Dams such as the Blackwater dam of Webster, New Hampshire and the Delta Works are created with flood control in
[32]
mind.

Land Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be
reclamation submerged, allowing its reclamation for human use.

Water diversion A typically small dam used to divert water for irrigation, power generation, or other uses, with usually no other function.
Occasionally, they are used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir to increase flow there and improve water use in
that particular area. See: diversion dam.

Navigation Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water downstream. This can in return affect upstream and
downstream navigation by altering the river's depth. Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for water vessels.
Large dams can serve this purpose but most often weirs and locks are used.

Recreation and Dams built for any of the above purposes may find themselves displaced by time of their original uses. Nevertheless the local
aquatic beauty community may have come to enjoy the reservoir for recreational and aesthetic reasons. Often the reservoir will be placid and
surrounded by greenery, and convey to visitors a natural sense of rest and relaxation.

Location
One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a
deep river valley; the valley sides can then act as natural walls.
The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the
natural reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are
usually those where the gap becomes a minimum for the required
storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a
composite structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth
embankments. The current use of the land to be flooded should be
dispensable.

Significant other engineering and engineering geology The discharge of Takato Dam
considerations when building a dam include:
• permeability of the surrounding rock or soil
• earthquake faults
• landslides and slope stability
• water table
• peak flood flows
• reservoir silting
• environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)
• impacts on human habitations
• compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement
• removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area
Dam 347

Impact assessment
Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage
prevention and power), harm or benefits to nature and wildlife (especially fish and rare species), impact on the
geology of an area - whether the change to water flow and levels will increase or decrease stability, and the
disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

Environmental impact

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological

aspects of a river. Rivers topography and dynamics
depend on a wide range of flows whilst rivers below
dams often experience long periods of very stable flow
conditions or saw tooth flow patterns caused by
releases followed by no releases. Water releases from a
reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually
contains very little suspended sediment, and this in turn
can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of
riverbanks; for example, the daily cyclic flow variation
caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to
sand bar erosion.
Wood and garbage accumulated because of a dam
Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many
fish from moving up stream to their natural breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of
migration paths.[33] Even the presence of a fish ladder does not always prevent a reduction in fish reaching the
spawning grounds upstream. In some areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts
of the year. Turbine and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of
research.

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and
the replacement of the original environment by a new inland lake.
Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in
water load and/or the height of the water table.

Human social impact

The impact on human society is also significant. For example, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China
is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.), and will create a reservoir 600 km long to be used for
hydro-power generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million people's homes and their mass
relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological change.[34] It
is estimated that to date, 40-80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced from their homes as a result
of dam construction.[35]

Economics
Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead-time for site studies, hydrological studies, and
environmental impact assessment, and are large scale projects by comparison to traditional power generation based
upon fossil fuels. The number of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited;
new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require extensive power transmission lines.
Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variation of rainfall, ground
and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient
power is available in low water years.
Dam 348

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap
and reliable. It has no fuel and low escape risk, and as an alternative energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear
and wind power. It is more easily regulated to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand
compared to wind power, although dams have life expectancies while renewable energies do not.

Dam failure
Dam failures are generally catastrophic if the structure is breached or
significantly damaged. Routine deformation monitoring of seepage
from drains in and around larger dams is necessary to anticipate any
problems and permit remedial action to be taken before structural
failure occurs. Most dams incorporate mechanisms to permit the
reservoir to be lowered or even drained in the event of such problems.
Another solution can be rock grouting - pressure pumping portland
cement slurry into weak fractured rock.

During an armed conflict, a dam is to be considered as an "installation The reservoir emptying through the failed Teton
containing dangerous forces" due to the massive impact of a possible Dam.
destruction on the civilian population and the environment. As such, it
is protected by the rules of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and
shall not be made the object of attack if that may cause severe losses
among the civilian population. To facilitate the identification, a
protective sign consisting of three bright orange circles placed on the
same axis is defined by the rules of IHL. International special sign for works and
installations containing dangerous forces
The main causes of dam failure include spillway design error (South
Fork Dam), geological instability caused by changes to water levels during filling or poor surveying (Vajont Dam,
Malpasset, Testalinden Creek Dam), poor maintenance, especially of outlet pipes (Lawn Lake Dam, Val di Stava
Dam collapse), extreme rainfall (Shakidor Dam), and human, computer or design error (Buffalo Creek Flood, Dale
Dike Reservoir, Taum Sauk pumped storage plant).
A notable case of deliberate dam failure (prior to the above ruling) was the Royal Air Force 'Dambusters' raid on
Germany in World War II (codenamed "Operation Chastise"), in which three German dams were selected to be
breached in order to have an impact on German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving
from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for several films.
Since 2007, the Dutch IJkdijk foundation is developing, with an open innovation model and early warning system for
levee/dike failures. As a part of the development effort, full scale dikes are destroyed in the IJkdijk fieldlab. The
destruction process is monitored by sensor networks from an international group of companies and scientific
institutions.
Dam 349

References
[1] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 45/ D0014500. html)
[2] Source: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde (Magazine for Dutch Language and Literature), 1947. The first known appearance
of the word dam stems from 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is already mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to
the Greek word taphos, meaning grave or grave hill. So the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40
places (with minor changes) from the Middle Dutch era (1150–1500 CE) such as Amsterdam (founded as 'Amstelredam' in the late 12th
century) and Rotterdam, also bear testimony to the use of the word in Middle Dutch at that time.
[3] Günther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike", Antike Welt, 2nd special edition: Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51-64 (52)
[4] S.W. Helms: "Jawa Excavations 1975. Third Preliminary Report", Levant 1977
[5] Günther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike", Antike Welt, 2nd special edition: Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51-64 (52f.)
[6] Mohamed Bazza (28-30). "overview of the hystory of water resources and irrigation management in the near east region" (http:/ / www. fao.
org/ world/ Regional/ RNE/ morelinks/ Publications/ English/ HYSTORY-OF-WATER-RESOURCES. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2007-08-01.
[7] "The reservoirs of Dholavira" (http:/ / himalmag. com/ component/ content/ article/ 44/ 1062-The-reservoirs-of-Dholavira. html). The
Southasia Trust. December 2008. . Retrieved 27 February 2011.
[8] Smith 1971, p. 49
[9] Smith 1971, p. 49; Hodge 1992, pp. 79f.
[10] Smith 1971, p. 42
[11] Hodge 1992, p. 87
[12] Hodge 2000, pp. 331f.
[13] Hodge 2000, p. 332; James & Chanson 2002
[14] Smith 1971, pp. 33–35; Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f.; Schnitter 1987a, p. 12; Schnitter 1987c, p. 80; Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2
[15] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62
[16] Schnitter 1978, p. 29; Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62; James & Chanson 2002; Arenillas & Castillo 2003
[17] Vogel 1987, p. 50
[18] Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003), Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water
and Environment (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Bge-0XX6ip8C& pg=PA508& dq=kallanai#PPA508,M1), Allied Publishers, p. 508,
ISBN 817764548X,
[19] "This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070206130842/ http:/
/ www. hindunet. org/ saraswati/ traditionwater. pdf). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hindunet. org/ saraswati/ traditionwater. pdf)
on 2007-02-06. . Retrieved 2007-05-27.
[20] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
[21] Hartung & Kuros 1987, pp. 232, 238, fig. 13; 249
[22] Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 759, in Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic
Science, Routledge, pp. 751–795, ISBN 0415124107
[23] Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 62. BRILL, ISBN 9004146490.
[24] " Is it Worth a Dam? (http:/ / ehp. niehs. nih. gov/ qa/ 105-10focus/ focus. html)". Environmental Health Perspectives Volume 105, Number
10, October 1997
[25] "Arch Dam Forces" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ buildingbig/ dam/ basics. html#arch). . Retrieved 2007-01-07.
[26] "Dams and Development: An Overview" (http:/ / www. dams. org/ report/ wcd_overview. htm). 16 November 2000. . Retrieved
2010-10-24. "Box 1. What is a large dam?"
[27] "Methodology and Technical Notes" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070704103642/ http:/ / www. iucn. org/ themes/ wani/ eatlas/ html/
technotes. html). Watersheds of the World. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. iucn. org/ themes/ wani/ eatlas/ html/ technotes. html) on
2007-07-04. . Retrieved 2007-08-01. "A large dam is defined by the industry as one higher than 15 meters high and a major dam as higher
than 150.5 meters."
[28] Guinness Book of Records 1997 Pages 108-109 ISBN 0-85112-693-6
[29] Renewables Global Status Report 2006 Update (http:/ / www. ren21. net/ globalstatusreport/ download/ RE_GSR_2006_Update. pdf),
REN21, published 2006, accessed 2007-05-16
[30] "The Impact of Agricultural Development on Aquatic Systems and its Effect on the Epidemiology of Schistosomes in Rhodesia" (PDF).
IUCN. "Recently, agricultural development has concentrated on soil and water conservation and resulted in the construction of a multitude of
dams of various capacities which tend to stabilize water flow in rivers and provide a significant amount of permanent and stable bodies of
water."
[32] "Blackwater Dam" (http:/ / www. nae. usace. army. mil/ recreati/ bwd/ bwdfc. htm). US Army Corps of Engineers. . "The principal objective
of the dam and reservoir is to protect downstream communities"
[33] Dam Fact Sheet (http:/ / bataviansforahealthyriver. org/ dam_fact. htm)
[34] "Three Gorges dam wall completed" (http:/ / www. china-embassy. org/ eng/ zt/ sxgc/ t36502. htm). china-embassy. 20 May 2006. .
Retrieved 2006-05-21.
[35] World Commission on Dams Report (http:/ / internationalrivers. org/ en/ way-forward/ world-commission-dams/
world-commission-dams-framework-brief-introduction)
Dam 350

Sources
• Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003), "Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with
Appendix)" (http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4), 1st International Congress on
Construction History [20th–24th January] (Madrid)
• Hartung, Fritz; Kuros, Gh. R. (1987), "Historische Talsperren im Iran", in Garbrecht, Günther, Historische
Talsperren, 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 221–274, ISBN 3-87919-145-X
• Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7
• Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), "Reservoirs and Dams", in Wikander, Örjan, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology,
Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–339, ISBN 90-04-11123-9
• James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002), "Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to
Modern Concrete Designs" (http://traianus.rediris.es/textos/archdams_en.htm), Australian Civil Engineering
Transactions CE43: 39–56
• Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt 8 (2): 25–32
• Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a), "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in Garbrecht,
Günther, Historische Talsperren, 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 9–20, ISBN 3-87919-145-X
• Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther,
Historische Talsperren, 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, ISBN 3-87919-145-X
• Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther,
Historische Talsperren, 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 75–96, ISBN 3-87919-145-X
• Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", Technology and Culture 11 (1): 58–68,
doi:10.2307/3102810, JSTOR 3102810
• Smith, Norman (1971), A History of Dams, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, ISBN 0432150900
• Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther, Historische
Talsperren, 1, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56 (50), ISBN 3-87919-145-X

External links
• Structurae: Dams and Retaining Structures (http://en.structurae.de/structures/stype/index.cfm?doi=3)
Reservoir 351

Reservoir
A reservoir (etymology from French réservoir a "storehouse [1] ) or an
artificial lake is used to store water. Reservoirs may be created in river
valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by excavation in
the ground or by conventional construction techniques such a
brickwork or cast concrete.
The term reservoir may also be used to describe underground
reservoirs such as an oil or water well.

Types The Jhonghua Dam on the Dahan River in

Taoyuan County, Taiwan.

Valley dammed reservoir

A dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to
provide most of the basin of the reservoir. Dams are typically located
at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley
sides act as natural walls with the dam located at the narrowest
practical point to provide strength and the lowest practical cost of
construction. In many reservoir construction projects people have to be
moved and re-housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments
relocated. Examples include the temples of Abu Simbel[2] ( which were
moved before the construction of the Aswan Dam to create Lake Lake Vyrnwy Reservoir. The dam spans the
Vyrnwy Valley and was the first large stone dam
Nasser from the Nile in Egypt ) and the re-location of the village of
built in the United Kingdom.
Capel Celyn during the construction of Llyn Celyn.[3]

Construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually necessitate the

diversion of the river during part of the build often through a
temporary tunnel or by-pass channel.[4]
In hilly regions reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging existing
lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs the new top water level exceeds
the watershed height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at
Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales.[5] In such cases additional side dams are
required to contain the reservoir.
Where the topography is poorly suited to a single large reservoir, a
Stocks Reservoir in Lancashire, England.
number of smaller reservoirs may be constructed in a chain such as in
the River Taff valley where the three reservoirs Llwyn-on Reservoir,
Cantref Reservoir and Beacons Reservoir form a chain up the valley.[6]

Bank-side reservoir
Where water is taken from a river of variable quality or quantity, bank-side reservoirs may be constructed to store
the water pumped or siphoned from the river. Such reservoirs are usually built partly by excavation and partly by the
construction of a complete encircling bund or embankment which may exceed 6 km in circumference.[7] Both the
floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining or core, often made of puddled clay. The water
Reservoir 352

stored in such reservoirs may have a residence time of several months during which time normal biological processes
are able to substantially reduce many contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of bank-side
reservoirs also allows a water abstraction to be closed down for extended period at times when the river is
unacceptably polluted or when flow conditions are very low due to drought. The London water supply system is one
example of the use of bank-side storage for all the water taken from the River Thames and River Lee with many
large reservoirs such as Queen Mary Reservoir visible along the approach to London Heathrow Airport.[7]

Service reservoir
Service reservoirs[8] store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Many service reservoirs are
constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is relatively flat.
Other service reservoirs are entirely underground, especially in more hilly or mountainous country. In the United
Kingdom, Thames Water has many underground reservoirs in London built in the 1800s by the Victorians, most of
which are lined with brick. Honor Oak Reservoir, which was completed in 1909, is believed to one of the largest of
this type in Europe. The roof is supported on large brick pillars and arches and the outside surface is grassed over.[9]
Service reservoirs perform several functions including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water distribution
system and providing hydraulic capacitance in the system to even out peak demand from consumers enabling the
treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. Large service reservoirs can also be managed to so that energy costs in
pumping are reduced by concentrating refilling activity at times of day when power costs are low.

History
Five thousand years ago, the craters of extinct volcanoes in Arabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for their
irrigation water.[10]
Dry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of water management techniques, including the
building of a reservoir at Girnar in 3000 BC.[11] Artificial lakes dating to the 5th century BC have been found in
ancient Greece.[12] An artificial lake in present-day Madhya Pradesh province of India, constructed in the 11th
century, covered 650 square metres (7000 sq ft).[11]
In Sri Lanka large reservoirs have been created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for irrigation.
The famous Sri Lankan king Parākramabāhu I of Sri Lanka stated " do not let a drop of water seep into the ocean
without benefiting mankind ". He created the reservoir named Parakrama Samudra(sea of King Parakrama),[13]
which has astonished archaeologists.

Uses

Direct water supply

Many dammed river reservoirs and most bank-side reservoirs are used
to provide the raw water feed to a water treatment plant which delivers
drinking water through water mains. The reservoir does not simply
hold water until it is needed; it can also be the first part of the water
treatment process. The time the water is held for before it is released is
known as the retention time. This is a design feature that allows
particles and silts to settle out, as well as time for natural biological
treatment using algae, bacteria and zooplankton that naturally live
within the water. However natural limnological processes in temperate
Gibson Reservoir, Montana
Reservoir 353

climate lakes produces temperature stratification in the water body which tends to partition some elements such as
manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold anoxic water during the summer months. In the autumn and winter the
lake becomes fully mixed again. During drought conditions, it is sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom
water and the elevated levels of manganese in particular can cause problems in water treatment plants.[14]

Hydroelectricity
A reservoir generating hydroelectric includes turbines connected to the
retained water body by large diameter pipes. These generating sets may
be at the base of the dam or some distance away. Some reservoirs
generating hydro-electricity use pumped re-charge in which a high
level reservoir is filled with water using high performance electric
pumps at times when electricity demand is low and then uses this
stored water to generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a
low level reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such systems are
called pump storage schemes.[15] Hydroelectric dam in cross section.

Controlling watercourses
Reservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream waterways.
Downstream water supply – water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it can be abstracted for
drinking water lower down the system, sometimes hundred of miles further down downstream
Irrigation – water in an irrigation reservoir may be released into networks of canals for use in farmlands or
secondary water systems. Irrigation may also be supported by reservoirs which maintain river flows allowing
water to be abstracted for irrigation lower down the river.[16]
Flood control – also known as an "attenuation" or "balancing" reservoir, flood control reservoirs collect
water at times of very high rainfall, then release it slowly over the course of the following weeks or months.
Some of these reservoirs are constructed across the river line with the onward flow controlled by an orifice
plate. When river flow exceeds the capacity of the orifice plate water builds behind the dam but as soon as the
flow rate reduces the water behind the dam slowly releases until the reservoir is empty again. In some cases
such reservoirs only function a few times in a decade and the land behind the reservoir may be developed as
community or recreational land. A new generation of balancing dams are being developed to combat the
climatic consequences of climate change. They are called "Flood Detention Reservoirs". Because these
reservoirs will remain dry for long periods, there may be a risk of the clay core drying out reducing its
structural stability. Recent developments include the use of composite core fill made from recycled materials
as an alternative to clay.
Canals – Where a natural watercourse's water is not available to be diverted into a canal, a reservoir may be
built to guarantee the water level in the canal; for example, where a canal climbs to cross a range of hills
through locks.[17]
Reservoir 354

Recreation – water may be released from a reservoir to

artificially create or supplement white-water conditions for
kayaking and other white-water sports.[18] On salmonid rivers
special releases (in Britain called freshets) are made to
encourage natural migration behaviours in fish and to provide a
variety of fishing conditions for anglers. Recreational-only Kupferbach reservoir near
Aachen/Germany.

Flow balancing
Reservoirs can be used to balance the flow in highly managed systems, taking in water during high flows and
releasing it again during low flows. In order for this to work without pumping requires careful control of water levels
using adjustable sluices. Accurate weather forecasts are essential so that dam operators can plan drawdowns prior to
a high rainfall or snowmelt event. Dam operators blamed a faulty weather forecast on the 2010–2011 Queensland
floods. Examples of highly managed Reservoirs are Burrendong_Dam in Australia and Llyn Tegid in North Wales.
Llyn Tegid is a natural lake whose level was raised by a low dam and into which the River Dee flows or discharges
depending upon flow conditions at the time as part of the River Dee regulation system. This mode of operation is a
form of hydraulic capacitance in the river system.

Recreation
The water bodies provided by many reservoirs often allow some recreational uses such as fishing, boating, and other
activities. Special rules may apply for the safety of the public and to protect the quality of the water and the ecology
of the surrounding area. Many reservoirs now support and encourage less informal and less structured recreation
such as natural history, bird watching, landscape painting, walking and hiking and often provide information boards
and interpretation material to encourage responsible use.

Operation
Water falling as rain upstream of the reservoir together with any groundwater emerging as springs is stored in the
reservoir. Any excess water can be spilled via a specifically designed spillway. Stored water may be piped by gravity
for use as drinking water, to generate hydro-electricity or to maintain river flows to support downstream uses.
Occasionally reservoirs can be managed to retain high rain-fall events to prevent or reduce downstream flooding.
Some reservoirs support several uses and the operating rules may be complex.
Most modern reservoirs have a specially designed draw-off tower that can
discharge water from the reservoir at different levels both to access water as the
reservoir draws down but also to allow water of a specific quality to be
discharged into the downstream river as compensation water.
The operators of many upland or in-river reservoirs have obligations to release
water into the downstream river to maintain river quality, support fisheries,
maintain downstream industrial uses. maintain recreational use or for a range of
other requirements. Such releases are known as compensation water.

Terminology
The terminology for reservoirs varies from country to country. In most of the
world reservoir areas are expressed in km2 whilst in the USA acres are
Spillway of Llyn Brianne dam in
commonly used. For volume either m3 or km3 are widely used with acre feet used Wales.
in the USA.
Reservoir 355

The capacity, volume or storage of a reservoir is usually divided into distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storage
refers to water in a reservoir that cannot be drained by gravity through a dam's outlet works, spillway or power plant
intake and can only be pumped out. Dead storage allows sediments to settle which improves water quality and also
creates hydraulic head along with an area for fish during low levels. Active or live storage is the portion of the
reservoir that can be utilized for flood control, power production, navigation and downstream releases. In addition, a
reservoir's flood control capacity is the amount of water it can regulate during flooding. The surcharge capacity is
the capacity of the reservoir above the spillway crest that cannot be regulated.[19]
In the United States the water below the normal maximum level of a reservoir is called the conservation pool.[20]
In the UK top water level describes the reservoir full state whist fully drawn down describes the minimum retained
volume.

Modelling reservoir management

There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the specialist Dam Safety Program Management
Tools (DSPMT) to the relatively simple WAFLEX, to integrated models like the Water Evaluation And Planning
system (WEAP) that place reservoir operations in the context of system-wide demands and supplies.

Safety
In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to try to prevent or minimise failures of containment.[21] [22]
Whilst much of the effort is directed at the dam and its associated structures as the weakest part of the overall
structure, the aim of such controls is to prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. Reservoir
failures can generate huge increases in flow down a river valley with the potential to wash away towns and villages
and cause considerable loss of life such as the devastation following the failure of containment at Llyn Eigiau which
killed 17 people.[23] (see also List of dam failures)
A notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of War involved the British Royal Air Force Dambusters
raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed "Operation Chastise" [24] ), in which three German reservoir dams
were selected to be breached in order to impact on German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities
deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. The economic and social impact was derived from the enormous volumes of
previously stored water that swept down the valleys wreaking destruction. This raid later became the basis for
several films.

Environmental impact

Whole life environmental impact

All reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before construction to see if the project is worth
proceeding with.[25] However, such analysis can often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the reservoirs
that they contain. Some impacts such as the greenhouse gas production associated with concrete manufacture are
relatively easy to estimate. Other impact on the natural environment and social and cultural effects can be more
difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance but identification and quantification of these issues are now commonly
required in major construction projects in the developed world [26]
Reservoir 356

Climate change
Depending upon the circumstances, a reservoir built for hydro-electricity generation can either reduce or increase the
net production of greenhouse gases. An increase can occur if plant material in the flooded areas decays in an
anaerobic environment releasing (methane and carbon dioxide). This apparently counterintuitive position arises
because much carbon is released as methane which is approximately 8 time more potent as a greenhouse gas than
carbon dioxide [27]
A study for the National Institute for Research in the Amazon found that Hydroelectric reservoirs release a large
pulse of carbon dioxide from above-water decay of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during the first
decade after closing.[28] This elevates the global warming impact of the dams to levels much higher than would
occur by generating the same power from fossil fuels.[28] According to the World Commission on Dams report
(Dams And Development), when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of forest in the flooded area
was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired
thermal generation plant.[29] For instance, In 1990, the impoundment behind the Balbina Dam in Brazil (inaugurated
in 1987) had over 20 times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels,
due to the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated.[28]
A decrease can occur if the dam is used in place of traditional power generation, since electricity produced from
hydroelectric generation does not give rise to any flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion (including sulfur
dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon monoxide from coal). The Tucurui dam in Brazil (closed in 1984) had only 0.4
times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels.[28]

Biology
Dams can produce a block for migrating fish, trapping them in one area, producing food and a habitat for various
water-birds. They can also flood various ecosystems on land and may cause extinctions.

Human Impact
Dams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching countries downstream of them, causing water stress between
the countries, e.g. the Sudan and Egypt, which damages farming businesses in the downstream countries, and
reduces drinking water.
Farms and villages, e.g. Ashopton can be flooded by the creation of reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. For this
very reason, worldwide 80 million people have had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.

Limnology
The limnology of reservoirs has many similarities to that of lakes of equivalent size. There are however significant
differences.[30] Many reservoirs experience considerable variations in level producing significant areas that are
intermittently underwater or dried out. This greatly limits the productivity or the water margins and limits the
number of species able to survive in these conditions.
Upland reservoirs tend to have a much shorter residence time than natural lakes and this can lead to more rapid
cycling of nutrients through the water body so that they are more quickly lost to the system. This may be seen as a
mismatch between water chemistry and water biology with a tendency for the biological component to be more
oligotrophic than the chemistry would suggest.
Conversely, lowland reservoirs drawing water from nutrient rich rivers, may show exaggerated eutrophic
characteristics because the residence time in the reservoir is much greater than in the river and the biological systems
have a much greater opportunity to utilise the available nutrients.
Deep reservoirs with multiple level draw off towers can discharge deep cold water into the downstream river greatly
reducing the size of any hypolimnion. This in turn can reduce the concentrations of phosphorus released during any
Reservoir 357

annual mixing event and may therefore reduce productivity.

The Dams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints-the energy of the water falling from them reduces and deposition
is a result below the Dams.

Seismicity
The filling (impounding) of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir-triggered seismicity (RTS) as seismic
events have occurred near large dams or within their reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered by
the filling or operation of the reservoir and are on a small scale when compared to the amount of reservoirs
worldwide. Of over 100 recorded events, early examples include the 60 m (197 ft) tall Marathon Dam in Greece
(1929), the 221 m (725 ft) tall Hoover Dam in the U.S. (1935). Most events involve large dams and small amounts of
seismicity. The only four recorded events above a 6.0- magnitude (Mw) are the 103 m (338 ft) tall Koyna Dam in
India which registered a Mw of 6.3 along with the 120 m (394 ft) Kremasta Dam in Greece which registered a
6.3-Mw as well. Following those two, the next largest were the 122 m (400 ft) high Kariba Dam in Zambia at
6.25-Mw and the 105 m (344 ft) Xinfengjiang Dam in China at 6.1-Mw. Disputes occur over when RTS has occurred
due to a lack of hydrogeological knowledge at the time of the event. It is accepted though that the infiltration of
water into pores and the weight of the reservoir do contribute to RTS patterns. For RTS to occur, there must be a
seismic structure near the dam or its reservoir and the seismic structure must be close to failure. Additionally, water
must be able to infiltrate the deep rock stratum as the weight of a 100 m (328 ft) deep reservoir will have little impact
when compared the deadweight of rock on a crustal stress field which may be located at a depth of 10 km (6 mi) or
more.[31]

Micro climate
Reservoirs may change the local micro-climate increasing humidity and reducing extremes of temperature. Such
effects are claimed by some South Australian winerys as increasing the quality of the wine production.

List of reservoirs

List of reservoirs by area

The following are the world's ten largest reservoirs by surface area:
1. Lake Volta (8482 km2 or 3275 sq mi; Ghana) [32]
2. Smallwood Reservoir (6527 km2 or 2520 sq mi; Canada)[33]
3. Kuybyshev Reservoir (6450 km2 or 2490 sq mi; Russia)[34]
4. Lake Kariba (5580 km2 or 2150 sq mi; Zimbabwe, Zambia)[35]
5. Bukhtarma Reservoir (5490 km2 or 2120 sq mi; Kazakhstan)
6. Bratsk Reservoir (5426 km2 or 2095 sq mi; Russia)[36]
7. Lake Nasser (5248 km2 or 2026 sq mi; Egypt, Sudan) [37]
8. Rybinsk Reservoir (4580 km2 or 1770 sq mi; Russia)
9. Caniapiscau Reservoir (4318 km2 or 1667 sq mi; Canada)[38]
10. Lake Guri (4250 km2 or 1640 sq mi; Venezuela)
Lake Volta from space (April 1993).
Reservoir 358

List of reservoirs by volume

1. Lake Kariba (180 km3 or 43 cu mi; Zimbabwe, Zambia)
2. Bratsk Reservoir (169 km3 or 41 cu mi; Russia)
3. Lake Nasser (157 km3 or 38 cu mi; Egypt, Sudan)
4. Lake Volta (148 km3 or 36 cu mi; Ghana)
5. Manicouagan Reservoir (142 km3 or 34 cu mi; Canada)[39]
6. Lake Guri (135 km3 or 32 cu mi; Venezuela)
7. Williston Lake (74 km3 or 18 cu mi; Canada)[40]
8. Krasnoyarsk Reservoir (73 km3 or 18 cu mi; Russia)
9. Zeya Reservoir (68 km3 or 16 cu mi; Russia) Lake Kariba from space.

References
[1] Online Etymology Dictionary – Reservoir (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=reservoir)
[2] Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae – UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 88)
[3] Capel Celyn, Ten Years of Destruction: 1955–1965, Thomas E., Cyhoeddiadau Barddas & Gwynedd Council, 2007, ISBN 978 1 900437 92 9
[4] Construction of Hoover Dam: a historic account prepared in cooperation with the Department of the Interior. KC Publications. 1976. ISBN
0-916122-51-4.
[5] Llyn Clywedog – Llanidloes mid-Wales (http:/ / www. llanidloes. com/ clywedog/ index. html)
[6] Reservoirs of Fforest Fawr Geopark (http:/ / www. geoparcyfforestfawr. org. uk/ understanding/ archaeology-industrial-heritage/
reservoir-of-fforest-fawr-geopark)
[7] Queen Mary and King George V emergency draw down schemes (http:/ / www. icevirtuallibrary. com/ content/ article/ 10. 1680/ dare. 2009.
19. 2. 79;jsessionid=3295v7olnvqlv. z-telford-01)
[8] Open University – Service Reservoirs (http:/ / openlearn. open. ac. uk/ mod/ resource/ view. php?id=185924)
[9] London Wildweb – Honor Oak Road Covered Reservoir (http:/ / wildweb. london. gov. uk/ wildweb/ PublicMapZoomFullSite.
do?pictureno=1& media=null& siteid=6370& type=site& zoomlevel=500)
[10] Smith, S. et al. (2006) Water: the vital resource, 2nd edition, Milton Keynes, The Open University
[11] edited by John C. Rodda, Lucio Ubertini. (2004). Rodda, John; Ubertini, Lucio. eds. The Basis of Civilization – Water Science?.
International Association of Hydrological Science. ISBN 1-901502-57-0. OCLC 224463869
[12] Wilson & Wilson (2005). Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. Routledge. ISBN 0415973341. pp. 8
[13] – International Lake Environment Committee – Parakrama Samudra (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ asi/ asi-45. html)
[14] Water problems – Manganese (http:/ / www. freedrinkingwater. com/ water_quality/ chemical/ water-problems-manganese. htm)
[15] How pump storage works (http:/ / www. fhc. co. uk/ pumped_storage. htm)
[16] Thinking about an irrigation reservoir? (http:/ / www. ukia. org/ eabooklets/ EA Reservoir booklet_final. pdf)
[17] Huddersfield narrow canal reservoirs (http:/ / www. huddersfield1. co. uk/ huddersfield/ narrowcanal/ huddscanalres. htm)
[18] Water Release information for The River Tryweryn at the National Whitewater centre (http:/ / www. ukrafting. co. uk/ waterinfo. htm)
[19] Vojtěch Broža, Ladislav Votruba, (1989). Water management in reservoirs (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=j8dIlPJITH0C& pg=PA187&
lpg=PA187& dq=active+ storage+ reservoir#v=onepage& q=active storage reservoir& f=false). Elsevier Publishing Company. p. 187.
ISBN 0-444-98933. .
[20] Lower Colorado River Authority – Water Glossary (http:/ / www. lcra. org/ water/ conditions/ glossary. html)
[21] North Carolina Dam safety law (http:/ / www. dlr. enr. state. nc. us/ pages/ damsafetylaw1967. html)
[22] Reservoirs Act 1975 The Reservoirs Act 1975 (UK) (http:/ / www. opsi. gov. uk/ RevisedStatutes/ Acts/ ukpga/ 1975/
cukpga_19750023_en_1)
[23] Snowdonia – Llyn Eigau (http:/ / www. snowdoniaguide. com/ llyn_eigiau. html)
[24] Commonwealth War Graves Commission – Operation Chastise (http:/ / www. cwgc. org/ admin/ files/ The Dams Raid. pdf)
[25] CIWEM – Reservoirs:Global Issues (http:/ / www. ciwem. org/ policy/ policies/ reservoirs. asp)
[26] Proposed reservoir – Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Scoping Report (http:/ / www. whitehorsedc. gov. uk/ news_views/
topical_issues/ xx_detailpage-4402. asp)
[27] Houghton, John (4 May 2005). Global warming (http:/ / stacks. iop. org/ RoPP/ 68/ 1343). Institute of Physics. p. 1362. .
[28] Fearnside, P.M. 1995. hydroelectric dams in the Brazilian Amazon as sources of 'greenhouse' gases. Environmental Conservation 22(1):
7–19.]
[29] Hydroelectric power's dirty secret revealed – earth – 24 February 2005 – New Scientist (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article.
ns?id=dn7046)
[30] Ecology of Reservoirs and Lakes (http:/ / www. forestencyclopedia. net/ p/ p1483)
Reservoir 359

[31] "The relationship between large reservoirs and seismicity 08 February 2010" (http:/ / www. waterpowermagazine. com/ story.
asp?storyCode=2055399). International Water Power & Dam Construction. 20 February 2010. . Retrieved 12 March 2011.
[32] International Lake Environment Committee – Volta Lake (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ afr/ afr-16. html)
[33] The Canadian Encyclopaedia – Smallwood Reservoir (http:/ / www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com/ index. cfm?PgNm=TCE&
Params=A1ARTA0007465)
[34] International Lake Environment Committee – Reservoir Kuybyshev (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ eur/ deur54. html)
[35] International Lake Environment Committee – Lake Kariba (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ afr/ dafr04. html)
[36] International Lake Environment Committee – Bratskoye Reservoir (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ asi/ dasi61. html)
[37] International Lake Environment Committee – Aswam high dam reservoir (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ afr/ dafr19. html)
[38] International Lake Environment Committee – Caniapiscau Reservoir (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ nam/ dnam35. html)
[39] International Lake Environment Committee – Manicouagan Reservoir (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ nam/ dnam26. html)
[40] International Lake Environment Committee – Williston Lake (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ nam/ dnam29. html)

External links
• Department of Water Resources. "Reservoir Information" (http://cdec.water.ca.gov/misc/resinfo.html).
California Data Exchange Center. State of California.
ltg:Iudiņture

Polder
A polder is a low-lying tract of land enclosed by embankments
(barriers) known as dikes, that forms an artificial hydrological
entity, meaning it has no connection with outside water other than
through manually-operated devices. There are three types of
polder:
• Land reclaimed from a body of water, such as a lake or the sea
bed.
• Flood plains separated from the sea or river by a dike.
• Marshes separated from the surrounding water by a dike and
Satellite image of Noordoostpolder, Netherlands
consequently drained. (595.41 km²)

The ground level in drained marshes subsides over time and thus
all polders will eventually be below the surrounding water level some or all of the time. Water enters the low-lying
polder through ground swell due to water pressure on ground water or rain fall and transportation of water by rivers
and canals. This usually means that the polder has an excess of water that needs to be pumped out or drained by
opening sluices at low tide. However, care must be taken in not setting the internal water level too low. Polder land
made up of peat (former marshland) will show accelerated compression due to the peat decomposing in dry
conditions.

Polders are at risk from flooding at all times and care must be taken to protect the surrounding dikes. Dikes are
mostly built using locally available materials and each has its own risk factor: sand is prone to collapse due to
oversaturation by water while dry peat is lighter than water, making the barrier potentially unstable in very dry
seasons. Some animals dig tunnels in the barrier, undermining the structure; the muskrat is notorious for this
behavior. For this reason in the Netherlands it is actively hunted to extinction. No such care is taken in neighboring
Germany though, causing the stock to be constantly resupplied across the border.
Polders are most commonly found, though not exclusively so, in river deltas, former fen lands and coastal areas.
Polder 360

Polders and the Netherlands

The Netherlands is frequently associated with polders. This is
illustrated by the English saying: God created the world, but the
Dutch created Holland.
The Dutch have a long history of reclamation of marshes and
fenland, resulting in some 3,000 polders[1] nationwide. About half
of all polder surface within northwest Europe is located within the
Netherlands. The first embankments in Europe were constructed in
Roman times. The first polders were constructed in the 11th
century. Due to flooding disasters, water boards called waterschap Pumping station in Zoetermeer, Netherlands. The
(when situated more inland) or hoogheemraadschap (near the sea, polder lies lower than the surrounding water on the
mainly used in Holland)[2] were set up to maintain the integrity of other side of the dike.

the water defences around polders, maintain the waterways inside

a polder and control the various water levels inside and outside the polder. Water bodies hold separate elections, levy
taxes and function independently from other government bodies. Their function is basically unchanged even
currently. As such, they are the oldest democratic institution in the country. The necessary co-operation between all
ranks in maintaining polder integrity also gave its name to the Dutch version of third way politics - the Polder
Model.

The 1953 flood disaster prompted a new approach to the design of dikes and other water-retaining structures, based
on an acceptable probability of overflowing. Risk is defined as the product of probability and consequences. The
damage in lives, property and rebuilding costs is offset against the cost of water defences. From these calculations
follow an acceptable flood risk from the sea at 1 in 4,000–10,000 years, while it is 1 in 100–2,500 years for a river
flood. The established policy forces the Dutch government to improve flood defences as new data on threat levels
becomes available.

Examples of polders

Belgium
• De Moeren, near Veurne in West Flanders
• Polders of Muisbroek and Ettenhoven, in Ekeren and Hoevenen
• Polder of Stabroek, in Stabroek
• Kabeljauwpolder, in Zandvliet
• Scheldepolders on the left bank of the Scheldt
• Uitkerkse polders, near Blankenberge in West Flanders
Polder 361

Canada
• Holland Marsh

France
• Marais Poitevin
• Les Moëres, adjacent to the Flemish polder De Moeren in Belgium.

Germany
• Altes Land near Hamburg
• Blockland & Hollerland near Bremen
• Nordstrand, Germany
• Bormerkoog and Meggerkoog near Friedrichstadt

Guyana
Black Bush Polder, Corentyne, Berbice

Italy
• Delta of the river Po such as Bonifica Valle del Mezzano

Japan
• Hachirogata in Akita Prefecture
• Isahaya Bay in Kyushu
• Kojima Bay in Okayama Prefecture

Korea, Republic of
• Parts of the coast of Ganghwa Island, adjacent to the river Han in Incheon
• Delta of the river Nakdong in Busan
• Saemangeum in Jeollabuk-do

Netherlands
• Alblasserwaard, containing the windmills of Kinderdijk, a World Heritage Site
• Andijk
• Anna Paulownapolder
• Beemster, a World Heritage Site
• Bijlmermeer
• Haarlemmermeer, containing Schiphol airport
• Krimpenerwaard
• Lauwersmeer
• Mastenbroek
• Noordoostpolder
• Ooijpolder
• Prins Alexanderpolder
• Purmer
• Schermer
• Rosandepolder
Polder 362

• Watergraafsmeer
• Wieringermeer
• Wieringerwaard
• Wijdewormer
• Zijpe- en Hazepolder
• Zuidplaspolder
• Eastern and Southern Flevoland polders, containing the cities of Lelystad and Almere, respectively. Together
these polders are also known as the Flevopolder.

Poland
• Vistula delta near Elbląg and Nowy Dwor Gdanski
• Warta delta near Kostrzyn nad Odra

United Kingdom
• Traeth Mawr
• Sunk Island, on the north shore of the Humber east of Hull
• Parts of The Fens
• Branston Island, by the River Witham outside the conventional area of the fens but connected to them.
• Parts of the coast of Essex
• Some land along the River Plym in Plymouth
• Some land around Meathop east of Grange-over-Sands, reclaimed as a side-effect of building a railway
embankment
• The Somerset Levels and North Somerset Levels
• Romney marsh

United States
• New Orleans
• Sacramento – San Joaquin River Delta

References
[1] "TKijk naar de geschiedenis" (https:/ / www. rijkswaterstaat. nl/ rws/ waterinnovatiebron/ cgi-bin/ toonlijst. pl?config=config& var=volgnr&
val=1& layout=index-forceframe& confignr=1& menu=1067260347& menuitem=1120115781). Rijkswaterstaat. . Retrieved 2008-01-21.
[2] http:/ / www. waterschappen. nl/ mijn-waterschap. html

• Farjon, J.M.J., J. Dirkx, A. Koomen, J. Vervloet & W. Lammers. 2001. Neder-landschap Internationaal:
bouwstenen voor een selectie van gebieden landschapsbehoud. Alterra, Wageningen. Rapport 358 (http://www2.
alterra.wur.nl/Webdocs/PDFFiles/Alterrarapporten/AlterraRapport358.pdf).
• Morten Stenak. 2005. De inddæmmede Landskaber - En historisk geografi. Landbohistorik Selskab.
• Ven, G.P. van de (red.) 1993. Leefbaar laagland: geschiedenis van waterbeheersing en landaanwinning in
Nederland. Matrijs, Utrecht.
• Wagret, P. 1972. Polderlands. London : Methuen.
Polder 363

External links
• Polder landscapes in the Netherlands within a northwest European and is also a landmark context (http://home.
planet.nl/~farjo001/internat_uk.htm)
• How to make a polder - online film (http://static.nai.nl/polders/e/hoe_e.html)
• http://watercanon.nederlandleeftmetwater.nl/view/canon/professionalisation

Artificial island
An artificial island or man-made island is an island or archipelago that has been constructed by people rather than
formed by natural means. They are created by expanding existing islets, construction on existing reefs, or
amalgamating several natural islets into a bigger island.
Early artificial islands included floating structures in still waters, or wooden or megalithic structures erected in
shallow waters (e.g., crannógs and Nan Madol discussed below). In modern times artificial islands are usually
formed by land reclamation, but some are formed by the incidental isolation of an existing piece of land during canal
construction (e.g. Donauinsel and Dithmarschen), or flooding of valleys resulting in the tops of former knolls getting
isolated by water (e.g. Barro Colorado Island).
Some recent developments have been made more in the manner of oil platforms (e.g., Sealand and Republic of Rose
Island).
Artificial islands may vary in size from small islets reclaimed solely to support a single pillar of a building or
structure, to those that support entire communities and buildings.

History
Despite a popular image of modernity, artificial islands actually have a long history in many parts of the world,
dating back to the crannogs of prehistoric Scotland and Ireland, the ceremonial centers of Nan Madol in Micronesia
and the still extant floating islands of Lake Titicaca. The city of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec predecessor of Mexico City
that was home to 250,000 people when the Spaniards arrived, stood on a small natural island in Lake Texcoco that
was surrounded by countless artificial chinamitl islands.
Many artificial islands have been built in urban harbors to provide either a site deliberately isolated from the city or
just spare real estate otherwise unobtainable in a crowded metropolis. An example of the first case is Dejima (or
Deshima), created in the bay of Nagasaki in Japan's Edo period as a contained center for European merchants.
During the isolationist era, Dutch people were generally banned from Nagasaki and Japanese from Dejima.
Similarly, Ellis Island, in Upper New York Bay beside New York City, a former tiny islet greatly expanded by land
reclamation, served as an isolated immigration center for the United States in the late 19th and early 20th century,
preventing an escape to the city of those refused entry for disease or other perceived flaws, who might otherwise be
tempted toward illegal immigration. One of the most well-known artificial islands is the Île Notre-Dame in Montreal,
built for Expo 67.
The Venetian Islands in Miami Beach, Florida, in Biscayne Bay added valuable new real estate during the Florida
land boom of the 1920s. When the bubble that the developers were riding burst, the bay was left scarred with the
remnants of their failed project. A boom town development company was building a sea wall for an island that was
to be called Isola di Lolando but could not stay in business after the 1926 Miami Hurricane and the Great
Depression, dooming the island-building project. The concrete pilings from the project still stand as another
development boom roared around them, 80 years later.
Artificial island 364

Dejima, not allowed direct contact with Eighty-year-old sea wall pilings Our Lady of the Rocks
nearby Nagasaki from the failed Isola di Lolando (Gospa od Škrpjela) in
construction project in Miami Montenegro
Beach, Florida

Modern projects
In 1969, the Flevopolder in the Netherlands was finished, as part of the Zuiderzee Works. This island consists of the
polders Eastern Flevoland and Southern Flevoland, and has a total land surface of 970 km², which makes it the
largest artificial island in the world.
Kansai International Airport is the first airport to be built completely on an artificial island in 1994, followed by
Chūbu Centrair International Airport in 2005 and the New Kitakyushu Airport and Kobe Airport in 2006. When
Hong Kong International Airport opened in 1998, 75% of the property was created using Land reclamation upon the
existing islands of Chek Lap Kok and Lam Chau.
In Mumbai, the present Salsette Island was formerly made up of several smaller islands, which were joined together
during 1782-1838 through the Hornby Vellard project to form a single island. Many of the hills were cut down and
used to enlarge the island by filling in the shallows and to link the islands to one another.
Dubai is home to several artificial islands projects, including the three Palm Islands projects, The World and the
Dubai Waterfront. Only the Palm Jumeirah is inhabited so far.

The Flevopolder in the A view of Kansai Palm Jumeirah in Dubai Northstar Island, an artificial
Netherlands is the largest International Airport from island for oil drilling in the
artificial island in the world space Beaufort Sea

Political status
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty (UNCLOS), artificial islands are not considered
harbor works (Article 11) and are under the jurisdiction of the nearest coastal state if within 200 nautical miles
(370 km) (Article 56).[1] Artificial islands are not considered islands for purposes of having their own territorial
waters or exclusive economic zones, and only the coastal state may authorize their construction (Article 60).
However, on the high seas beyond national jurisdiction, any "state" may construct artificial islands (Article 87).
Artificial island 365

References
[1] UNCLOS and Agreement on Part XI - Preamble and frame index (http:/ / www. un. org/ depts/ los/ convention_agreements/ texts/ unclos/
closindx. htm)

External links
• Artificial Islands in The Law of the Sea (http://seasteading.org/files/research/law/
ARTIFICIAL_ISLANDS_-_01.09.09_mod.doc.pdf)

Quarry
A quarry is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted. Quarries are generally used for
extracting building materials, such as dimension stone, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, and gravel. They are
often colocated with concrete and asphalt plants due to the requirement for large amounts of aggregate in those
materials. The word quarry can include underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone.

Problems
Quarries in level areas with shallow
groundwater or which are located close to
surface water often have engineering
problems with drainage. Generally the water
is removed by pumping while the quarry is
operational, but for high inflows more
complex approaches may be required. For
example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to
more than 60 feet (18 m) below sea level.
To reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with
clay was constructed around the entire
quarry. Ground water entering the pit is
pumped up into the moat. As a quarry Portland stone quarry on the Isle of Portland, England
becomes deeper water inflows generally
increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal - this can become the limiting
factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging.

Many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address
problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the more effective and famous examples of successful quarry
restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC, Canada.
Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes. Others are made into landfills.

Quarry swimming
Water-filled quarries can be very deep with water, often 50 feet or more, that is often surprisingly cold.
Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmer's muscles to suddenly weaken; it can also cause shock and even
hypothermia.[1] Though quarry water is often very clear, submerged quarry stones and abandoned equipment make
diving into these quarries extremely dangerous. Several teenagers and young men and women drown in quarries each
year.[2] [3] However, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites.
Quarry 366

Types of rock
Types of rock extracted from quarries include:
• Chalk
• China clay
• Cinder
• Clay
• Coal
• Construction aggregate (sand and gravel)
• Coquina
• Granite
• Gritstone
• Gypsum
• Limestone
• Marble
• Ores
• Phosphate rock
Delabole Slate Quarry, Delabole, Cornwall, UK
• Sandstone
• Slate

References
[1] American Canoe Association explanation of cold shock (http:/ / www. enter. net/
~skimmer/ coldwater. html)
[2] US Dept. of Labor list of mine related fatalities (http:/ / www. msha. gov/ SOSA/
previousfatalstats. asp)
[3] Geology.com on quarry drownings (http:/ / geology. com/ articles/
abandoned-mines. shtml)

An abandoned construction aggregate quarry near

Adelaide, South Australia

An abandoned limestone quarry

Ditch 367

Ditch
A ditch is usually defined as a small to moderate depression created to
channel water.
In Anglo-Saxon, the word dïc already existed and was pronounced 'deek' in
northern England and 'deetch' in the south. The origins of the word lie in
digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This
practice has meant that the name dïc was given to either the excavation or the
bank, and evolved to both the words 'dike'/'dyke' and 'ditch'. Thus Offa's Dyke
is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench, though it once had raised
banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, and in the United States,
a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small
drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as
in Rippingale Running Dike, which leads water from the catchwater drain,
Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire (TF1427). The Weir A well maintained ditch in the
Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty and alongside the Netherlands
River Glen.

A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low lying areas,
alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source
for plant irrigation. A trench can be defined as a long narrow ditch. Ditches
are commonly seen around farmland especially in areas that have required
drainage, such as The Fens in eastern England and the Netherlands.
Roadside ditches can provide a hazard to motorists, especially in poor
weather conditions. It is not uncommon in some rural areas to see cars,
motorcycles, or bicycles that have crashed into ditches, or to hear of such Ditches at the Ouse Washes nature
accidents. reserve.

Sustainability of drainage ditches

Drainage ditches play major roles in agriculture throughout the world.
Improper drainage systems accelerate water contamination, excessively
desiccate soils during seasonal drought, and become a financial burden to
maintain. Industrial earth-moving equipment facilitates maintenance of
straight drainage trenches, but entrenchment results in increasing
environmental and eventually profound economic costs over time.[1]
Waterplants growing in a ditch in the
Sustainable channel design can result in ditches that are largely Netherlands, showing Sagittaria
self-maintaining due to natural geomorphological equilibrium. Slowed net sagittifolia to the right.
siltation and erosion result in net reduction in sediment transport.
Encouraging development of a natural stream sinuosity and a multi-terraced channel cross section appear to be key
to maintain both peak ditch drainage capacity, and minimum net pollution and nutrient transport.[2]
Flooding can be a major cause of recurring crop loss — particularly in heavy soils — and can severely disrupt urban
economies as well. Subsurface drainage to ditches offers a way to remove excess water from agricultural fields, or
vital urban spaces, without the erosion rates and pollution transport that results from direct surface runoff. However,
excess drainage results in recurring drought induced crop yield losses and more severe urban heat or desiccation
issues.
Ditch 368

Controlled subsurface drainage from sensitive areas to vegetated drainage ditches makes possible a better balance
between water drainage and water retention needs. The initial investment, allows a community to draw down local
water tables when and where necessary without exacerbating drought problems at other times.[3]

References
[1] See also hypoxia, dead zone, nonpoint source pollution, desertification, and urban heat island
[2] Geomorphic Characteristics of Drainage Ditches in Southern Minnesota, and the concept of a Two-Stage Ditch Design (Brad Hansen, Bruce
Wilson, Joe Magner, and John Nieber) http:/ / d-outlet. coafes. umn. edu/ presentations/ DrainForum06/ J.
%20Nieber-2-stage%20ditch%20design. pdf
[3] Drainage Water Management Updates (G. Sands) http:/ / d-outlet. coafes. umn. edu/ presentations/ DrainForum06/ G.
%20Sands-WTM%20Updates. pdf

External links
• Barbagallo, Tricia (June 1, 2005). "Black Beach: The Mucklands of Canastota, New York" (http://www.
archives.nysed.gov/apt/magazine/MagSummer05FeatureArticle_000.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2008-06-04.

Land reclamation
Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, is the process to
create new land from sea or riverbeds. The land reclaimed is known as
reclamation ground or landfill.

Reclaiming in Perth, Australia 1964

Habitation
The creation of new land was for the need of human activities. Notable
examples in the West include large parts of the Netherlands, parts of
New Orleans (which is partially built on land that was once swamp);
much of San Francisco's waterfront has been reclaimed from the San
Francisco Bay; Mexico City (which is situated at the former site of
Lake Texcoco); Helsinki (of which the major part of the city center is The entire East Coast Park in Singapore was built
built on reclaimed land); the Cape Town foreshore; the Chicago on reclaimed land with a man-made beach.
shoreline; the Manila Bay shoreline; Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts;
Battery Park City, Manhattan; Liberty State Park, Jersey City; the port of Zeebrugge in Belgium; the southwestern
residential area in Brest, Belarus, the polders of the Netherlands; and the Toronto Islands, Leslie Street Spit, and the
waterfront in Toronto. In the Far East, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, the southern Chinese cities of Shenzhen, the
Philippine
Land reclamation 369

capital Manila, and the city-state of Singapore, where land is in short

supply, are also famous for their efforts on land reclamation. One of
the earliest and famous project was the Praya Reclamation Scheme,
which added 50 to 60 acres ( m2) of land in 1890 during the second
phase of construction. It was one of the most ambitious projects ever
taken during the Colonial Hong Kong era.[1] Some 20% of land in the
Tokyo Bay area has been reclaimed.[2] Monaco and the British territory
of Gibraltar are also expanding due to land reclamation. The city of
Rio de Janeiro was largely built on reclaimed land, as was Wellington, The Flevopolder in the Netherlands, reclaimed
New Zealand. from the IJsselmeer, is the largest artificial island
in the world.
Artificial islands are an example of land reclamation. Creating an
artificial island is an expensive and risky undertaking. It is often considered in places with high population density
and a scarcity of flat land. Kansai International Airport (in Osaka) and Hong Kong International Airport are
examples where this process was deemed necessary. The Palm Islands, The World and hotel Burj al-Arab off Dubai
in the United Arab Emirates are other examples of artificial islands.

Agriculture
Agriculture was a drive for land reclamation before industrialisation. In South China, farmers reclaimed paddy fields
by enclosing an area with a stone wall on the sea shore near river mouth or river delta. The species of rice that grow
on these grounds are more salt tolerant. Another use of such enclosed land is creation of fish ponds. It is commonly
seen on the Pearl River Delta and Hong Kong. These reclamation also attracts species of migrating birds.
A related practice is the draining of swampy or seasonally submerged wetlands to convert them to farmland. While
this does not create new land exactly, it allows commercially productive use of land that would otherwise be
restricted to wildlife habitat. It is also an important method of mosquito control.

Beach restoration
Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be
used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of
the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a
long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences.

Landfill
As human overcrowding of developed areas intensified during the 20th century, it has become important to develop
land re-use strategies for completed landfills. Some of the most common usages are for parks, golf courses and other
sports fields. Increasingly, however, office buildings and industrial uses are made on a completed landfill. In these
latter uses, methane capture is customarily carried out to minimize explosive hazard within the building.
An example of a Class A office building constructed over a landfill is the Dakin Building at Sierra Point, Brisbane,
California. The underlying fill was deposited from 1965 to 1985, mostly consisting of construction debris from San
Francisco and some municipal wastes. Aerial photographs prior to 1965 show this area to be tidelands of the San
Francisco Bay. A clay cap was constructed over the debris prior to building approval.[3]
A notable example is Sydney Olympic Park, the primary venue for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, which was
built atop an industrial wasteland that included landfills.
Another strategy for landfill is the incineration of landfill trash at high temperature via the plasma-arc gasification
process, which is currently used at two facilities in Japan, and will be used at a planned facility in St. Lucie County,
Land reclamation 370

Florida.[4]

Environmental impact
Draining wetlands for ploughing, for example, is a form of habitat
destruction. In some parts of the world, new reclamation projects are
restricted or no longer allowed, due to environmental protection laws.

Parts (highlighted in brown) of the San Francisco

Bay were reclaimed from wetlands for urban use.

Environmental legislation
Hong Kong legislators passed the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance
in 1996 in an effort to safeguard the increasingly threatened Victoria
Harbour against encroaching land development.[5]

Land amounts added

• Netherlands - about 1/5 of the entire country reclaimed from the
sea and/or, from marshes and swamps. About 7,000 km2 in total.
• South Korea - As of 2006, 38 percent or 1,550 km2 of coastal
wetlands reclaimed, including 400  km2 at Saemangeum. Land reclamation in Hong Kong: Grey (built), red
2 (proposed or under development). Most of the
• Singapore - 20% of the original size or 135 km . As of 2003, plans
urban area of Hong Kong is on the reclaimed
for 99 km2 more are to go ahead,[6] despite the fact that disputes
land.
persist with Malaysia over Singapore's extensive land reclamation
works.[7]
• Hong Kong - (Main article: Land reclamation in Hong Kong)
Praya Reclamation Scheme began in the late 1860s and consisted of two stages totaling 50 to 60+ acres.[1]
Hong Kong Disneyland, Hong Kong International Airport, and its predecessor, Kai Tak Airport, were all built
on reclaimed land. In addition, much reclamation has taken place in prime locations on the waterfront on both
sides of Victoria Harbour. This has raised environmental issues of the protection of the harbour which was
once the source of prosperity of Hong Kong, traffic congestion in the Central district,[8] as well as the
collusion of the Hong Kong Government with the real estate developers in the territory.[9] [10]
In addition, as the city expands, new towns in different decades were mostly built on reclaimed land, such as
Tuen Mun, Tai Po, Shatin-Ma On Shan, West Kowloon, Kwun Tong and Tseung Kwan O.
• Macau - 170% of the original size or 17 km2[11]
Land reclamation 371

• Mumbai
• Monaco - 0.33 km2 out of 1.98 km2 total is made up of land taken from the sea.
• Tokyo Bay, Japan - 249 km2.[12]
• Kobe, Japan - 23 km2 (1995).
• Bahrain - 76.3% of original size of 410 km2(1931–2007).
• New Zealand - significant areas of land totalling several hundred hectares have been reclaimed along the
harbourfront of Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. In Dunedin - which in its early days was nicknamed
"Mudedin" - around 2.5 km2, including much of the inner city and suburbs of Dunedin North, South Dunedin and
Andersons Bay is reclaimed from the Otago Harbour, and a similar area in the suburbs of St Clair and St Kilda is
reclaimed swampland.

External links
• The Cape Town Foreshore Plan 1947 [13]

References
[1] Bard, Solomon. [2002] (2002). Voices from the Past: Hong Kong 1842-1918. HK University press. ISBN 962-209-574-7
[2] Petry, Anne K. (July 2003). "Geography of Japan" (http:/ / iis-db. stanford. edu/ docs/ 129/ geo. pdf). Japan Digest, Indiana University. .
Retrieved 2009-07-30.
[3] Paul B. Awosika and Marc Papineau, Phase One Environmental Site Assessment, 7000 Marina Boulevard, Brisbane, California, prepared for
Argentum International by Certified.Engineering & Testing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, July 15, 1993
[4] "Florida county plans to vaporize landfill trash" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ nation/ 2006-09-09-fla-county-trash_x. htm). USA
Today. 2006-09-09. . Retrieved 2010-05-07.
[5] Wallis, Keith (February 12, 1996). "Bill seeks to protect harbour" (http:/ / www. thestandard. com. hk/ news_detail. asp?pp_cat=&
art_id=23201& sid=& con_type=1& d_str=19960212& sear_year=1996). Hong Kong Standard. . Retrieved 2007-03-23.
[6] "Singapore Finds it Hard to Expand Without Sand" (http:/ / www. planetark. com/ dailynewsstory. cfm?newsid=30328). Planet Ark. .
Retrieved 2007-03-23.
[7] "Singapore" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ sn. html). The World Factbook. CIA. 1 September 2010.
section Transnational issues. . Retrieved 1 October 2010. "disputes persist with Malaysia over […] extensive land reclamation works"
[8] "Courts protect our imperiled waterway - at least for the time being". Hong Kong Standard. August 14, 2006.
[9] DeGolyer, Michael (March 15, 2007). "Commentary: Just Looking for Answers" (http:/ / www. thestandard. com. hk/ news_detail.
asp?pp_cat=15& art_id=40170& sid=12642159& con_type=1& d_str=20070315& sear_year=2007). Hong Kong Standard. . Retrieved
2007-03-23.
[10] Ng, Michael (October 5, 2006). "Lawmaker warns of West Kowloon arts venue glut" (http:/ / www. thestandard. com. hk/ news_detail.
asp?pp_cat=11& art_id=28758& sid=10237275& con_type=1& d_str=20061005& sear_year=2006). Hong Kong Standard. . Retrieved
2007-03-23.
[11] http:/ / www. gov. mo
[12] "Japan Fact Sheet" (http:/ / www. jref. com/ society/ japan_fact_sheet. shtml). Japan Reference. . Retrieved 2007-03-23.
[13] http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ hilton-t/ sets/ 72157623774559774/

• Wordie, Jason (18 April 1999). "Land-grabbing titans who changed HK's profit for good" (http://www.
thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=27127&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=19990418&
sear_year=1999). The Standard (Hong Kong). Retrieved 1 October 2010.
Mine reclamation 372

Mine reclamation
Mine reclamation is the process of creating useful landscapes that meet a variety of goals, typically creating
productive ecosystems (or sometimes industrial or municipal land) from mined land. It includes all aspects of this
work, including material placement, stabilizing, capping, regrading, placing cover soils, revegetation, and
maintenance.
Modern mine rehabilitation aims to minimize and mitigate the environmental effects of modern mining, which may
in the case of open pit mining involve movement of significant volumes of rock. Rehabilitation management is an
ongoing process, often resulting in open pit mines being backfilled.
After mining finishes, the mine area must undergo rehabilitation.
• Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them against erosion.
• If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the
air, which can oxidize the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid.
• Landfills are covered with topsoil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material.
• Dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation.
• The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with
groundwater.
• Tailings dams are left to evaporate, then covered with waste rock, clay if need be, and soil, which is planted to
stabilize it.
For underground mines, rehabilitation is not always a significant problem or cost. This is because of the higher grade
of the ore and lower volumes of waste rock and tailings. In some situations, stopes are backfilled with concrete slurry
using waste, so that minimal waste is left at surface.
The removal of plant and infrastructure is not always part of a rehabilitation program, as many old mine plants have
cultural heritage and cultural value. Often in gold mines, rehabilitation is performed by scavenger operations which
treat the soil within the plant area for spilled gold using modified placer mining gravity collection plants.
In the United States, mine reclamation is a regular part of modern mining practice.[1]

References
[1] Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

External links
• Mineral Information Institute (reclamation stories) (http://www.mii.org/recl.php)
• Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation (US Dept. of the Interior) (http://www.osmre.gov/osmaml.htm)
• Abandoned Mines | Photos & History (http://www.abandonedmines.net)
Article Sources and Contributors 373

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Americanlurker, Andres, Andrew c, Andycjp, Anlace, Aoi, Arjun01, Avenue, Aweiredguy, Axeman89, AzaToth, Badgernet, Bakabaka, Ballista, Basawala, Bellenion, BendersGame, Bhadani,
Blade Hirato, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, Brianga, Brougham96, Bryan Derksen, Burntsauce, CSWarren, CWii, Calabraxthis, Cameron Dewe, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus,
Capricorn42, Chris the speller, Clausc, Cricketgirl, Cuppysfriend, Cuvette, Daniel Collins, DarkFalls, Darth Panda, Db099221, Demnevanni, Deor, Dissident, Edgar181, Eep², Ekajati, El C,
Eleassar, Emerson7, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Excirial, FKmailliW, Fabartus, Farosdaughter, Fatnerdio58, Feydey, Flauto Dolce, Fplay, Fred Bauder, Freddy123Girl, Friginator, Fuzheado, Gap,
Gene Nygaard, Geoffr, Geologyguy, Gfoley4, Gillean666, Git2010, Glenn, Goldfishbutt, Graeme Bartlett, Grunt, Hadal, Hadrianheugh, Halmstad, Hamtechperson, Hengl, HiDrNick, Hike395,
Hmains, HoodedMan, Howcheng, Inwind, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Islescape, IvanLanin, JForget, JMK, Jaknouse, JamesAM, Jamesontai, Jcc1, Jon186, Joyous!, Jrdioko, Kaeldra, Karl
Dickman, Kellx3bell, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kody beyette, Leaflet, LeaveSleaves, Libcub, Lindmere, Lithpiperpilot, MONGO, Marc Venot, Marek69, Marioland50, Marshman, Martin451, Matilda,
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Oxymoron83, PaterMcFly, Patrick, Pauldavidgill, Pedant17, Persian Poet Gal, Pfly, Pip2andahalf, Pollinator, Possum, Psychonaut, Quentin X, Quintote, RDF, Ram4eva, Reaper Eternal,
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Unyoyega, Usatad, Useight, Vsmith, Wayiran, Wayne Slam, Wetman, WikHead, WikiLaurent, WildWeathel, Willow4, Wood Thrush, Wyatt Riot, Y0u, Zibran 1, Zigger, Zoicon5, 401
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A8UDI, AZ English, Aarcee, Aatefbaig, Acalamari, Acmilan2, Adam.J.W.C., Adam78, Adanath, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akrivitsky16, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Aleenf1,
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Android79, Andy M. Wang, Andycjp, Andyindia, Anetode, Angel10174896485156, Animum, Antandrus, Antiuser, Apancu, Apokryltaros, Arakunem, Arjun01, Armandeh, Arpingstone,
Artaxiad, Arthena, Artichoker, Asarlaí, Atif.t2, Avicennasis, Avnjay, Awickert, AxelBoldt, Aylahs, BNSDRX09, Backslash Forwardslash, Badbilltucker, Bagostini, Bearfoot, Beetstra,
Bencherlite, Bettia, Blackapple 21, Blisco, Blue520, BlueDevil, Bob, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo192, Bobthemonkey3, Bogdan29roman, Bogdangiusca, Bomac, Bongwarrior, Booksworm, Bornhj,
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Article Sources and Contributors 374

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Hill  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426951023  Contributors: *drew, 16@r, 1exec1, 9fosterb, ARAGONESE35, Abce2, Adam78, Ah0000000ga, Ahuskay, Alansohn, Alexf,
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Zafiroblue05, Zjohnson58, Zxcvbnm, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, ‫ينام‬, 332 anonymous edits

Valley  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424694131  Contributors: 130.236.221.xxx, 217.14.192.xxx, 5 albert square, A. Parrot, Acalamari, AdRock, Adam.J.W.C., Adanath,
Alansohn, Amikake3, Andonic, Andrea105, Andy, Anlace, Appalachianangler, Ariaconditzione, Askewchan, Awickert, Axem Titanium, BD2412, BRG, Bacteria, Bagatelle, Benoni, Bettia,
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Serein (renamed because of SUL), Shadowjams, ShelfSkewed, Shoy, Siim, Simone, Smalljim, Squids and Chips, StaticGull, Steel, Steinsky, Stephan Leeds, T501tjs, Takeaway, Tamfang,
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TheNewPianist, Thegreenj, Thierry Caro, Thingg, Tide rolls, Time501, Tiptoety, Tivedshambo, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Traveler100, Una Smith, Useight, VanBurenen, Vanka5, Vipinhari, Vsmith,
Wereon, Wiki alf, Wikieditor06, Wilson44691, Wknight94, Yegorm, Zacharie Grossen, Zondor, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 421 anonymous edits

Plain  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=419404499  Contributors: 130.236.221.xxx, 16@r, Adam78, Addihockey10, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, AlexiusHoratius, Alkarex,
Altenmann, Anclation, Antandrus, Attilios, Bart133, Blarneytherinosaur, Boston, Brasilian Engineer, Buki ben Yogli, Capricorn42, Ceiteag, Cgoodwin, Chenhsi, ChrisHodgesUK,
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Not Be, TheEgyptian, TheOtherJesse, Toon05, Troy 07, Ugur Basak, Utcursch, Velella, Volcanoguy, Vrenator, YamaguchiIchigo, Yekrats, Ynhockey, 250 anonymous edits

Tundra  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423220911  Contributors: -Majestic-, 1brettsnyder, 1to0to-1, 3455andres, A.Ou, Acroterion, Addihockey10, Addshore,
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HunterHanson, Imac.vincent, ImmortalWombat, Introvert, InvaderJim42, InvisibleK, IronGargoyle, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JFreeman, JMK, JYolkowski, James086, Jebus989, Jeff G., Jeffreymcgraw,
Jmlk17, JoanneB, JodyB, Jojit fb, Jonrunles, Jons63, Jóna Þórunn, Katieh5584, Kirill Lokshin, Kornfan71, KyraVixen, L Kensington, LaMenta3, Latka, Lethaniol, Look2See1, Lummux, Luna
Santin, Lunchscale, Lupin, MBisanz, ML, MPF, MWAK, MacRusgail, Madsanders, Magister Mathematicae, Mahlum, Maias, Mani1, MarkGallagher, MarkSutton, Markco1, Marksimmons,
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Gal, Peruvianllama, Phgao, Phil11021, Philip Trueman, Pikaverive, Pinethicket, Poccil, Pomakis, Poppin1, PrestonH, Quaque, R, Ranveig, Raven4x4x, Red XII ftw, Regua, RexNL,
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Ice sheet  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424536144  Contributors: Alex.tan, AlexD, AlexiusHoratius, Alpha Quadrant, AtheWeatherman, Birdbrainscan, BlueCanoe,
Bluezy, ChrisRuvolo, Chuunen Baka, ClickRick, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Cookie90, DHeyward, Darkrain4, DiverDave, Donarreiskoffer, Epbr123, ExplicitImplicity, Giftlite, Gob Lofa,
Gralo, Hmains, IGeMiNix, Infrangible, J.delanoy, Jo Weber, Jonathan.s.kt, Kikos, Kjkolb, Llhhllhhllhh, MONGO, Mahlum, Mani1, Maximus Rex, Meteor2017, Mike McGregor (Can),
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Sorsanmetsastaja, Spellcast, Srich32977, Steven Weston, The way, the truth, and the light, Topbanana, UBeR, Vsmith, Waterfox, Wetman, William M. Connolley, Zeimusu, 80 anonymous edits

River  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427061982  Contributors: (, 041744, 05paynes, 09z23, 193.133.134.xxx, 21655, 28bytes, 334a, A-giau, A3RO, ABE, APT, Aarktica,
Academic Challenger, Achristl, AdAdAdAd, Adam.J.W.C., Adamk, Aeonx, Aesopos, Agüeybaná, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aitias, Akanemoto, Akizu1, Aksi great, Alan Liefting, Alansohn,
Alex Bakharev, Alex mond, AlexWaelde, Alexdegaris, AlexiusHoratius, Alicet123, Altenmann, Altermike, Am b5538, Americasroof, Amitprabhakar, AmosWolfe, Anders Törlind, Andre
Engels, AndreNatas, Andrei Stroe, Andres, Andrewpmk, Andy Dingley, Andy M. Wang, AngelOfSadness, Angela718, Aniten21, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, AnnaFrance, Antandrus, Anthony
Appleyard, Antiuser, Aoi, Apurv1980, Apyule, Archer3, ArielGold, Arnobarnard, Arpingstone, Arthena, AshishG, Ashley Y, Atrian, Audriusa, Autocracy, Avenue, Avoided, Avsa, Awickert,
AxelBoldt, BD2412, Barneca, Bathrobe, Bcaputo5, Bdragon, Benifit boy, Benjamin Mako Hill, Bento00, Benwildeboer, Benydogc13, Berek, Bhamv, Big iron, Bigbob311, Bill37212, Birdseye -
Dave, Bjh21, Bkell, Bkonrad, Blanchardb, Blehfu, Blotwell, BlueCanoe, Bluerook, Bobo12345, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bolasanibk, Bongwarrior, Boninggeese, Bonzo, Boringmondays,
Bradboiere, Brendan Moody, BrotherFlounder, Bryan Derksen, Bsadowski1, Bulgaa, Burntsauce, CALR, CHJL, CSWarren, CZmarlin, Caeruleancentaur, Caiaffa, Caius2ga, Calabraxthis, Caltas,
Calvin 1998, Cam2277, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Canterbury Tail, Casull, Catherine008, Cenarium, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, ChemGardener, Chongkian, Chris b
Article Sources and Contributors 375

shanks, Chris55, Chrisjj, Chuq, Cimon Avaro, Civil Engineer III, Ck lostsword, ClanCC, Closedmouth, Coemgenus, Coffee, Cometstyles, Constantine.Zakrasov, Conversion script, Corpx,
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edits

River delta  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423757642  Contributors: -df-, 01asjk, 04roundwi, 09z23, 5 albert square, Aa77zz, Ace2209, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias,
Ale jrb, AlexD, AlexiusHoratius, Allmightyduck, Altenmann, Andre Engels, AntiVan, Apritcha, ArielGold, Arthena, Awickert, Ayudante, Babajobu, Bassbonerocks, Beland, Benhocking, Big
iron, Blueboy96, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Booklegger, Booshank, Bratsche, Bryan Derksen, Calabraxthis, CambridgeBayWeather, CapitalLetterBeginning, Capricorn42, Catgut, Cazort, Colincbn,
ComaVN, Cool3, CurtisSwain, CyberSach, D-rew, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dacxjo, Dale Arnett, Daleh, Daniel J. Leivick, Daniel5127, Dannyjung123, Darkfight, Dawsonhenshaw, Db099221,
DeadEyeArrow, Deepak, Disneyfreak96, Doodle77, Download, Dragons Bay, Ed Fitzgerald, Egmontaz, Elassint, Eluchil404, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Eras-mus, Eric, Erimus,
EugeneZelenko, Excirial, Faradayplank, Fluffernutter, Francs2000, Fransvannes, FreplySpang, Fried Gold, Funandtrvl, G310scott, GEOL310, Gaidheal1, Glenn, Glucose3bovine, Gnfnrf,
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Khukri, KnowledgeOfSelf, Komencanto, KonaScout, Koolkidmatti, Kungfuadam, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lawrence Cohen, LeaveSleaves, Lenz, Leonard G., Leujohn, Levineps, Litwinb,
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WaltBusterkeys, Weiwensg, WikieWikieWikie, Willtron, Wilson44691, Xuebai1030, Zamphuor, Ü, ‫نامه‬, 594 anonymous edits

Lake  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425194605  Contributors: 2005biggar, 334a, 62.253.64.xxx, 852741963, A. B., Acalamari, Achilles.g, Achristl, Adam Bishop, Adam
Carr, Ahoerstemeier, Akkida, Aksi great, Alansohn, Alarichus, Alex.muller, Alexbuirds, AllyUnion, Altenmann, Amire80, Amitprabhakar, Anallord10000, Andre Engels, Andrei Stroe, Andy,
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Emerson7, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Ergbert, Erianna, Evercat, Excirial, Eyvin, FJPB, Fabartus, Famous94, Fenice, Feydey, Fiftytwo thirty, Filelakeshoe, Filpaul, Fishwhiz, Fransvannes,
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Zoe17, Zolphix, Zundark, Åkebråke, Île flottante, 684 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 376

Meander  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423537334  Contributors: 06alin, AdjustShift, Aff123a, Ahmady-1234, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alexf, Allstarecho, Alma Pater,
Ancheta Wis, Andreworkney, Anna Lincoln, Arcfrk, Arctosouros, Art LaPella, Awickert, Bagatelle, BitterMan, Bobo192, Boovy1995, Brykia, Burner0718, Cacophony, Caltas, Calvin 1998,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chanjyj, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, Chrystomath, Coffee, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Ctjf83, Cuchullain, Daa89563, Dadude3320, Daniel Collins, Dentren, Doc
Tropics, Dolphin51, Donarreiskoffer, Dylan anglada, EMU CPA, EricJay, F. F. Fjodor, Fedir, Fev, FinnBjork, Fluri, Francium12, Fritzpoll, Gaius Cornelius, Gawaxay, George The Dragon,
Gjs238, Green4future, Gtstricky, Gurch, Hadrian89, Hanwei96, Herostratus, HexaChord, Hmains, Hut 8.5, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Icseaturtles, Ingolfson, Insanephantom, Instantkarma456,
Interiot, JaGa, Jamesontai, Joe Schmedley, John Doe or Jane Doe, John254, Jojhutton, Jonlouis, Jprimmer, Jstuby, Jylala, Keerrigan, Kelisi, Kingpin13, Kungfuadam, LilHelpa, Lisatwo,
Look2See1, MTNDew123, Magioladitis, Marco polo, Marek69, Markko, Marturius, Masterbob92, Meighan, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Minghong, Monocline310, Mothmolevna, Mr
Chuckles, Mwtoews, Mysid, Mzmadmike, NE2, Nbarth, Nepenthes, Neurolysis, Noahisnice, Not home, Notedgrant, Nsaa, Odysses, P0per, P199, Paul August, Paul venter, Pdcook, Pearle,
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Ruineye, Sadalmelik, Saytuna@tr.net, Sb2k4, Sculptorjones, Shadowjams, Shai-kun, Shenme, Siim, Skew-t, Skittle, Slakr, Snowolf, Squids and Chips, SuzanneKn, Tdmg, The Obento Musubi,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Theboonuth, Tillman, Tomday, Tomorrows cliche, Torahjerus14, Una Smith, Utcursch, VI, Vanished User 1004, Vicenarian, Voyagerfan5761, Vrenator, Vsmith,
WebHamster, Wolfkeeper, Wsiegmund, Xb2u7Zjzc32, Yachtsman1, 355 anonymous edits

Waterfall  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424359091  Contributors: -m-i-k-e-y-, 15sterlingt, 40fifw0, 5minutes, A bit iffy, A-giau, A380 Fan, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Aaron
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AngChenrui, Animaltiger7, Anna512, Antique Rose, Aolmedo, Arcturus, Arpingstone, Artcrp, Artemis Emily, Artimaeis, Asterion, Avenue, Awickert, B. Wolterding, BRUTE, Beeceper2,
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Wtmitchell, X1amv1x, Xnatedawgx, Xnuala, YubYub41, Yuiul, ZLK, Zacbrin14, Žiedas, 883 anonymous edits

Rapid  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426734447  Contributors: Americasroof, AnnaFrance, Avatar, Azurfrog, Bdk, Bearcat, Blake-, CanOfWorms, Captain-tucker,
ChrisArnold, Conversion script, Cuvette, Dj Capricorn, Dreg743, Ermanon, FirefoxRocks, Frequent.me, Gulliveig, Hardscarf, Head, Henry Flower, Hmains, Insanity Incarnate, J.delanoy,
Jamesie9, Jncraton, Jpayne22, Just Another Dan, Kathleen5454, Knuckles, LMB, Lectonar, Look2See1, Manop, Marshman, Mfranck, MidgleyDJ, Miraceti, Mircea cs, Noorse, Ofawkes,
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Vicarious, Vmenkov, W.stanovsky, Wilson44691, Wmahan, Zeality, Zoicon5, 89 anonymous edits

Canyon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424098864  Contributors: 16@r, 310kholderbein, 5minutes, A Voulgarakis, AAAndre, Abtinb, Acroterion, Adziura, Aitias, Al5210,
Albnaian, Alexikoua, Allefant, Altenmann, Apalsola, Applepuffcheese, Aqwis, Arakunem, Art LaPella, Artaxiad, Ashhurst, Astral, Astropithicus, Awickert, Aymatth2, Ballista, Beland,
BenFrantzDale, Big Bird, BigCow, Blanchardb, BobKawanaka, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bogdan29roman, Bonadea, Brandalone, Brianga, Brianski, Brianyoumans, Bryan Derksen, Brykia, CJLL
Wright, Cameron Nedland, Canderson7, Caumasee, Cgoodwin, Chmee2, Chubbles, Chuq, Crowmanyclouds, Ctac, Cuvette, Cyp, D.Papuashvili, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DIEGO RICARDO
PEREIRA, Da monster under your bed, Dale4sail, DanielCD, DarthSmee, Darwinek, Dave.Dunford, Dean Wormer, Discospinster, DocWatson42, DoomsDay349, Doubtdrawn, Doulos Christos,
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WikiDan61, WikiFew, William Avery, WinTakeAll, Wingchi, Woohookitty, Workman, Ylai, Yogi555, Yom, Zanter, Zaui, Zero Gravity, Zhou Yu, ‫רואיל‬, 426 anonymous edits

Channel (geography)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417358558  Contributors: Alent111, Anlace, Awickert, Beeblebrox, Blanchardb, Burgher, Carcharoth, Covalent,
Danno918, Don'tKnowItAtAll, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Fabartus, Fan-1967, FieldMarine, Fiftytwo thirty, Gail, Gfoley4, Graham87, Hmains, Huaiwei, Ingolfson, J.delanoy, Jpbowen, Jurema
Oliveira, Karl-Henner, Khatru2, Kingpin13, Kondratyev, Marc Venot, Marturius, Maxxicum, Michael Hardy, Mindmatrix, Mintleaf, Neutrality, Noaa, Peter Horn, Philip Trueman, Qfl247,
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XCheese540, 57 anonymous edits

Alluvial fan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426053326  Contributors: A. Parrot, Angie Y., Aoi, Arthana, Aveekbh, Avenged Eightfold, Avihu, Awickert, Brian0918,
Cacophony, Caltas, Capmo, Cavrdg, CinchBug, CommonsDelinker, Daleh, Darkwind, Drumguy8800, E Wing, Erimus, EthanOConnor, Ethanoconnor, Gimmetrow, GregU, Gurch, Hmains, I
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Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unyoyega, Vsmith, Wilson44691, Wingchi, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zamphuor, 127 anonymous edits

Beach  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426427837  Contributors: *Ulla*, 1regina10, 21655, A pfernandes, A.arvind.arasu, A.reegon, AI009, Aaron1a12, AaronLH,
Acalamari, Acather96, Actress Loraine, Adam.J.W.C., Addshore, Adityamadhav83, AdjustShift, Aeonx, Agentbla, Ahoerstemeier, AidanFroogle, Ajar, Ajcfreak, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev,
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Ixfd64, J.P.Lon, J.delanoy, JNW, JaGa, Jake Wartenberg, Jameswilson, Jay, Jecar, Jeff G., Jensonmorton, Jidanni, Jkirriemuir, John Quincy Adding Machine, JohnCD, JohnOwens, Johntex,
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Zamphuor, Ziaul1976, Zigger, Zzuuzz, Александър, 817 anonymous edits

Cave  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426226049  Contributors: 0pulse, 43?9enter, 5 albert square, 5telios, A8UDI, ABF, Abrech, Acroterion, Aesopos, Af1218,
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Vsmith, WTucker, Wars, WarthogDemon, Wavelength, Webridge, Weissmann, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Weyes, WhizzBang, Wik, Wikid77, Wikipelli, Wilson44691, Wisdom89,
Wknight94, Woilorio, WolfmanSF, Yerpo, Yosri, Yuyuyu166, Ywg.dana, Zigger, Zoicon5, Zurrenarrh, スマスリク, 794 anonymous edits

Cliff  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425670953  Contributors: 663highland, Afinebalance, Alansohn, AlexD, Amakuru, Antonogurl, Aqqosoflight, Arpingstone, Avenue,
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CambridgeBayWeather, CattleGirl, Cheesepuffsandrice26, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Comhar, Delldot, Deuce4, Diplomacy Guy, Discospinster, Donarreiskoffer, Dro Kulix, EarthCom1000,
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Parris, Joyous!, Jsmog, KCinDC, Kacper Dębski, Katpatuka, Klehti, Kuaiat, LimoWreck, Llykstw, Lololollama, Longhair, Lucio Di Madaura, Lurlock, MPF, MacTire02, Malo, Marc Venot,
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Slippered sleep, Smihael, Spireguy, Staxringold, Stefan Jansen, Steinsky, Stephen G. Brown, TBadger, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tabletop, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Th3 thing, Thingg,
ThomasPusch, Thryduulf, Tjarrett, Tomwsulcer, Tranceliner, Tsca, Twinkywinker, Ulric1313, Vhorvat, Vianello, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vicweed, Vivio Testarossa, Vsmith, Waggers,
Waqas.usman, Welsh, Wilson44691, Wimt, Woodshed, Zyxwvutsrqp, ‫ילוקורב‬, 336 anonymous edits

Floodplain  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423197790  Contributors: A12n, Aa77zz, Acather96, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Ali Esfandiari, Andycjp, AtheWeatherman,
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Daniel Collins, Deannalim, Docu, Duke Uke, Epbr123, Explicit, Fabartus, Fox, Foxxyfox, Ged UK, GeoZen, Geologyguy, Georgette2, Grutness, Guy Ruffian, Hekerui, Hmains,
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Sfmontyo, Shoeofdeath, Sport woman, Stevage, SuperHamster, Svetovid, Tannin, Tarquin, The Firewall, The Thing That Should Not Be, The undertow, Thewellman, Thw1309, Tide rolls,
Tommy2010, Vsmith, Wilson44691, Wknight94, XalD, Yupik, Yvwv, Zedutchgandalf, Zyxw, 242 anonymous edits

Levee  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426247610  Contributors: - tSR - Nth Man, 16@r, AXRL, Aaron charles, Acalamari, Adam Rock, Adambro, Advds, Afil, Afinogenoff,
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Mark, Matthew Yeager, MegaHasher, Menchi, Mentifisto, Michele123, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mintleaf, MisterSheik, Modest Genius, Modulatum, Mushrooms are cool, NJMauthor, NMChico24,
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Oasis  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423696388  Contributors: 17Drew, 2sc945, A. B., AThing, Addit, AdnanSa, Aecis, Ahuskay, Akhil 0950, Alaniaris, Alansohn,
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Heracles31, Hmains, Howcheng, Hu me yes, Hughcharlesparker, Iaberis, Iain99, Ikeinthemed, Iminrainbows, Immunize, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JEB90, JForget, JJC1138, JYolkowski, Javert,
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MarkGallagher, Martarius, Mattisse, Mauvais, Michael Hardy, Midnightcomm, Mikeo, Mintguy, Mintravel4egypt, Monkeytail39, Mr Accountable, Mtmelendez, Mulder416, Mxn,
Article Sources and Contributors 378

N1RK4UDSK714, Naval Scene, Necris, Nefertum17, NeilN, NewMoonBay, Ngchen, Nifflehim, Noctibus, Oasiselec, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, Omizil99, One more night, Onebyone, Onlim,
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WarthogDemon, Wimt, Windeh, WojPob, Wsiegmund, Xiaphias, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ynhockey, Zazy, º¡º, Þjóðólfr, ‫دمحأ‬.‫يدماغ‬.24, ‫موثلك نب ورمع‬, 396 anonymous edits

Swamp  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425897564  Contributors: 16@r, A. Parrot, AMJedynak, Aaron charles, Abrech, Adam Bishop, Adam.J.W.C., Adashiel, Aervanath,
Akradecki, Alansohn, Alpha Quadrant, Altman44, Amire80, Andre Engels, Andres, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, AnonUser, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Apokryltaros, Apparition11, Armoreno10,
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Synchronism, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tedickey, Tetraminoe, The Kytan Apprentice, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, UncleDouggie, Utman007, Vberger, Versus22, Vilerage, Vina,
Vinney, Vsmith, WJBscribe, Waltpohl, WikiParker, Wikipelli, Woohookitty, Xuz, Ylem, Zhou Yu, Zuzzerack, Зелёный Кошак, 456 anonymous edits

Pond  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427061644  Contributors: -Ril-, 1Seanny, 777sms, A.Fiebig, ARAGONESE35, Aaronescott, Adam.J.W.C., Adam9325, Adamantios,
AdjustShift, Adolphus79, Adun12, Aesopos, Af0001, Aitias, AlainV, Ale jrb, Alex Bakharev, Alluvian, Altenmann, Anclation, Aoi, Aquafanatic, Arthena, Asmeurer, Avraham, AxelBoldt,
Aximill, Badmachine, Banhtrung1, BeSherman, BigDawgZ12, Bikeable, Bobblewik, Bogdangiusca, Bunthorne, Carlwev, Cheeetar, Chitrapa, Chmee2, Chris16447, Civil Engineer III,
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Skinnyweed, Skizzik, SmartGuy, Snicker, Snozzer, SoSaysChappy, Some jerk on the Internet, Sreekanthv, Srghsdfhdtgsdhsfh, Ssd, Storm Rider, Stozy10, StudentJCase, Super8Guy, The Evil
Spartan, The wub, Thomas Blomberg, Thompsma, Tide rolls, Tommy2010, Tristanb, Trlabarge, Twinxor, Ufim, Ukexpat, Vanished User 4517, VegaDark, Velella, Vmenkov, Vsmith, Wburny,
Westbrookwrw, Wicca800, Wiki wiki wiki pea, Wikitanvir, WinTakeAll, Yerpo, YngNorman, ‫ ایلیا‬2010, आशीष भटनागर, 357 anonymous edits

Arête  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=421034220  Contributors: Adam Bishop, AlexD, Ancheta Wis, Andrew c, Atrian, Blisco, Bryan Derksen, CanisRufus, Daniel Collins,
Dcljr, Dentren, Diliff, Douglas W. Jones, DrJos, Drangob, Duja, Elkman, Epbr123, Frietjes, Fuzzbox, Geof, Geologyguy, Gillean666, Hike395, Hmains, Immunize, Inwind, J.delanoy, J0m1eisler,
Jespinos, Jstuby, Kingpin13, LHOON, Lectonar, Lionni, Lumos3, MONGO, Maclean25, Mejor Los Indios, Mikenorton, Neutralhomer, Occultations, Orlady, Radagast83, Rajeevmass, Random
Passer-by, RedWolf, Rolinator, Stemonitis, Stewartadcock, SuzanneKn, Template namespace initialisation script, Valentinian, Vsmith, 54 anonymous edits

Cirque  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424305338  Contributors: -xfi-, 83d40m, Aec55, Andrei Stroe, Andrew c, Avihu, Biblbroks, Blotwell, Bonás, Brat32, Brianpaulbyrne,
Bryan Derksen, Cacophony, CanadianLinuxUser, Carabinieri, Carca220nne, Chris the speller, ClemRutter, Decumanus, Dekimasu, Dentren, Diliff, Dino, Douglas W. Jones, Edderso, Eleassar,
Emijrp, Epbr123, Ericoides, Fabartus, Fangjian, Flymeoutofhere, Geof, Grutness, Happynoodleboycey, Harmil, Hike395, Hmains, Inwind, JJ Harrison, Jespinos, Johnmc, Jojo 1, JzG, Ken
Gallager, Kristaga, Lumos3, MONGO, MacRusgail, Madkayaker, Mattg82, Matthead, Mejor Los Indios, Miguel303xm, Mikenorton, Mintleaf, Molobo, Munniec, Nakon, NathanoNL,
NorCalHistory, ObfuscatePenguin, Olivier, Onco p53, Orlady, PL290, Pauli133, Peltoms, PetaRZ, Peterlewis, Pinar, QuinnHK, Rajeevmass, Raven in Orbit, RedWolf, Rigil, Rjwilmsi, Seattle
Skier, Sha0, Shoombooly, Shorn again, Siim, Smooth O, Spencer, Stemonitis, The way, the truth, and the light, Thingg, Todd661, Tommy2010, Tomrulz, UpstateNYer, Vrenator, Vsmith,
Wiikipedian, Wikiuser100, Wsiegmund, Yardsmyth12791, 124 anonymous edits

Esker  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423103156  Contributors: A8UDI, Abce2, Abrech, Alcoll12, Andrew c, Angilbas, Angr, Anthony Appleyard, Atrian, BL Lacertae,
Beeblebrox, Bryan Derksen, CanadianLinuxUser, Chris Light, Cuvette, D22, David.Monniaux, Dentren, E rulez, Elwe, Eroica, Excirial, Finnrind, GT5162, Gcapp1959, Geol 310 eskers, Glenn,
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Martin451, Mikenorton, Nick Number, Onetonycousins, Orlady, P199, Pdcook, Prashanthns, R'n'B, Racconish, Rajeevmass, Raven in Orbit, Rkmlai, Samw, Saxifrage, Shaozhou, Siim,
Skookum1, Smalljim, Spacetweek, Tgwaltz, Thaight, Thingg, Uncle Dick, Vicki Rosenzweig, Victoriaedwards, Vsmith, Wikiuser100, Williamborg, Wohz, Yms, Yvwv, 107 anonymous edits

Fjord  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425730388  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 16@r, 3mta3, 567njn, Absolutadam802, Achudanus, Acrosoda, Adam Keller, Ahoerstemeier,
Ahruman, AjaxSmack, Alansohn, Aleenf1, Alexandru Stanoi, AlexiusHoratius, Alfanje, Amcbride, Anas Salloum, Andrew c, Andruil, Angr, Anomalocaris, Antandrus, Apcbg, Arcticman99,
Ask123, Atif.t2, Atlant, Avenue, Aymatth2, Barticus88, Batmanand, Bbik, Beeblebrox, BigHaz, Bjankuloski06en, Bjarki S, Bjørn som tegner, Boardtc, Bobo192, Boffob, Bonadea, Brian0918,
Bryan Derksen, Bumm13, CSWarren, CambridgeBayWeather, Cameron Dewe, CeeKay, Comrade42, Cornischong, Curiousburke, Cybercobra, D. Recorder, Daarznieks, Dada raba, Dali,
DanielCD, Dblandford, Deflective, Dentren, Dfrg.msc, DirectEdge, Discospinster, Docu, DrSammo, Edithink, Edward, Edward Hyena, Egil, Emijrp, Epbr123, EpochFail, Epolk, Eranb, Erianna,
ErikD, Eroenj, Favonian, Fenevad, Finlay McWalter, Flipjargendy, Fosnez, Fredrik, Frog93, Frogfisher, Geanixx, Gene Nygaard, GeorgeMoney, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, GorillaWarfare, Gregorof,
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Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aktsu, Alai, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Aleemq, Aleenf1, AlefZet, Alex93williams, AlexD, AlexiusHoratius, Alfio, Algkalv, Alison, Alro, Amatulic, Amire80,
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Article Sources and Contributors 379

Dentren, DerHexer, Discospinster, Dispenser, DocumentN, Don Kenney, Doodo, Doorvery far, Dotconnect, Doubleab1234, Doulos Christos, Doverylittle, Download, Draeco, Drangob,
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Tunnel valley  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424426322  Contributors: Andrew c, Anthony Appleyard, Carlog3, Cuppysfriend, Cuvette, Dentren, Geojorge, Geopersona,
Heljqfy, Hmains, Inwind, JaGa, Ken Gallager, LilHelpa, Look2See1, Nillerdk, Paulburnett, Perhonen, Qwfp, RJP, RJPe, Rjwilmsi, Weirpwoer, Williamborg, Wittyname, 14 anonymous edits

Atoll  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425525158  Contributors: -Midorihana-, 2D, A robustus, A-giau, ACupOfCoffee, Aimehoa, Alison, Allstarecho, Amnon s,
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Bay  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426102941  Contributors: AdjustShift, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, AlexiusHoratius, Andres, Andy Gaßner, Awesome60, Bames Riverside
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Zednaught, Zero Gravitas, Zigger, Zleitzen, Zoicon5, ‫ב לאינד‬., 399 anonymous edits

Continental shelf  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424867767  Contributors: 0x6D667061, Addshore, Alansohn, Aldaron, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Apteva, Arnejohs,
Asdfqwe123, Autun, Avenue, Awickert, Bachrach44, Bagatelle, Betacommand, Betterusername, BillC, Bjankuloski06en, Bjarki S, Bnmcxz, Bobo192, Brastein, Brian the Editor, Bsimmons666,
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Vuong Ngan Ha, Waldir, Wetman, Whispering, Wikieditorishere, Wimt, XXxJediKnightxXx, Zalansho, Zidonuke, Zyzzy2, Федоров, 268 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 380

Coral reef  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427092897  Contributors: (jarbarf), -Midorihana-, .K, 10987654321, 2D, 2ocean7, 5 albert square, 7, 88dude, 8cee0608, A Softer
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jrb, Aleenf1, AlexanderLee1, AlexiusHoratius, Alfie66, Alfirin, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Althaea, AmiDaniel, Andre Engels, Andrewjbrooks, Andy M. Wang, Andypandy.UK, Angr,
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List of peninsulas  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426856948  Contributors: (, 207.215.85.xxx, 7, 80sfaan, A8UDI, Aadavalus, Acjelen, Adam.J.W.C., Adikhebat, Aff123a,
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Article Sources and Contributors 381

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Isthmus  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425716010  Contributors: Abhishek Jacob, Acroterion, Addshore, Agricultor, Ahoerstemeier, Akarkera, Alansohn, Aldebaran66,
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Australia, Kappa, Kendothpro, Kmmontandon, Kuru, Kurykh, Lazylaces, LeaveSleaves, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Lights, Lindar, Llywrch, Longhair, Lupinoid, MC707, MPF, MPerel,
Marshman, Martarius, Matt Fitzpatrick, Mav, Metrodyne, Michael Hardy, MikeFTM, Mikenorton, Mimihitam, Mulad, NSR, Nickshanks, Nikai, NorthernFire, Nshimbi, OhadAston, Other-thing,
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Richerman, Rjwilmsi, Rodri316, Rolinator, Ronhjones, Runewiki777, Sandro78, Seattle Skier, Septegram, Shadowy Crafter, Shanul, Shino Baku, Slb36cornell, Snowolf, Sobreira, Srose,
Ssweeks, Stanley Gallon, Steinsky, Stewk6, Stezie, StickRail1, StuRat, Tamfang, The Geologist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Tide rolls, TonyW, Tsiaojian lee, Tuxlie, Tygrrr, Tzinacan, Usrnme
h8er, Variable, Vedran12, Vegaswikian, VeryVerily, Vicki Rosenzweig, Volcanoguy, Vortexrealm, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Whitepaw, Wiki235, WikiFlier, Wilson44691, WolfmanSF,
Worldtraveller, Xisc025, Yakudza, Ziga, Zureks, 虞海, 333 anonymous edits

Crater Lake  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423950299  Contributors: Aboutmovies, Acalamari, Acather96, Andrewtappert, Anonymous101, Asarelah, Askewchan,
Astronautics, Avs5221, BD2412, Backspace, Bejnar, Bevo, Boy1der80, Burntnickel, Butros, CRKingston, Cacophony, Camerong1980, Canderson7, Captain Link, CatherineMunro, Cgingold,
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Poor, Elf, Em3rald, Emeraldcityserendipity, Emperorbma, EncMstr, Erebus555, Evb-wiki, Finetooth, Fubar Obfusco, Fxer, GVP Webmaster, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gfoley4, Gilgamesh,
Gpvos, GregU, HVH, Hdt83, Hgriggs, Hike395, Hmains, Horologium, Howcheng, Inlove34, Ixfd64, Jason Recliner, Esq., Jayen466, Jfg284, Jsayre64, Jusdafax, Jyotirmaya, Karduelis, Kbh3rd,
KeithH, Ken Gallager, Kizor, Kowloonese, Kozuch, Kyng, Lightmouse, Little Mountain 5, Loopus9, MJCdetroit, Malleus Fatuorum, Matteh99, Mav, Mbessey, Mikenorton, Minnecologies,
Miraceti, Mmcannis, NJRedSox, Nationalparks, Nneonneo, Nonenmac, NorthernFire, Numbo3, Obli, Omphacite, Ottawa4ever, Owen, Pauli133, Penmachine, Peteforsyth, Phlegm Rooster,
Pkrnger, Playmaker16, Porsche997SBS, Purkeypile, Raven in Orbit, RedHillian, RedWolf, Renebeto, RexNL, Rlhuffine, Ronhjones, Roofus, Rs3, Rwflammang, Rémih, SIRMaleMan, SJ Morg,
Sarranduin, Scientizzle, Scott5114, Scriberius, Seattle Skier, Semionk, Shlomke, Shouran, Smith609, Smithers7, Sniperhail, Sockr44e, Stimpy, Tesscass, Thingg, ThreeBlindMice, Tide rolls,
TigerShark, Tiptoety, Tom harrison, Valfontis, VigilancePrime, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, Waterguy, Wik, Wilson44691, Woohookitty, XJamRastafire, ZabMilenko, Zainubrazvi, Zedla, Zondi,
Михајло Анђелковић, 182 anonymous edits

Geyser  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426900070  Contributors: 10metreh, 1or2, Acalamari, Acroterion, Agne27, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Arakunem, Arensb,
Ataleh, Avenue, AzaToth, B.d.mills, Bender235, Bhadani, Birnuson, Blahedo, Blueboy96, Bobblewik, Bobhobbit, Bogey97, Borgx, Bossair2, Bryan Derksen, Brykmantra, Butko,
Cat333Pokemon, Cavrdg, Cdc, Chairboy, Chmee2, Chmod007, Chris Roy, CieloEstrellado, Clintp, Cmontero, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Conwiktion, Courcelles, Cremepuff222,
Crimmer, Dan100, DanielCD, Dank, Davewild, David Gerard, DavidOaks, DeadEyeArrow, Deirdre, DerHexer, Devmoz, Dfrg.msc, Discospinster, Dodo28, Dogposter, Dono, Dougie WII,
Dragons flight, Drbreznjev, Drpixie, Dysepsion, Ed Cormany, Ed g2s, EdJogg, Eleassar, Eleassar777, Ellywa, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Euryalus, Evan, Faz8218, Fld300b, Fredrik, Furrykef, Gaius
Cornelius, Gauss, GeeJo, Gene Nygaard, GeoGreg, Georgekid98, Gidonb, Gilgamesh, Gizmo II, Glenn, Gmaxwell, Gorm, Grahammcallister, GranLOve, Gubgub1, Hadal, Hairchrm, Harry and
Ginny, Haukurth, HelgeRieder, Hemmingsen, Hiddekel, Hirpex, Hmains, HomesteadPublishing, Howcheng, Huangdi, Humungustoefungus, Icairns, Igodard, Illnab1024, Indianescence, Iokseng,
Island, Ivarercool, J.delanoy, JHFTC, JNW, Jay32183, Jdkessler, Jeffrey Henning, Jimp, Jncraton, John Broughton, JohnnyB256, Jonathanbush, Joshua Scott, Kalaiarasy, Kanġi Oĥanko, Kappa,
KnightLago, Kozuch, Kralizec!, Kumioko, Kuru, Kwamikagami, Kweeket, KyleB, Liftarn, Lightmouse, MPF, Magister Mathematicae, Magnus Manske, Mahanga, Malathos,
MasterOfHisOwnDomain, Mav, Maxal, Maxí, Mbz1, McGeddon, Medos2, MetsFan76, Mgiganteus1, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mike Cline, Mikenorton, Miraculousrandomness, Mirv,
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Miss Madeline, MrGulli, Nakon, Natural Cut, Neptune5000, Nk, Noctibus, Nototter, Nurg, Okenman478, Onceler, Orangutan, Patricknoddy, Pcb21, PeaceNT, PedroPVZ, Pennywisdom2099,
Piet Delport, Pinethicket, Pladask, Poeloq, Powerzilla, RB972, Raven in Orbit, Ravn, Reach Out to the Truth, RepublicanJacobite, Res2216firestar, Reykholt, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,
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edits

Hotspot (geology)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426569710  Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, 2T, 81120906713, Aharlap, Alansohn, Alfio, Anger22, Apoltix, Avenue,
Avihu, Awickert, Benceno, Boccobrock, Burntnickel, Candyman777, Catgut, Chmee2, Chris.urs-o, Chuunen Baka, Courcelles, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dan6hell66, DanielCD, Dentren, Doulos
Christos, Edupedro, Elb2000, Eliz81, Elvire, Emmslylouisep, Enirac Sum, Epbr123, Extransit, Fabrictramp, Falcon8765, Faradayplank, Feline Hymnic, Flewis, Foulger, Galar71, Gbleem,
GeoWriter, Geodoc, Geologyguy, Gfoulger, Gggh, Ginsengbomb, IW.HG, Igodard, Igoldste, Imesj, ImperatorExercitus, Interiot, Iridescent, Islandspec, Itsmejudith, Iwoelbern, Ixfd64, J.delanoy,
JForget, Jeffq, Jeremyhockey, Jncraton, Johnleemk, Joseph Solis in Australia, Julius Sahara, Kbh3rd, Keegscee, Kwsn, Kyoko, Li-sung, Little Mountain 5, Los688, Loukinho, Luislema,
M2Ys4U, Magioladitis, Marshman, Mat cross, Mephistophelian, Michael Hardy, Mikenorton, Minesweeper.007, Minimac, Momo san, Nihil novi, NorthernFire, Nuttycoconut, Pepper, Piperh,
ProfYehoshua, Qrfqr, RG2, Radagast83, Redrey, RexNL, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roadcrusher2, Rrburke, SEWilco, Sengkang, Sfan00 IMG, Shinnin, Siyajkak, Stepheng3, Swid,
Tabletop, The Evil IP address, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheNewPhobia, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tmangray, Tom Lougheed, Tom Radulovich, Tommy2010,
Tonicthebrown, Tranletuhan, Trurle, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, WereSpielChequers, White Shadows, WikiMan225, WolfmanSF, Yath, Yerpo, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 207 anonymous edits

Mid-ocean ridge  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426214436  Contributors: 2D, A. Parrot, AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Airbreather, Alansohn, Aleksandr Grigoryev,
Alex.muller, Alfio, Andrew c, Androstachys, Antandrus, Avenged Eightfold, Avenue, Avoided, Awickert, AxelBoldt, Azuris, Betterusername, Bhadani, Bluecaterica, Bobblewik, Bowlhover,
BryanG, CanadianLinuxUser, Cayle1, Chill doubt, Chiton magnificus, Chmee2, Chris.urs-o, ConradMcShtoon, Corinne68, CrankyScorpion, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da monster under your bed,
Danger, DavidWBrooks, Deadlightbulb, Dgeist1, Discospinster, Dougofborg, Duncan, Eeekster, Egmontaz, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Excirial, Falcon8765, Feline Hymnic, Fica Blok38, Flubeca,
Francium12, Fred.e, Funkeymonkeybere, GLaDOS, GeoWriter, Geologyguy, Gnowor, Goldfishbutt, Grutness, Halmstad, Hanif 90, Hans Dunkelberg, Harshal2talk, Hello32020, Hmains,
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Kummi, Lights, Lithpiperpilot, Longy2, Look2See1, Loonymonkey, Lowellian, Luna Santin, Macrakis, Matthew Yeager, Mdsam2, MechBrowman, Michael Metzger, Mikemoral, Mikenorton,
Minicl55, MithrandirAgain, Muijz, Mygerardromance, N328KF, Nakon, Nascar1996, NatureA16, NawlinWiki, Nico86, Omphacite, Oxymoron83, Oz1984, Pax85, PrestonH, Qwyrxian,
Rapture2018, Raven in Orbit, Red Act, RodC, Roleplayer, SJP, Samw, Saravask, Seattle Skier, Sgkay, Siim, Skizzik, Slawojarek, Slightsmile, Snigbrook, SpK, Stui, Sue Rangell, Surachit,
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Ichiro, ‫יקד‬, 420 anonymous edits

Lava plain  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416850201  Contributors: Altenmann, ApolloCreed, Avenue, Enbob89, Hmains, Look2See1, Njaelkies Lea, Seattle Skier,
TeaDrinker, Volcanoguy, Wknight94, 7 anonymous edits

Volcanic plateau  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423299907  Contributors: Altenmann, Autodidactyl, Avenue, Bendono, Doulos Christos, Erebus Morgaine, Eve Hall,
HiDrNick, Hmains, J.delanoy, Jennavecia, Look2See1, Mboverload, Mikenorton, Miwanya, Monfornot, Paleorthid, Sugarman97, Volcanoguy, 29 anonymous edits

Volcanic crater  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=421384286  Contributors: AdjustShift, AlimanRuna, Amcaja, Andres, Avenue, Bryan Derksen, CHJL, Caltas, Chris.urs-o,
Courcelles, DirkvdM, Eric-Wester, Eve Hall, Geanixx, Gulmammad, Hardscarf, Hmains, J.delanoy, Japanese Searobin, Jason Quinn, Jorvik, Jusdafax, Kingpin13, Kipala, Kiran Gopi, Kravix,
Longhair, MER-C, MK8, Mattisse, Rivertorch, Seattle Skier, The Invisible Hand, The Phoenix, Tommy2010, Tyler, UnitedStatesian, Unyoyega, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, ‫יקד‬, 77 anonymous edits

Volcanic plug  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425549262  Contributors: 6birc, A1%, Alansohn, Amcaja, AtulaSiriwardane, Avenue, Axcordion, Edward Waverley, Eeekster,
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RexNL, Rich257, Rémih, Scratchnsmiff, Seattle Skier, Squids and Chips, Valentinian, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, WikHead, Wilson44691, Worldtraveller, Yellowweasel, ‫יקד‬, 61 anonymous edits

Wall rock  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396675112  Contributors: Awickert, Ibagli, Santryl, Skysmith, Vsmith

Lava dome  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425904575  Contributors: -xfi-, A2Kafir, Acroterion, Alansohn, Allstarecho, Amity150, Avenged Eightfold, Bioruler, Bouette,
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Mild Bill Hiccup, MushiHoshiIshi, Nishkid64, NorthernFire, Pyrope, R'n'B, Rdfr, Reaper Eternal, Reflex Reaction, Rigadoun, Rjwilmsi, Seattle Skier, Sengkang, Shouriki, StopTheFiling,
SweetBaboo20, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, Truthanado, Tslocum, Ulric1313, VideoGamer992, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, West.andrew.g, Wilson44691,
105 anonymous edits

Submarine volcano  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426311697  Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, Alansohn, Avenue, Bahudhara, Bobert7001, Chris.urs-o, Dan 9790,
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Razorflame, Rep07, Resident Mario, Ripepette, RyanEberhart, Shadowjams, Stambouliote, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tanman42, Tide rolls, Trusilver, VMS Mosaic, Volcanoguy, Vsmith,
Wikipe-tan, Zeimusu, 112 anonymous edits

Guyot  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414836567  Contributors: Agne27, Ale And Quail, AlexTiefling, Alexandru.demian, Ar2cool, Azcolvin429, BigHaz, Blahlo, Btermini,
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Marek69, Mav, MisterSheik, NatureA16, RPIRED, Rachelcarson123, Resident Mario, Rjwilmsi, Salsa Shark, Seattle Skier, Siim, Soumyasch, Srnec, Thehamburglar, TomS TDotO, Trasel,
VegitaU, Volcanoguy, Vsmith, Z10x, Александр Сигачёв, 78 anonymous edits

Desert  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423696509  Contributors: - ), 0zymandias, 1234567yblahblah, 165.123.179.xxx, 16@r, 1996saad, 1brettsnyder, 203.170.3.xxx,
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emond, Freddyfredfred, Freedomlinux, FreplySpang, FunPika, Funandtrvl, Fvw, GCarty, GMT2, GTMusashi, Gail, Gamlingtheold, Gawain Bolton, Gcorpart, Gene Nygaard, Ghmyrtle, Gilliam,
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Article Sources and Contributors 384

JasonAQuest, Jasonsthebestest, Jayson1029384756, Jcw69, Jdborges, Jeandré du Toit, Jeff G., Jeffshantz, Jengod, Jennica, JephSullivan, Jeremy13, Jeridus, Jerojack, Jersey emt, JesseGarrett,
Jimidy, Jimkir, Jmlk17, Jmundo, Job L, JodyB, Joel.delima, Joeyoyoyo, John, JohnOwens, Johnman239, Jojit fb, Jonnydarlo, JorgeGG, Jose77, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jtkiefer,
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Ditch  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426773990  Contributors: Albanyhist, Alexf, Anthony Appleyard, Awickert, Biff-calliafas, BillC, BrandoGarde, BrianAsh, CSWarren,
Caitlinandjordanrcool, Cantus, CapitalR, Composter, DITCH420, Da Vynci, Damion Jones, Dycedarg, Epbr123, Eras-mus, Eugene van der Pijll, Eventer, Filippof, GTBacchus, General1337,
GerardM, Hede2000, Hlucho, Im.a.lumberjack, Inwind, J.delanoy, John of Reading, JohnCD, Jonathan Drain, Jpbowen, Junglerot56, Kristof vt, Kubigula, Luna Santin, MackSalmon, Majorly,
Manajatwa, Manop, Masrudin, Matthew Matic, McGeddon, Mejor Los Indios, Mhockey, Minna Sora no Shita, Mono, Mushin, NawlinWiki, Orphan Wiki, Oxymoron83, Papna, Patrick, Paul W,
Penfold, Peter Horn, Petr Kopač, Philip Baird Shearer, R.J.Oosterbaan, Rjwilmsi, Royalguard11, Saberwyn, Sali0516, Securiger, Siim, Sn0wflake, Starbois, Stillwaterising, Supaman89, Tanaats,
The wub, ThePointblank, Tobias Conradi, Una Smith, V13tprodigy, VanBurenen, Vegaswikian, Violask81976, Viriditas, WBardwin, Wes!, Whateverist, WikiCantona, Woohookitty,
Yourmotherisugly, Zanderrednaz, Zegoma beach, 80 anonymous edits

Land reclamation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426425613  Contributors: ALexL33, Ahoerstemeier, Alex Needham, Altenmann, Barkeep, Belovedfreak, Benjiboi,
Benjwong, Big Adamsky, Bkwillwm, Bobo192, Bonus Onus, Buchanan-Hermit, CSWarren, Can.u.spel, Cerebral paul c, Chris j wood, Cimon Avaro, DO'Neil, Djflem, Drmajeed2, Duk,
Dutch-Bostonian, Dysepsion, Eman007, Engineman, Enviroboy, Eponymous Coward, Ericoides, Evil Monkey, Exobyte, FaustX, Favonian, Fifth Fish Finger, Flowanda, Francisco83pv,
Francs2000, Fratrep, Fæ, Gaius Cornelius, Gamaliel, Graeme Bartlett, Grutness, GunnarRene, Hairy Dude, Hajhouse, HenryLi, Hertz1888, Hilton1949, HornColumbia, Ingolfson, Insanephantom,
Isomorphic, Jeroen, Jhsounds, Johnny Au, Jonkerz, Jpbowen, Junglecat, Kosunen, Ksyrie, Ld5000, Lenoxus, Lightmouse, Longhair, Look2See1, MONGO, Man vyi, Manabu, Mark.murphy,
Matthew hk, Michael Hardy, Mistakefinder, Mr Accountable, NZ PUG, Nature-preservation, Niels, Od Mishehu, Ohconfucius, Olivier, Originalname37, P199, Paleorthid, Palosirkka, Patrick,
Ponydepression, Prinzwilhelm, R.J.Oosterbaan, Radagast83, Ran, Randazzo12, Rbonvall, Rjwilmsi, Savabubble, Seaphoto, Secleinteer, Sengkang, Skraz, Skumarla, Sladen, Station1, Styath,
Tetraedycal, Thingg, Thue, Tiger888, Tomdo08, Webboydotnet, Wikipelli, Windchaser, YixilTesiphon, Yogi555, Zondor, 135 anonymous edits

Mine reclamation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424275899  Contributors: Coffee, Colonies Chris, Deirdre, DuncanHill, Gmckenna, Grutness, Jmabel, Kbh3rd, Kelapstick,
Luigizanasi, MoonMan, Multi Wire Branch, Noraft, Plazak, Ritter17055, Squids and Chips, Vsmith, 6 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 387

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Cades Cove Panorama.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cades_Cove_Panorama.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Anthony Chavez
File:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Erasoft24
File:Matterhorn Riffelsee 2005-06-11.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matterhorn_Riffelsee_2005-06-11.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Dirk Beyer
File:SV100840.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SV100840.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Baku87 (talk) Original uploader was
Baku87 at en.wikipedia
File:WheelerPeak.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WheelerPeak.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk). Qfl247 at
en.wikipedia
File:AntelopeIslandEchoGhosttowns 221.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AntelopeIslandEchoGhosttowns_221.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: LIC Habeeb at ml.wikipedia
File:Olympus Litochoro.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olympus_Litochoro.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was JFKennedy at
en.wikipedia
File:Nepal Mount Everest And Ama dablam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nepal_Mount_Everest_And_Ama_dablam.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Dnor
File:Mount Kilimanjaro 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Kilimanjaro_2007.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Profberger,
WereSpielChequers, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Himalaya_annotated.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Himalaya_annotated.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, Janderk Jan Derk
File:Top of stonyman summit view Shenandoah nP 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Top_of_stonyman_summit_view_Shenandoah_nP_2007.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: w:User:Ragrawal
File:Himalayas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Himalayas.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
File:World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: J
M Watson
File:Aerial photo of the Andes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerial_photo_of_the_Andes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Robert Morrow
Image:IslandInTheSky.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IslandInTheSky.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk). Original
uploader was Qfl247 at en.wikipedia
Image:Mt Roraima in Venezuela 001.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mt_Roraima_in_Venezuela_001.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Yosemite
Image:Bogota Centro.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bogota_Centro.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jkynss
Image:View from connors hill panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_from_connors_hill_panorama.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Fir0002
Image:Khulan.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khulan.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk)
Image:Judea 2 by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Judea_2_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
David Shankbone
Image:Clouds over hills.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clouds_over_hills.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: vsz/Victor
Szalvay, profile
Image:Bunker Hill by Pyle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_by_Pyle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Concord, Howcheng, Krinkle,
Magicpiano, Man vyi, Mattes, Quibik, Shauni, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Beinn dearg torridon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beinn_dearg_torridon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Grinner
Image:Golf bunkers Filton.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golf_bunkers_Filton.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adrian Pingstone
Image:Choco_Hills.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Choco_Hills.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Icqgirl, Majuro,
Scarecroe, 2 anonymous edits
Image:DirkvdM orosi hill plantation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DirkvdM_orosi_hill_plantation.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DirkvdM, Dr. Blofeld,
RedWolf, Wst
Image:Xn ant hill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Xn_ant_hill.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:XN
Image:Glacier park1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_park1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: BorisFromStockdale, MER-C,
RedWolf, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Fljótsdalur.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fljótsdalur.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Biekko
Image:Glacial Valley MtHoodWilderness.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacial_Valley_MtHoodWilderness.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: user:Duk
File:Tal-y-llyn-valley-Dolgoch-01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tal-y-llyn-valley-Dolgoch-01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Traveler100
Image:YosemiteFromPlane.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YosemiteFromPlane.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk).
Original uploader was Qfl247 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Graeme Bartlett at en.wikipedia.
Image:Paria View at Bryce Canyon NP.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paria_View_at_Bryce_Canyon_NP.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
1.0  Contributors: Daniel Mayer
Image:Closeup of Bridalveil Fall seen from Tunnel View in Yosemite NP.JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Closeup_of_Bridalveil_Fall_seen_from_Tunnel_View_in_Yosemite_NP.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Mav at en.wikipedia
File:Valley of flowers uttaranchal full view.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Valley_of_flowers_uttaranchal_full_view.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Esculapio, Gryffindor, Kdhenrik, Mircea, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Lötschental.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lötschental.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Johnw
File:Hells Gate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hells_Gate.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Jonathan Rodgers
Image:Cryon 5.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cryon_5.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Cgoodwin
Image:Atardecer en los Llanos de Guárico.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atardecer_en_los_Llanos_de_Guárico.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: g013m
File:Campia Titu.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Campia_Titu.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olahus
Image:Lightning Ridge2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightning_Ridge2.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Cgoodwin
Image:Greenland scoresby-sydkapp2 hg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greenland_scoresby-sydkapp2_hg.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Hgrobe
Image:800px-Map-Tundra.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:800px-Map-Tundra.png  License: Free Art License  Contributors: Aiyizo, Bukk, Foobaz, Katpatuka,
MPF, One half 3544, 1 anonymous edits
File:Tundra looking south toward Brooks Range, Alaska.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tundra_looking_south_toward_Brooks_Range,_Alaska.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Original uploader was Mattisse at en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 388

File:Kerguelen RallierDuBatty.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kerguelen_RallierDuBatty.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5

 Contributors: B.navez, Dbenbenn, Poulpy, Thierry Caro
File:Hikers on franconia ridge.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hikers_on_franconia_ridge.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Paulbalegend, Recognizance, 3 anonymous edits
File:Kongsfjorden from Blomstrandhalvoja.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kongsfjorden_from_Blomstrandhalvoja.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Sphinx
Image:Antarctica 6400px from Blue Marble.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctica_6400px_from_Blue_Marble.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Davepape
Image:Greenland map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greenland_map.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:ExplicitImplicity
Image:Melting Toe of Athabasca Glacier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Melting_Toe_of_Athabasca_Glacier.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Wingchi
Image:Mouths of amazon geocover 1990.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mouths_of_amazon_geocover_1990.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Roke,
Vmenkov, Yone Fernandes
Image:river avon at keynsham arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:River_avon_at_keynsham_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adrian pingstone
Image:NileDelta-EO.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NileDelta-EO.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChongDae, Elitre, Glenn, Jarekt, Mircea,
Sven-steffen arndt, Überraschungsbilder
Image:RiverMeanderingCourse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RiverMeanderingCourse.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Harry Wood, Reddi, 1
anonymous edits
File:Lower Mississippi River landloss over time .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lower_Mississippi_River_landloss_over_time_.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Xuebai1030
Image:Mississippi Delta Lobes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mississippi_Delta_Lobes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ciaurlec, Ocrasaroon, Urban
Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ganges_River_Delta,_Bangladesh,_India.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA
File:OkavangoDelta.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OkavangoDelta.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Delta in Ismenius Lacus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delta_in_Ismenius_Lacus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa
image.
Image:Delta in Lunae Palus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delta_in_Lunae_Palus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa image.
Image:Delta in Margaritifer Sinus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delta_in_Margaritifer_Sinus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified
nasa image.
Image:Distributary fan-delta.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Distributary_fan-delta.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa image.
Image:Oeschinen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oeschinen.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:ZachT
Image:Blowdown Lake.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blowdown_Lake.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
User:Clayoquot
Image:Lake Tahoe NV.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Tahoe_NV.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Firsfron, Sascha Brück
Image:Caspian Sea from orbit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caspian_Sea_from_orbit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid
Response Team, NASA/GSFC
Image:Rila 7 lakes circus panorama edit1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rila_7_lakes_circus_panorama_edit1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: Anthony Ganev: Original uploader was Anthony.ganev at en.wikipedia
File:02162008 Interstate80NWUtah.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:02162008_Interstate80NWUtah.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: User:DR04
Image:Lake urmia, salt crystals.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_urmia,_salt_crystals.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Ehsan Mahdiyan
Image:Arizona-sunset.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arizona-sunset.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:RichN
Image:DirkvdM irazu 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DirkvdM_irazu_4.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Closeapple, DirkvdM, Mircea, Rémih, Wst, 1
anonymous edits
File:Lakesalaskarange.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lakesalaskarange.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Beeblebrox (talk).
Original uploader was Beeblebrox at en.wikipedia
Image:LakeBadwater.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LakeBadwater.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk). Original
uploader was Qfl247 at en.wikipedia
Image:Lake mapourika NZ.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_mapourika_NZ.jpeg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Richard Palmer
Image:Yaylyu.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yaylyu.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Красавин А.Б.
Image:Lake.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Silsor
Image:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja,
Frieda, Frumpy, Ingolfson
File:Badwater tm5 2005040.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Badwater_tm5_2005040.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA Landsat 5
File:Badwater tm5 2007046.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Badwater_tm5_2007046.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA Landsat 5
Image:PIA10008 Seas and Lakes on Titan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PIA10008_Seas_and_Lakes_on_Titan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/JPL/USGS
File:Roundtanglelake.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roundtanglelake.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Beeblebrox (talk). Original
uploader was Beeblebrox at en.wikipedia
Image:Meander.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meander.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USDA & w:User:MysidMysid
Image:rio-cauto-cuba.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio-cauto-cuba.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Not home
File:White River 5965.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_River_5965.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Wsiegmund
Image:Littleorleans1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Littleorleans1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jstuby
Image:Great Ouse Relief Channel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Ouse_Relief_Channel.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Collard
Image:Meander-Cuckmere River-MT.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meander-Cuckmere_River-MT.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Marturius
Image:Meandro.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meandro.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Maksim
File:Rio Negro meanders.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_Negro_meanders.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA Astronaut photograph
ISS022-E-19513.
Image:meander in Ashes Hollow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meander_in_Ashes_Hollow.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
SuzanneKn at en.wikipedia
Image:Glen Canyon Dam MC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glen_Canyon_Dam_MC.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Chmehl
File:Goosenecks of the San Juan, Utah.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goosenecks_of_the_San_Juan,_Utah.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.0  Contributors: Original uploader was Tillman at en.wikipedia
Image:SonghuaRiver ASTER 20020401.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SonghuaRiver_ASTER_20020401.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and the U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team.
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 389

File:Salto Angel from Raton.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Salto_Angel_from_Raton.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Yosemite
File:Frozen Wappinger Creek.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Juliancolton
Image:WaterfallCreationDiagram.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WaterfallCreationDiagram.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Dragons Bay, User:Mcy jerry
Image:Baatara gorge.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baatara_gorge.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Elie plus
Image:Dark Hollow Falls.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dark_Hollow_Falls.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was
Ragrawal at en.wikipedia
Image:Havasu Falls 1a md.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Havasu_Falls_1a_md.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Moondigger
Image:Powerscourt HPIM1262.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Powerscourt_HPIM1262.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Schcambo at en.wikipedia
Image:Niagara falls aerial.id.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niagara_falls_aerial.id.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User
IDuke on en.wikipedia
File:Cascada duruitoarea.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cascada_duruitoarea.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Genudoc at
ro.wikipedia
File:Plitvice lakes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plitvice_lakes.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Conscious, Dijxtra, Joadl, Juetho, Neoneo13, The Dark
Master, Ulrichstill, Überraschungsbilder, 1 anonymous edits
File:Biggest indoor waterfall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Biggest_indoor_waterfall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Alistair McMillan
File:Whangarei Falls New Zealand.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whangarei_Falls_New_Zealand.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Tomwsulcer
File:Rapids.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rapids.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gulliveig
File:!downstream river1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:!downstream_river1.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Rafti Institute at
en.wikipedia
File:RapidsonMississippiRiverOntario.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RapidsonMississippiRiverOntario.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: M. Rehemtulla
Image:Grand Canyon.jpg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Canyon.jpg.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was (Automated conversion) at
en.wikipedia
Image:Noravank with cliffs-DCP 0186.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Noravank_with_cliffs-DCP_0186.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: Raffi Kojian
Image:Aerial view of canyons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerial_view_of_canyons.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
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File:Grand Canyon autumn STS61A-48-91.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Canyon_autumn_STS61A-48-91.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Mmcannis, Roger469, TheDJ, TommyBee, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Gorges of Ak-SHur.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gorges_of_Ak-SHur.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Major Henri De Bouillane de Lacoste (tr.
by J. G. Anderson)
File:Chei Bicaz 063.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chei_Bicaz_063.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Laurap, Sie
File:Swaan gorge or Swaan cut.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Swaan_gorge_or_Swaan_cut.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Khalid Mahmood
File:Aragvi Source July2009.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aragvi_Source_July2009.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: D.Papuashvili
(talk). Original uploader was D.Papuashvili at en.wikipedia
Image:Lake George Channel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_George_Channel.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:TampAGS
Image:Vivari Channel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vivari_Channel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Roquai
Image:Alluvial fan, Taklimakan Desert, XinJiang Province, China, NASA, ASTER.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alluvial_fan,_Taklimakan_Desert,_XinJiang_Province,_China,_NASA,_ASTER.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team
Image:Alluvial Fan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alluvial_Fan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ethanoconnor, MushiHoshiIshi, Woudloper
Image:Alluvial fan 01.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alluvial_fan_01.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Ludo29
Image:AlluvialFanLakeLouiseBC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlluvialFanLakeLouiseBC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
Image:Gigantic Alluvial Fan Being Uplift by New Fault.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gigantic_Alluvial_Fan_Being_Uplift_by_New_Fault.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Wingchi
Image:Mini Alluvial Fan Imprinted with Footprints.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mini_Alluvial_Fan_Imprinted_with_Footprints.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Wingchi
Image:Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA image created by Jesse Allen,
using data from NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and the U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team. Caption by Rebecca Lindsey, based on interpretation provided on the ASTER Project Science
Imagery Gallery Website.
File:Man o'war cove near lulworth dorset arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Man_o'war_cove_near_lulworth_dorset_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Adam.J.W.C., Arpingstone
File:Port douglas qld australia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Port_douglas_qld_australia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
Beland, Malcolmj, Mattinbgn, Shiftchange, TommyBee
File:Waikiki Beach at Sunset.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waikiki_Beach_at_Sunset.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
User:Cumulus Clouds
File:Bondi 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bondi_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Adam.J.W.C.
File:Sable de Kalalau - Hawaii.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sable_de_Kalalau_-_Hawaii.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Psammophile
Image:Martinique Beach (Salines).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Martinique_Beach_(Salines).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Barbacha
Image:PismoBeachSand.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PismoBeachSand.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
Image:CaliforniaBeachc1905.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CaliforniaBeachc1905.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Infrogmation
at en.wikipedia
Image:Joss Bay, Broadstairs, England - Aug 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joss_Bay,_Broadstairs,_England_-_Aug_2008.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Diliff
Image:Beach at Msasani Bay, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beach_at_Msasani_Bay,_Dar_es_Salaam,_Tanzania.JPG  License:
Attribution  Contributors: User:Loranchet
File:Voidokilia Bucht Pylos.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Voidokilia_Bucht_Pylos.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Koppi2 Original
uploader was Koppi2 at de.wikipedia
File:Praia do Leme 6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Praia_do_Leme_6.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Rodrigo Soldon from Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 390

File:Dzhasybay_beach.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dzhasybay_beach.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Ekamaloff

File:Lechuguilla Cave Pearlsian Gulf.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lechuguilla_Cave_Pearlsian_Gulf.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Beyond silence, EvaK, Kilom691, Str4nd, 3 anonymous edits
File:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Rls at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by CyrilB at en.wikipedia.
File:hawaiian lava tube.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaiian_lava_tube.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original
uploader was Dave Bunnell at en.wikipedia
File:Painted cave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Painted_cave.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Dave Bunnell, VartanM, 1
anonymous edits
File:Big Four Glacier Ice cave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Big_Four_Glacier_Ice_cave.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Juleen Studio — Everett,
Washington. Original uploader was ShadowDragon at en.wikipedia.
File:Mammoth cave canyon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mammoth_cave_canyon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Original uploader was Dave Bunnell (talk) at en.wikipedia
File:townsends in music hall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Townsends_in_music_hall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Dave Bunnell
File:taino.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taino.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Dave Bunnell, Hertzyscowicz, Mctaino
File:Trango Towers 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trango_Towers_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:kogo
File:Troll Wall in shadow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Troll_Wall_in_shadow.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mountain Master
File:Northern Areas 40.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Northern_Areas_40.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Eleutherosmartin
File:Ireland cliffs of moher2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ireland_cliffs_of_moher2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Delian,
Dionysos, El Comandante, Geofrog, Man vyi
File:Ruskeala park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ruskeala_park.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: CarolSpears, Ghirlandajo
File:Matengai of Kuniga Coast in Oki Island Shimane pref600.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matengai_of_Kuniga_Coast_in_Oki_Island_Shimane_pref600.jpg
 License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was Snap55 at ja.wikipedia (Edited by 663highland)
File:TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
File:Miranda scarp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miranda_scarp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/JPL
File:Mount Thor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Thor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Peter Morgan from Nomadic
File:Yosemite El Capitan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yosemite_El_Capitan.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Hike395,
Joadl, MikeMurphy, Stan Shebs
File:NotchPeakSunset.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NotchPeakSunset.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Qfl247
File:floodislewight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Floodislewight.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Oikos-team
File:Alaska Floodplain 1902.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alaska_Floodplain_1902.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Cuppysfriend at
en.wikipedia
File:Entrenched river.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Entrenched_river.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Cuppysfriend at
en.wikipedia
File:Laramie River floodplain 1949.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laramie_River_floodplain_1949.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was
Cuppysfriend at en.wikipedia
File:Animas Valley CO 1903.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Animas_Valley_CO_1903.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Cuppysfriend at
en.wikipedia
File:Flood plain 7991.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flood_plain_7991.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Pollinator at en.wikipedia
File:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl
Image:Sacramento River Levee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sacramento_River_Levee.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Indolences
Image:GretnaLevee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GretnaLevee.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Infrogmation of New
Orleans
File:Jewish National Fund trees in The Negev.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jewish_National_Fund_trees_in_The_Negev.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0  Contributors: David Shankbone
Image:Peru Ica Oasis bluesky.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peru_Ica_Oasis_bluesky.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
user:Xiaphias
Image:MiddleSpring.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MiddleSpring.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Citypeek
Image:Oasis in Lybia.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oasis_in_Lybia.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: -
File:Fish Springs Utah.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fish_Springs_Utah.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: David Jolley Staplegunther
(talk).
Image:ArugotRiver.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ArugotRiver.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Maglanist
File:Florida freshwater swamp usgov image.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florida_freshwater_swamp_usgov_image.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Bastique, Conscious, Cwbm (commons), Fred J, Mircea, Neumeier, 1 anonymous edits
File:BE swamp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BE_swamp.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Foledman
File:Saltpancrk12.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saltpancrk12.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Adam.J.W.C.
File:Saltpancrk1a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saltpancrk1a.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Adam.J.W.C.
Image:Staw naturalny.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Staw_naturalny.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Mohylek
File:H0KNKH19.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:H0KNKH19.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -
Image:Niagara Falls Garden 2005.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niagara_Falls_Garden_2005.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke,
Denniss, Fabartus, Keruzu, Mircea, Red devil 666, Wst
Image:Winter December 2007 with Pond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Winter_December_2007_with_Pond.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Juliancolton
Image:Long Pond - St Regis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Long_Pond_-_St_Regis.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Mwanner at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by XcepticZP at en.wikipedia.
Image:Striding Edge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Striding_Edge.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Blisco, Mark J
image:Clouds Rest arete.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clouds_Rest_arete.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Josh Steinitz from San
Francisco, CA, USA
File:Crib Goch, Snowdonia, Wales - August 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crib_Goch,_Snowdonia,_Wales_-_August_2007.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Diliff
Image:Garden_Wall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Garden_Wall.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MONGO
Image:Cardiff_Boundary_arete.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cardiff_Boundary_arete.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Jstuby at
en.wikipedia
image:Circosabisko.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Circosabisko.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Dentren
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 391

Image:Thornton Lakes 25929.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thornton_Lakes_25929.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Walter
Siegmund
Image:Glacial Tarn Formation EN.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacial_Tarn_Formation_EN.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:DooFi
Image:Lowercurtis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lowercurtis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Peltoms, W!B:
File:Lake Seal Mt Field NP edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Seal_Mt_Field_NP_edit.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:JJ Harrison
Image:Esker (PSF).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Esker_(PSF).png  License: unknown  Contributors: Magnus Manske, WayneRay
Image:Esker-PB110050.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Esker-PB110050.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Williamborg
File:Denaliesker.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Denaliesker.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Beeblebrox
Image:MasonEsker.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MasonEsker.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was: May 17, 2006.Thomas Waltz
at en.wikipedia
Image:Mount Pelly 1998-06-28.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Pelly_1998-06-28.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Ansgar Walk
File:Geirangerfjord (6-2007).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geirangerfjord_(6-2007).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Frédéric de
Goldschmidt www.frederic.net
File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,
Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits
Image:PanoHardangerfjorden1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PanoHardangerfjorden1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Aqwis
Image:Norge Fjorder1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norge_Fjorder1.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Ulamm
File:Limski Istria 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Limski_Istria_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Aconcagua
File:South Alpine lakes.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Alpine_lakes.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Ulamm
Image:Sognefjord, Norway.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sognefjord,_Norway.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Lipothymia,
Mahlum, Ranveig, っ
Image:Eyjafjörður.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eyjafjörður.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason
Image:Killary Harbour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Killary_Harbour.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ebyabe, El Comandante, Postdlf
Image:MilfordSound.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MilfordSound.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wikikiwiman at en.wikipedia
File:Fjordsglacier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fjordsglacier.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Beeblebrox
File:Stetind 2009 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stetind_2009_2.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:ZorroIII
File:Magdalenefjorden.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magdalenefjorden.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Smtunli
File:Drygalski-Fjord.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drygalski-Fjord.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Connie J. Martin
File:Baltoro glacier from air.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baltoro_glacier_from_air.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
Guilhem Vellut from Paris
File:Perito Moreno Glacier Patagonia Argentina Luca Galuzzi 2005.JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perito_Moreno_Glacier_Patagonia_Argentina_Luca_Galuzzi_2005.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Lucag
File:Grosser Aletschgletscher 3178.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grosser_Aletschgletscher_3178.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Dirk Beyer
File:Glaciers and Icebergs at Cape York.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glaciers_and_Icebergs_at_Cape_York.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Mila Zinkova
File:Glacier mouth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_mouth.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:SehLax
File:GornerGlacier 002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GornerGlacier_002.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Roy Lindman
File:Glacier au dessus de Saas-Fee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_au_dessus_de_Saas-Fee.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Schnäggli
File:TitlisIceCracks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TitlisIceCracks.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Audrius Meskauskas
File:Holiday 2007 106.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holiday_2007_106.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Swollib
File:Glaciereaston.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glaciereaston.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eusebius, Mircea, Para, Peltoms, Tintazul
File:Black-Glacier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Black-Glacier.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Apcbg
File:Arranque glaciar-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arranque_glaciar-en.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original:Lmb at
es.wikipedia Vectorized version:
File:PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PluckedGraniteAlandIslands.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
File:MorainesLakeLouise.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MorainesLakeLouise.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
File:Drumlins LMB.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drumlins_LMB.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Permission=Original released to public domain
File:Stillaguamish River 18434.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stillaguamish_River_18434.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
User:Wsiegmund
File:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacial_lakes,_Bhutan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
File:Glacial landscape.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacial_landscape.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Surachit
File:Receding glacier-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Receding_glacier-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Lycaon
File:Glacier weight effects LMB.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mircea, Saperaud,
WikipediaMaster
File:Mars north pole.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mars_north_pole.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chmee2, Ruslik0, TheDJ, WinstonSmith
File:Gullies and tongue-shaped glacier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gullies_and_tongue-shaped_glacier.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky
modified NASA photo. Original uploader was Jimmarsmars at en.wikipedia
File:Lobate Debris Apron in Phlegra Montes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lobate_Debris_Apron_in_Phlegra_Montes.JPG  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Jim Secosky modified NASA image.
File:Moreux Crater moraines.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moreux_Crater_moraines.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified NASA
image.
File:Tributary Glacier.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tributary_Glacier.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa image.
Image:Glacier as seen by ctx.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_as_seen_by_ctx.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa
image.
Image:Wide view of glacier showing image field.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wide_view_of_glacier_showing_image_field.JPG  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Jim Secosky modified nasa image.
Image:Glacier close up with hirise.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glacier_close_up_with_hirise.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim secosky modified
nasa image.
Image:New York's Finger Lakes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_York's_Finger_Lakes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 392

File:Tunneldal Noordbergum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tunneldal_Noordbergum.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:PalaeoMal
Image:Kawartha Lakes w legend.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kawartha_Lakes_w_legend.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: P199, Skeezix1000, 3
anonymous edits
File:Lagowski Park Krajobrazowy-World Wind.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lagowski_Park_Krajobrazowy-World_Wind.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Kotasik, Red devil 666, 3 anonymous edits
File:Klokkekildebakker-20010916.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Klokkekildebakker-20010916.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jorras
Image:Atafutrim.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atafutrim.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Talkstosocks
Image:Maldives.visibleearth.nasa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives.visibleearth.nasa.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Electionworld, Rehman,
Rémih, Telim tor, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Nukuoro ISS013-E-28610.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nukuoro_ISS013-E-28610.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA/Johnson Space Center,
Image Science & Analysis Laboratory
File:Atoll forming-volcano.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atoll_forming-volcano.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Geronimo20
File:Atoll forming-Fringing reef.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Geronimo20
File:Atoll forming-Barrier reef.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Geronimo20
File:Atoll forming-Atoll.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atoll_forming-Atoll.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Geronimo20
File:Wake Island air.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wake_Island_air.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Hohum
File:San Sebastian aerea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Sebastian_aerea.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Hynek Moravec;
modified by Generalpoteito
File:Bay of Bengal map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bay_of_Bengal_map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: NormanEinstein,
Telim tor
File:DirkvdM baracoa panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DirkvdM_baracoa_panorama.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DirkvdM, Ebyabe, Mircea
File:İzmir Bay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:İzmir_Bay.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Enderender at en.wikipedia
Image:Genipabu-Natal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Genipabu-Natal.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: user:gegio69
Image:A44.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A44.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Swollib at en.wikipedia
Image:Andaman.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andaman.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Venkatesh K from Bangalore, India
File:Porto Covo pano April 2009-4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Porto_Covo_pano_April_2009-4.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Alvesgaspar
File:Grand Anse Beach Grenada.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Anse_Beach_Grenada.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Vkap
Image:Marbleheadcoastline.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marbleheadcoastline.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Keitei
Image:Tiburon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tiburon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Agunther
Image:Accreting coast Image6.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Surachit
Image:Elevation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elevation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Interiot, Placeabo, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Continental shelf.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Continental_shelf.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Interiot
File:Coral atoll formation animation.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: NOAA
File:Maldives small island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives_small_island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:B166-er
File:Maldives - Kurumba Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PalawanOz
File:Coral reef diagram.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_reef_diagram.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Raphael17, Salleman
File:Propagation du tsunami en profondeur variable.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Lachaume at fr.wikipedia
File:Coral reef locations.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_reef_locations.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Citron, Grenavitar,
Haplochromis, Man vyi, Martin H., Mirgolth, 6 anonymous edits
File:20 Grad Isotherme.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:20_Grad_Isotherme.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Elekhh, Normann Z, Telim tor
File:Upwelling image1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Upwelling_image1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA Original uploader was Mikiemike at
en.wikipedia
File:Coral polyp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_polyp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA
File:FFS Table bottom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Yumi Yasutake, NOAA
File:Coral detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_detail.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: pakmat
File:Brain coral.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brain_coral.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bluemask, Haplochromis, Janderk, Liné1, Man vyi,
Überraschungsbilder
File:Staghorn-coral-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Staghorn-coral-1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Adona9
at en.wikipedia
File:Cirripathes sp (Spiral Wire Coral).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cirripathes_sp_(Spiral_Wire_Coral).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0  Contributors: User:Nhobgood
File:PillarCoral.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PillarCoral.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bricktop, Ed g2s, Haplochromis, Liné1, Spaully
File:Polyps (PSF).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polyps_(PSF).png  License: unknown  Contributors: Haabet, PatríciaR
File:Multy color corals.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Multy_color_corals.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Mila
Zinkova
File:Sea Cotton.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sea_Cotton.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: LASZLO ILYES from Cleveland, Ohio,
USA
File:Callyspongia sp. (Tube sponge).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Callyspongia_sp._(Tube_sponge).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Nhobgood
File:Coral reef PloS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_reef_PloS.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Photo courtesy of Terry Hughes.
File:Prionurus laticlavius.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: LASZLO ILYES
from Cleveland, Ohio, USA
File:Caribbean reef squid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Edbrown05, Janderk, Javaprog, Liné1,
Mehmet Karatay, Überraschungsbilder, 3 anonymous edits
File:Stenopus hispidus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stenopus_hispidus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Credit: Photo Collection of Dr. James P.
McVey, NOAA Sea Grant Program
File:Triaenodon obesus moc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA
File:Green turtle John Pennekamp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Dschwen
File:Red sea-reef 3627.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hannes Grobe/AWI
File:Nephtheidae komodo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Nhobgood
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 393

File:Laticauda colubrina (Wakatobi).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laticauda_colubrina_(Wakatobi).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
 Contributors: Craig D
File:Mvey0290.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mvey0290.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dodo, Leon7, Telim tor, 2 anonymous edits
File:Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:99of9
File:Ancient coral reefs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Heinrich Harder (1858-1935)
File:Nuvola apps kview.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_kview.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ch1902, Saibo
Image:Searchtool.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Searchtool.svg  License: GNU Lesser General Public License  Contributors: User:Ysangkok
Image:Exe estuary from balloon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Exe_estuary_from_balloon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
 Contributors: steverenouk
Image:River Nith estuary.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:River_Nith_estuary.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Doc Searls
from Santa Barbara, USA
Image:Estuary mouth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Estuary_mouth.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Bidgee
Image:Estuary-mouth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Estuary-mouth.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Feydey, Mircea, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason
Image:Rio de la Plata BA 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_de_la_Plata_BA_2.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Earth Sciences and Image Analysis
Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
Image:Yachats River estuary mouth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yachats_River_estuary_mouth.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Dave Baldwin (baseball)Dave Baldwin
File:Mouths of amazon geocover 1990.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mouths_of_amazon_geocover_1990.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Roke,
Vmenkov, Yone Fernandes
Image:Kara bogaz gol.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kara_bogaz_gol.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wars
Image:GlenrockLagoonFromLeichhardtLookout.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GlenrockLagoonFromLeichhardtLookout.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Athol Mullen
Image:Lagoa dos Patos PIA03444 lrg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lagoa_dos_Patos_PIA03444_lrg.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team
Image:Lagoon-of-venice-landsat-1 Names.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lagoon-of-venice-landsat-1_Names.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
user:Martinroell
Image:Zalewszczecinski.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zalewszczecinski.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Balcer, Sebastian Wallroth
Image:Baltic spits.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baltic_spits.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Isthmus, Miaow Miaow, Mircea,
RedWolf, ThomasPusch, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Kiritimati-EO.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kiritimati-EO.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Blue lagoon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_lagoon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jongleur100
Image:Washdyke Lagoon.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washdyke_Lagoon.JPG  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:Heather Rainbow
Image:oceanic spreading.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oceanic_spreading.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Surachit
Image:Peru-Chile trench.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peru-Chile_trench.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Interiot
Image:Atlantic-trench.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlantic-trench.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Vsmith at en.wikipedia
Image:Peninsula croatia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peninsula_croatia.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Kork
File:Nehrung.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nehrung.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Tormod
File:Cape Cod - Landsat 7.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cape_Cod_-_Landsat_7.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Davepape
Image:Mornington peninsula02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mornington_peninsula02.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bidgee,
Nachoman-au
Image:KurnellNewSouthWales.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KurnellNewSouthWales.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Adam.J.W.C.
File:Satellite image of Italy in March 2003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Satellite_image_of_Italy_in_March_2003.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC
File:España_y_Portugal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:España_y_Portugal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid
Response Team, NASA/GSFC
File:Zürichsee - Halbinsel Au IMG 0856.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zürichsee_-_Halbinsel_Au_IMG_0856.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Roland zh
Image:Beirut Panorama.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beirut_Panorama.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Jo
Weber
File:Haifa 2965-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Haifa_2965-1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Zvi Roger
Image:South India satellite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_India_satellite.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:STS-95_Florida_From_Space.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:STS-95_Florida_From_Space.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Yucatan peninsula 250m.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yucatan_peninsula_250m.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dominik, Duesentrieb, Juiced
lemon, Kevyn, Maclemo, Ranveig, Thelmadatter, Twthmoses
File:The Spit Bruny Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Spit_Bruny_Island.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:JJ Harrison
File:SuezCanal-EO.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SuezCanal-EO.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: David.Monniaux, Duesentrieb, Thomas Reid,
Timeshifter, Yerpo
File:IsthmusOfPanama.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IsthmusOfPanama.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jodo, PeepP, Pieter Kuiper
File:42862-cies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:42862-cies.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Caos, Kilezz
Image:Island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Island.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: user:donarreiskoffer
Image:Small Island in Lower Saranac Lake.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Small_Island_in_Lower_Saranac_Lake.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Docu,
Mattes, Mindmatrix
Image:Hawai'i.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawai'i.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Earth Sciences and Image Analysis, NASA-Johnson Space Center
Image:Fernando noronha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fernando_noronha.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Roberto Garrido from
Salvador, Brasil
Image:Wake Island.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wake_Island.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bollar, Electionworld, Telim tor
Image:Seamount Locations.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seamount_Locations.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gene.arboit,
RedWolf
File:Submarine Eruption-numbers.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Submarine_Eruption-numbers.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Sémhur
File:Pillow basalt crop l.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pillow_basalt_crop_l.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: w:National Oceanic and Atmospheric
AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
File:Bubblegum coral on davidson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bubblegum_coral_on_davidson.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NOAA, MBARI
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 394

File:Orange roughy.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orange_roughy.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Valentinian

File:Koral1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Koral1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Ies, Kluka, Ra'ike, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Sealevel chart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sealevel_chart.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: University of Colorado
File:US Navy 050127-N-4658L-030 The Los Angeles-class fast-attack submarine USS San Francisco (SSN 711) in dry dock to assess damage sustained after running aground
approximately 350 miles south of Guam Jan. 8, 2005.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Navy_050127-N-4658L-030_The_Los_Angeles-class_fast-attack_submarine_USS_San_Francisco_(SSN_711)_in_dry_dock_to_assess_damage_sustained_after_running_
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benchill
File:MtCleveland ISS013-E-24184.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MtCleveland_ISS013-E-24184.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ISS Crew Earth
Observations experiment and the Image Science & Analysis Group, Johnson Space Center.
File:Volcano scheme.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcano_scheme.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: user:MesserWoland
File:Pinatubo ash plume 910612.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pinatubo_ash_plume_910612.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: D. Harlow
File:Spreading ridges volcanoes map-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spreading_ridges_volcanoes_map-en.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Sting
File:Rinjani 1994.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rinjani_1994.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: *drew, Geofrog, Indon, Kam Solusar,
Krinkle, Rémih, Saperaud, Spolloman, 7 anonymous edits
File:Three Waikupanaha and one Ki lava ocean entries w-edit2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_Waikupanaha_and_one_Ki_lava_ocean_entries_w-edit2.jpg
 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mila Zinkova; edited by jjron Original uploader was Jjron at en.wikipedia
File:FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Araisyohei,
CasinoKat, Fg2, LERK, Myself488, Pmx, Reggaeman, 2 anonymous edits
File:Lakagigar Iceland 2004-07-01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lakagigar_Iceland_2004-07-01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Juhász Péter
File:Skjaldbreidur Herbst 2004.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skjaldbreidur_Herbst_2004.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Reykholt
File:Volcán Chaitén-Sam Beebe-Ecotrust.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcán_Chaitén-Sam_Beebe-Ecotrust.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Sam Beebe
File:VeyoVolcano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VeyoVolcano.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
File:Mt.Mayon tam3rd.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mt.Mayon_tam3rd.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: . Original uploader was Tam3rd at en.wikipedia
File:Toba zoom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toba_zoom.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denys, Gilgameshkun, Joolz, Martin H., Olivier2, Rémih,
Thuresson, 1 anonymous edits
File:Herðubreið-Iceland-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herðubreið-Iceland-2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Seattle Skier
File:Taman mud volcanoes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taman_mud_volcanoes.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Kmorozov
File:Lava channel overflow.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lava_channel_overflow.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Mila Zinkova
File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Haltiamieli, Jafeluv, Jeanot, Juiced lemon, Mac9, Ulrichstill, 4 anonymous edits
File:Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Nichalp
File:Ropy pahoehoe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ropy_pahoehoe.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Tari Noelani Mattox, USGS geologist
File:Volcano.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcano.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dbenbenn, Jurema Oliveira, Mattes, Rémih
File:Damavand in winter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Damavand_in_winter.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hamed Khorramyar
Image:Pompeii - Casa del Centenario - MAN.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_MAN.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
WolfgangRieger
File:Fourpeaked-fumaroles-cyrus-read1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fourpeaked-fumaroles-cyrus-read1.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Michaelh2001,
Monkeybait, 3 anonymous edits
File:Avacha volcano Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky oct-2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Avacha_volcano_Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky_oct-2005.jpg  License:
unknown  Contributors: Bansp, Peko, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Teide Volcano Tenerife 20060429.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teide_Volcano_Tenerife_20060429.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: ph_micchei
File:Volcanic injection.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcanic_injection.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Cflm001
File:Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mauna_Loa_atmospheric_transmission.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Diwas, Joolz, Kokoo, Rémih, Vonvon, 2 anonymous edits
File:TOMS SO2 time nov03.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TOMS_SO2_time_nov03.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, Brighterorange,
Magalhães, Rémih, Stannered
File:SO2 Galapagos 20051101.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SO2_Galapagos_20051101.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, CarolSpears,
Dr Brains, Howcheng, LobStoR, Rémih, Telim tor
File:Rainbow and sulfur dioxide emissions from the Halemaumau vent.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rainbow_and_sulfur_dioxide_emissions_from_the_Halemaumau_vent.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Mila
Zinkova
File:Olympus Mons.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olympus_Mons.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hurricanehink, Kanonkas, PDCA, TheDJ, Ævar
Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 4 anonymous edits
File:Tvashtarvideo.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tvashtarvideo.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Serendipodous at en.wikipedia
File:Mount Bromo Panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Bromo_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Beiske
File:Tangkuban Perahu Panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tangkuban_Perahu_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Original uploader was Unmadindu at en.wikipedia
File:DirkvdM irazu 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DirkvdM_irazu_1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DirkvdM, RedWolf, Romary, Rémih, Wst, ZorkNika
File:Fillmorevolcano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fillmorevolcano.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was
Staplegunther at en.wikipedia
File:Taal Volcano 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taal_Volcano_2007.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:C.
Bradley
File:Volcan sierra negra.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcan_sierra_negra.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ofbarea
File:Isola vulcano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isola_vulcano.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Brisk g
File:Binubulauan3092.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Binubulauan3092.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Gubernatoria
Image:Mount Mazama eruption timeline.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Mazama_eruption_timeline.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY and the NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
File:Origin of volcanic caldera via analogue model.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Origin_of_volcanic_caldera_via_analogue_model.gif  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Chmee2
Image:Toba zoom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toba_zoom.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denys, Gilgameshkun, Joolz, Martin H., Olivier2, Rémih,
Thuresson, 1 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 395

Image:La Cumbre - ISS.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Cumbre_-_ISS.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unnamed NASA astronaut
Image:Aso06.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aso06.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mass Ave 975
Image:Pinatubo92pinatubo caldera crater lake.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pinatubo92pinatubo_caldera_crater_lake.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Apollo 8, Black Tusk, Rémih, Snty-tact, Thgoiter, Túrelio
Image:Crater Lake from rim-USGS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crater_Lake_from_rim-USGS.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Lyn Topinka
Image:Aniakchak-caldera alaska.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aniakchak-caldera_alaska.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: M. Williams, National Park
Service
Image:Mount Pleasant Caldera.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Pleasant_Caldera.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Lake taupo landsat.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_taupo_landsat.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avenue, Centic, David Kernow, Docu,
Peko, Red devil 666
file:Crater_lake_oregon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crater_lake_oregon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Zainubrazvi
file:Mazama bathymetry survey map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mazama_bathymetry_survey_map.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader
was Mav at en.wikipedia
Image:Geologic map of Crater Lake floor.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geologic_map_of_Crater_Lake_floor.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Original
uploader was Mav at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Peteforsyth at en.wikipedia.
Image:Crater Lake National Park Oregon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crater_Lake_National_Park_Oregon.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Jeffrey Johnson from Bergen County, New Jersey, USA
File:Crater Lake Pan Giampaolo 20040717 72 78.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crater_Lake_Pan_Giampaolo_20040717_72_78.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Jude Giampaolo
File:GeysirEruptionNear.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeysirEruptionNear.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Tillea
File:Steam Phase eruption of Castle geyser with double rainbow.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steam_Phase_eruption_of_Castle_geyser_with_double_rainbow.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Mbz1: Mila
Zinkova
File:Geyser video.ogv  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geyser_video.ogv  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:Julien Carnot
File:Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steamboat_Geyser_in_Yellowstone.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
File:geyser exploding 1 large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Copyright
Hannah Beker - contact through User:Pcb21. Original uploader was Tim Starling at en.wikipedia
File:geyser exploding 2 large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Copyright
Hannah Beker - contact through User:Pcb21. Original uploader was Tim Starling at en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Grendelkhan at en.wikipedia.
File:geyser exploding 3 large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Tim Starling at en.wikipedia
File:geyser exploding 4 large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Copyright
Hannah Beker - contact through User:Pcb21. Original uploader was Tim Starling at en.wikipedia
File:Fountain geyser.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fountain_geyser.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RG Johnsson
File:Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Juiced lemon, Romanm, Zimbres, 5 anonymous edits
File:Grand prismatic spring.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jim Peaco, National Park Service
File:World geyser distribution.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_geyser_distribution.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Worldtraveller
File:white dome geyser eruption.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_dome_geyser_eruption.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ixfd64, Mike Cline,
Soulreaper, Urban
File:Geysir Andernach 2009.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Geysir_Andernach_2009.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany
 Contributors: Holger Weinandt
File:Strokkur, Iceland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Strokkur,_Iceland.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Chris from
Falmouth, UK
File:Voyager 2 Triton 14bg r90ccw colorized.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Voyager_2_Triton_14bg_r90ccw_colorized.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: NASA
File:Hotspot(geology)-1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hotspot(geology)-1.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Los688
Image:Partial melting asthenosphere EN.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Partial_melting_asthenosphere_EN.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Woudloper
File:Hawaii hotspot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hawaii_hotspot.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Geophysical Data Center/USGS
File:Kodiak-Bowie Seamounts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kodiak-Bowie_Seamounts.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GeoWriter, Rémih, Wwoods
File:CourtHotspots.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CourtHotspots.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Foulger
File:Ridge render.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ridge_render.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/GSFC/Robert Simmon
File:Tectonic plate boundaries.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Jose F. Vigil. USGS
Image:World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_Distribution_of_Mid-Oceanic_Ridges.gif  License: unknown
 Contributors: J M Watson
File:Deep sea vent chemistry diagram.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deep_sea_vent_chemistry_diagram.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: originally
uploaded by en:user:Brian0918
File:Earth seafloor crust age 1996.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Saperaud
File:Plates tect2 en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plates_tect2_en.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USGS
File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.gif  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Kurgus, Pieter Kuiper
File:Polarityshift.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polarityshift.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Powerkeys
Image:Hells Half Acre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hells_Half_Acre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Lazarus-long
Image:Rangipo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rangipo.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: James Dignan ()
Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mount_Cameroon_craters.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Amcaja
Image:Tangkuban Parahu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tangkuban_Parahu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:CHJL
File:DirkvdM irazu 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DirkvdM_irazu_2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DirkvdM, Pmsyyz, RedWolf, Romary, Rémih, Wst,
ZorkNika
Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhumsiki_Peak.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Amcaja,
Gilgameshkun
Image:Edinburgh Castle From Princes Street Garden 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edinburgh_Castle_From_Princes_Street_Garden_001.jpg  License: GNU
Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Jericho
Image:Steins Pillar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steins_Pillar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: R.A. Jensen
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 396

File:Lion Rock, from North Piha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lion_Rock,_from_North_Piha.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Avenue
Image:Sigiriya AS1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sigiriya_AS1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AtulaSiriwardane
Image:TroskyCastle.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TroskyCastle.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
Image:PetitPiton.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PetitPiton.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jayen466
File:Mt Popa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mt_Popa.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Andre Lettau, User:Andre Lettau
image:Volcán Chaitén-Sam Beebe-Ecotrust.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volcán_Chaitén-Sam_Beebe-Ecotrust.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Sam Beebe
Image:Mono Crater closeup-1000px.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mono_Crater_closeup-1000px.jpeg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User Daniel Mayer (Maveric149) on en.wikipedia
Image:MSH06 aerial crater from north high angle 09-12-06.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MSH06_aerial_crater_from_north_high_angle_09-12-06.jpg  License:
unknown  Contributors: Willie Scott, USGS
File:MSH80 bulge on north side 04-27-80.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MSH80_bulge_on_north_side_04-27-80.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Peter
Lipman
File:Vulcano bransfield-strait hg.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vulcano_bransfield-strait_hg.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Hgrobe
File:Bands of glowing magma from submarine volcano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bands_of_glowing_magma_from_submarine_volcano.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: NOAA/w:National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation
File:Nur05018.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nur05018.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chmee2, Maksim, Zimbres, ZooFari
File:Spreading ridges volcanoes map-fr.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spreading_ridges_volcanoes_map-fr.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Sting
File:Seamount Locations.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seamount_Locations.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gene.arboit,
RedWolf
File:Hotspots.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hotspots.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ingo Wölbern
Image:Guyot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guyot.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Btermini at en.wikipedia
File:deserts.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deserts.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Emilfaro at en.wikipedia. Later version(s)
were uploaded by Spudtater at en.wikipedia.
File:Judea 2 by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Judea_2_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
David Shankbone
File:Sahara satellite hires.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
File:AntarcticaDomeCSnow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AntarcticaDomeCSnow.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Stephen Hudson
File:Désert-du-Thar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Désert-du-Thar.jpg  License: Creative Commons Sharealike 1.0  Contributors: Crux, Davepape, Jungpionier,
PM, Roland zh, Samulili, 5 anonymous edits
File:Libya 4985 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Lucag
File:Agasthiyamalai range and Tirunelveli rainshadow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agasthiyamalai_range_and_Tirunelveli_rainshadow.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: w:user:PlaneMad
File:Al-Dahna.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-Dahna.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Eagleamn at en.wikipedia
File:Bmw-mc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bmw-mc.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Motorrad-67
File:Organ-pipe-cactus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Organ-pipe-cactus.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Motorrad-67
File:Saguaro Forest - Tucson Arizona - Relic38.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saguaro_Forest_-_Tucson_Arizona_-_Relic38.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Relic38, 1 anonymous edits
File:Baja California Desert.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baja_California_Desert.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Tomas Castelazo
File:Atacama1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atacama1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Calton, Cookie, Editor at Large, Edward, Geofrog, Juiced
lemon, Mandavi, Willscrlt, 4 anonymous edits
File:WahWah.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WahWah.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Citypeek
File:GobiFlood.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GobiFlood.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Qfl247 (talk)
File:Jodhpurplant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jodhpurplant.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Emperor Genius
File:MakhteshGadolCenter03.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MakhteshGadolCenter03.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Wilson44691 at en.wikipedia
File:Cooking in desert.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cooking_in_desert.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: haitham alfalah
File:KolobCanyon1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KolobCanyon1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Staplegunther
File:Devil's Golf Course in Death Valley NP.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Devil's_Golf_Course_in_Death_Valley_NP.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
Image:Kluft-photo-Black-Rock-Desert-Aug-2005-Img 5081.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kluft-photo-Black-Rock-Desert-Aug-2005-Img_5081.jpg  License:
GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Ikluft
File:01-2007-Trona-CA-01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:01-2007-Trona-CA-01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Bobak
Image:Lake Hart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Hart.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Docu, Er Komandante, Mattinbgn
Image:Piles of Salt Salar de Uyuni Bolivia Luca Galuzzi 2006 a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg
 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Lucag, User:Trialsanderrors
Image:Jfader playa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jfader_playa.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:John Fader
Image:EtoshaPan 2005-06 comparison.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EtoshaPan_2005-06_comparison.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ISS Crew Earth
Observations experiment and the Image Science & Analysis Group, Johnson Space Center. Images cropped, cleaned up, and labelled by NASA Earth Observatory.
File:Morocco Africa Flickr Rosino December 2005 84514010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Morocco_Africa_Flickr_Rosino_December_2005_84514010.jpg
 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Rosino on Flickr
File:Dunas de Maspalomas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dunas_de_Maspalomas.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Himarerme
File:KelsoDunesAvalancheDeposits.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KelsoDunesAvalancheDeposits.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wilson44691
File:Taklamakan desert sand dunes landsat 7.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taklamakan_desert_sand_dunes_landsat_7.png  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Tatiraju.rishabh
File:Dune en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dune_en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:P. S. Burton, User:Urutseg
File:Seif.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seif.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Monkeybait, Sullevon
File:Rub' al Khali (Arabian Empty Quarter) sand dunes imaged by Terra (EOS AM-1).jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rub'_al_Khali_(Arabian_Empty_Quarter)_sand_dunes_imaged_by_Terra_(EOS_AM-1).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team
File:Dune 7 in the Namib Desert.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dune_7_in_the_Namib_Desert.jpeg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Er
Komandante, Stanmar, Thuresson, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, 3 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 397

File:DunePyla2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DunePyla2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Croquant, Mtu33260, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Megaripple.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megaripple.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Citypeek
File:SandDunesSutherlandShire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SandDunesSutherlandShire.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Adam.J.W.C.
File:Curonian spit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Curonian_spit.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Audriusa, Juliux, ThomasPusch,
Uroboros
File:Highway sand dune.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Highway_sand_dune.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jpogi
File:KhongorynEls.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KhongorynEls.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Doron
File:Yucca Plant at White Sands National Monument 2009.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yucca_Plant_at_White_Sands_National_Monument_2009.JPG
 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Stratosphere
File:Studlandfencing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Studlandfencing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was The Giant Puffin at
en.wikipedia
Image:Sand dune formation.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sand_dune_formation.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NPS/USGS Original uploader was
Mav at en.wikipedia
Image:Mesquite Sand Dunes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mesquite_Sand_Dunes.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Daniel Mayer at en.wikipedia
Image:Libya 4608 Idehan Ubari Dunes Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Libya_4608_Idehan_Ubari_Dunes_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg  License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Lucag
Image:Dune boarding.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dune_boarding.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Rick McCharles from Calgary,
Canada
Image:Send dunes in death valley national park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Send_dunes_in_death_valley_national_park.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
Image:Beach access.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beach_access.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Rklawton
Image:Sossusvlei_oPEYRE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sossusvlei_oPEYRE.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Common
Good, EugeneZelenko, Ies, Opeyre, Uroboros, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Dune sunrise.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dune_sunrise.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Khalid hassani, Matanya (usurped), Rmhermen,
Uroboros, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Sanddune.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sanddune.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jpogi
File:Hoffmaster parabolic dune.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoffmaster_parabolic_dune.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Rmhermen at en.wikipedia
Image:KelsoSand.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KelsoSand.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wilson44691 at en.wikipedia
Image:CroneseCat.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CroneseCat.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Citypeek
Image:Brazilian Dune Fields.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brazilian_Dune_Fields.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jesse Allen
Image:Dunadopordosol.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dunadopordosol.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Marcelino Martins
File:Monahans Sandhills Dune 2009.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monahans_Sandhills_Dune_2009.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Leaflet
File:SkyBridgeMunich.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SkyBridgeMunich.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Photnart
File:Kairouan Mosque Courtyard.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan_Mosque_Courtyard.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
 Contributors: Colin Hepburn
File:Marburg, Fachwerkhaus von 1321 (2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marburg,_Fachwerkhaus_von_1321_(2).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Gerbil
File:Denver.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Denver.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: FlickreviewR, Mac9, Sammetsfan,
Xnatedawgx
Image:FirePhotography.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FirePhotography.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Sylvain
Pedneault
Image:Akashi-kaikyo bridge3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akashi-kaikyo_bridge3.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Sam at
en.wikipedia
Image:Sio se pol.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sio_se_pol.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Alexander.stohr, Shahab.mg, 2 anonymous edits
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Brug van bamboe over de Kali Serayu bij Wonosobo TMnr 10026487.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Brug_van_bamboe_over_de_Kali_Serayu_bij_Wonosobo_TMnr_10026487.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Djoehana, Docu, Elekhh
File:Pont mycénien de Kazarma 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pont_mycénien_de_Kazarma_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
Ptyx
Image:Pulteney Bridge, Bath 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pulteney_Bridge,_Bath_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:MichaelMaggs
Image:Puente Romano Panoramica 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puente_Romano_Panoramica_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Hameryko
Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vallorcine_footpath_bridge_2003-12-13.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Klaus with K, Man vyi, Olivier2, Snommoc, TCY, Thryduulf
Image:Pottery tower 6.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pottery_tower_6.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gary Lee Todd
File:Ponte Vecchio.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ponte_Vecchio.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Mfiskum
File:Sankt Petersburg 2005 i.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sankt_Petersburg_2005_i.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Heidas
Image:Shehara 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shehara_02.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Bgag
Image:Bridge Astore.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bridge_Astore.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Shakeelgilgity
Image:Kingston-Rhinecliff Bridge2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kingston-Rhinecliff_Bridge2.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Sam
File:Elbbrücke1990Tangermünde.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elbbrücke1990Tangermünde.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Ulamm
Image:Vorobyovy Gory metro station in Moscow (09-05-2006 at night).jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vorobyovy_Gory_metro_station_in_Moscow_(09-05-2006_at_night).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Serguei S.
Dukachev
Image:Stari Most22.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stari_Most22.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Apalsola, Mhare,
Ronaldino, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Visegrad Drina Bridge 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Visegrad_Drina_Bridge_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:J
budissin
Image:BSB Ponte JK Panorama 05 2007 266.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BSB_Ponte_JK_Panorama_05_2007_266.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz
File:Nagasaki Meganebashi M5257.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagasaki_Meganebashi_M5257.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Fg2
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 398

File:Tower_bridge_London_Twilight_-_November_2006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tower_bridge_London_Twilight_-_November_2006.jpg  License:

Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Diliff
Image:Small footbridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Small_footbridge.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Quadell at en.wikipedia
Image:Canton Viaduct.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canton_Viaduct.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Canton Viaduct, Good Olfactory,
Look2See1, Monkeybait
Image:Concrete box girder bridge.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concrete_box_girder_bridge.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was
Cherrybomb at en.wikipedia
Image:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at
en.wikipedia
Image:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Users MakeChooChooGoNow,
Renata on en.wikipedia
Image:Puente del Alamillo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puente_del_Alamillo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dodo, Lo Guilhem, Mazbln, Ronaldino,
2 anonymous edits
Image:Tarr Steps 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tarr_Steps_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Stefan Kühn
Image:Fernbridge.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fernbridge.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Monotropa uniflora
File:SydneyHarbourBridgeandOperaHouse IB.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SydneyHarbourBridgeandOperaHouse_IB.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Joseolgon, Pau, Quickstep, SPUI, Thuresson
Image:GirderBridge2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GirderBridge2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Todd Murray
Image:SalmonBayBridge-SeatleUSA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SalmonBayBridge-SeatleUSA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Salmon_Bay_Bridge-2.JPG: Shakespeare at en.wikipedia derivative work: w:User:Leonard G.Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Pigtail Bridge on US 16A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pigtail_Bridge_on_US_16A.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
user:Gribeco
Image:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at
en.wikipedia
Image:Pontoon bridge Rhine River 1945.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontoon_bridge_Rhine_River_1945.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, photographer unknown
Image:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Monkeybait,
Stevenwmccrary58
Image:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wolfgang K, 3
anonymous edits
Image:WinnepegBridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WinnepegBridge.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: GeorgHH, Guilbor, Matanya (usurped),
Skeezix1000, 1 anonymous edits
Image:CapilanoBridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CapilanoBridge.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User Leonard G. on en.wikipedia
Image:StepStoneBridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:StepStoneBridge.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Holzbrücke bei Essing 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holzbrücke_bei_Essing_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Brego
Image:suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Ronaldinhio
Image:Middlesbrough_Transporter_Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Middlesbrough_Transporter_Bridge.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: Computerjoe, FlickreviewR, Herbythyme, Kurpfalzbilder.de, Ratarsed, 3 anonymous edits
Image:AlhambraTrestle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlhambraTrestle.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Eastbound_over_SCB.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eastbound_over_SCB.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Davepape,
Gürbetaler, Iain Bell, Ronaldino, Thryduulf, Voyager, 2 anonymous edits
Image:LittleManateeRiver.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LittleManateeRiver.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DanTD, Delirium, Elkman,
HarveyHenkelmann, MakeChooChooGoNow, Ronaldino, 3 anonymous edits
File:Conwy Castle and Railway Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conwy_Castle_and_Railway_Bridge.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Original uploader was Mick Knapton at en.wikipedia
Image:Pont_du_gard.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pont_du_gard.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bernard bill5, ClemRutter, Cyr, 2
anonymous edits
Image:PontBailey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PontBailey.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Avron, Cham, Chriusha, GJo, Ikar.us,
Jgremillot, Ji-Elle, LimoWreck, Richieman, Ronaldino, Ske, 1 anonymous edits
Image:BalsaBridge_Break.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BalsaBridge_Break.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ayla, Benwildeboer,
Jackelfive, 4 anonymous edits
Image:WWI bridge of boats Scheldt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WWI_bridge_of_boats_Scheldt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arafi, Bogdan,
Ehudshapira, Rcbutcher, Snommoc
Image:Claude Monet-Waterlilies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Claude_Monet-Waterlilies.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Ardfern,
Avatar, Iamunknown, Maarten van Vliet, Olivier2, Sparkit, Szilas, 6 anonymous edits
Image:BrownTrussDiagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrownTrussDiagram.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Lar
Image:Baumgardener's Covered Bridge Inside Center 3008px.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baumgardener's_Covered_Bridge_Inside_Center_3008px.jpg
 License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Photo by and (c)2006 Derek Ramsey (Ram-Man)
Image:CaissonSchematic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CaissonSchematic.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Guilford vermont covered bridge 20040820.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guilford_vermont_covered_bridge_20040820.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Accurizer, JB, Ronaldino, 1 anonymous edits
Image:EyebarDetail.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EyebarDetail.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was
Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Bridgegroningen.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bridgegroningen.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anthony Appleyard, Iijjccoo, Ytny, 3
anonymous edits
Image:IRBSideViewClip.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IRBSideViewClip.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: CREDIT: Photo courtesy of Rutahsa Adventures
www.rutahsa.com - uploaded with permission by User:Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:AdelaideSkybridgeS7390.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AdelaideSkybridgeS7390.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Leonard G.
Image:San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge Retrofit 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Francisco_Oakland_Bay_Bridge_Retrofit_3.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at en.wikipedia
Image:Guilford vermont bridge covered bridge interior.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guilford_vermont_bridge_covered_bridge_interior.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Redjar at en.wikipedia
Image:16 Bay With Link 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:16_Bay_With_Link_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Cabledawg at
en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by 293.xx.xxx.xx at en.wikipedia.
Image:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at
en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 399

Image:Packhorse bridge in Marsden, West Yorkshire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Packhorse_bridge_in_Marsden,_West_Yorkshire.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:chris_j_wood
Image:Camden Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Camden_Bridge.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Tim Kiser (w:User:Malepheasant)
Image:Paying_Toll_on_passing_a_Bridge_From_a_Painted_Window_in_the_Cathedral_of_Tournay_Fifteenth_Century.png  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paying_Toll_on_passing_a_Bridge_From_a_Painted_Window_in_the_Cathedral_of_Tournay_Fifteenth_Century.png  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Breno, Pwqn, 5 anonymous edits
Image:Grammene-vierendeelbridge 20030618.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grammene-vierendeelbridge_20030618.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Arafi, BLueFiSH.as, Pau, Ronaldino, Wiebevl
Image:Dundas.aqueduct.300805.arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dundas.aqueduct.300805.arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arpingstone,
Dave.Dunford, Geni, InfantGorilla, Ronaldino, Yarl
Image:WeighBridge5500.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WeighBridge5500.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at
en.wikipedia
Image:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader
was Montrealais at en.wikipedia
Image:wooden bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wooden_bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Miniwildebeest
Image:The Under Side of Kintai Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Under_Side_of_Kintai_Bridge.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: pastaitaken
Image:Alter Strom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alter_Strom.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Alabama, User:Fir0002
Image:IMG RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_RoyalCanalnrKinnegad5706w.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
uploader was Sarah777 at en.wikipedia
Image:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MurtfaltalrDanubeChannel.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:CristianChirita
Image:caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Arpingstone
Image:pontcysyllte aqueduct arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontcysyllte_aqueduct_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adambro, Arpingstone,
Grahamec, Tomer T
Image:Kaiserkanal01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaiserkanal01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Airunp, Fb78, Ibn Battuta,
Immanuel Giel, JackyR, Olivier2, Peter17, Ronaldino, Sanbec
File:Thal Canal.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thal_Canal.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Khalid Mahmood,
Zaccarias, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Canal system in Lowell, Massachusetts.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal_system_in_Lowell,_Massachusetts.png  License: unknown  Contributors:
Mark M. Howland, Margy Chrisney
Image:Canals USA 1825.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canals_USA_1825.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Allen Johnson
File:Viewing man-made canals in the marsh in Louisiana, Barataria Basin.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viewing_man-made_canals_in_the_marsh_in_Louisiana,_Barataria_Basin.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Dr. Terry McTigue, NOAA, NOS,
ORR. Original uploader was Mattisse at en.wikipedia
Image:KeizersgrachtReguliersgrachtAmsterdam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KeizersgrachtReguliersgrachtAmsterdam.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors:
User:Massimo Catarinella
File:Griboyedov Canal 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Griboyedov_Canal_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Evgeny
Gerashchenko
Image:Panama Canal Miraflores Locks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panama_Canal_Miraflores_Locks.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Stan Shebs
Image:Amsterdamcannel333.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amsterdamcannel333.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
uploader was Iijjccoo at en.wikipedia
Image:Hoover Dam Nevada Luftaufnahme.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoover_Dam_Nevada_Luftaufnahme.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Mikano Original uploader was Florian.Arnd at de.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Mikano at de.wikipedia.
Image:Glen canyon dam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glen_canyon_dam.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Agunther
File:Harbaqa Dam, Syria. Pic 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harbaqa_Dam,_Syria._Pic_02.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Armin Hermann
File:Roman Cornalvo dam, Extremadura, Spain. Pic 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_Cornalvo_dam,_Extremadura,_Spain._Pic_01.jpg  License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Gun Powder Ma, Justass, Karshan, Rehman
File:Anaicut.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anaicut.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Melody rajan at en.wikipedia
File:Gordon Dam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gordon_Dam.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: w:User:Noodle snacksNoodle snacks
File:Barrage Daniel-Johnson2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barrage_Daniel-Johnson2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Bouchecl
File:Grand Coulee Dam spillway.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Coulee_Dam_spillway.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
David Brodbeck from Seattle, WA, USA
File:Hoover dam from air.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:User:snakefischsnakefisch, editor
w:User:Agateller
File:Prakasam-barrage-reservoir-view.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prakasam-barrage-reservoir-view.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Chintohere
File:Ataturk-full.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ataturk-full.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Demirel
File:RedridgeSteelDam02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RedridgeSteelDam02.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jet Lowe
File:Dam Timber Crib.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dam_Timber_Crib.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Photographer: w:Jet LoweJet Lowe
File:Dam Coffer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dam_Coffer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Duk, Juiced lemon, Rehman, Ronaldino, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Water turbine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_turbine.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Image:Hydroelectric dam.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hydroelectric_dam.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Tomia
Image:Llyn Brianne spillway.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Llyn_Brianne_spillway.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Velela
File:Takato Dam discharge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Takato_Dam_discharge.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Qurren
Image:Dam-pollution.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dam-pollution.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:TwoWings
Image:Teton Dam failure.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teton_Dam_failure.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation
Image:International special sign for works and installations containing dangerous forces.svg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_special_sign_for_works_and_installations_containing_dangerous_forces.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: user:odder
Image:Taiwan JungHua Dam.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taiwan_JungHua_Dam.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Vegafish
Image:Lakevyrnwysummer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lakevyrnwysummer.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Sean the
Spook. Original uploader was Sean the Spook at en.wikipedia
Image:Stocks Reservoir.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stocks_Reservoir.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Karlos87
Image:GibsonR.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GibsonR.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Citypeek
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 400

Image:KupferbachStauseeAachen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KupferbachStauseeAachen.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0

 Contributors: User:Túrelio
Image:volta lake.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volta_lake.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Lake Kariba.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Kariba.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Martin H., Mehmet Karatay, Paobac, TheDJ,
TommyBee, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Satellite image of Noordoostpolder, Netherlands (5.78E 52.71N).png  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Satellite_image_of_Noordoostpolder,_Netherlands_(5.78E_52.71N).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BLueFiSH.as, Galwaygirl,
HenkvD, Reinoutr, Siebrand
Image:Gemaal_de_Leyens.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gemaal_de_Leyens.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Caseman
Image:Nagasaki bay siebold.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagasaki_bay_siebold.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kilom691, Magog the Ogre,
Svdmolen, Zscout370
Image:Isolda-di-lolando-site-photo-3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isolda-di-lolando-site-photo-3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Sobesurfski
Image:Skrpjela.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skrpjela.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Milan B. at
en.wikipedia
Image:Satellite_image_of_Flevopolder,_Netherlands_(5.48E_52.43N).png  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Satellite_image_of_Flevopolder,_Netherlands_(5.48E_52.43N).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Galwaygirl, HenkvD, Paulbe, Red devil
666
Image:Kansai closeup.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kansai_closeup.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Christian.Winterstein, El., Ronaldino, Sam916,
Väsk, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Palm Island Resort.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palm_Island_Resort.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Commander Leroy Chiao
File:Northstar Offshore Island Beaufort Sea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Northstar_Offshore_Island_Beaufort_Sea.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Joint Pipeline Office
File:PortlandQuarry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PortlandQuarry.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wilson44691 at en.wikipedia
File:Delabole slate quarry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delabole_slate_quarry.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DuncanHill, Multichill, Smalljim
File:Stone quarry adelaide.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stone_quarry_adelaide.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Peripitus
File:SandersQuarryIndiana.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SandersQuarryIndiana.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Sphinxcat at
en.wikipedia
File:Sloot.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sloot.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was GerardM at nl.wikipedia
File:Ouse Ditches.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ouse_Ditches.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Matthew Matic
File:Waterplanten sloot alphen aan den rijn.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waterplanten_sloot_alphen_aan_den_rijn.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: User:Ellywa
Image:Perth1964.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perth1964.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Gazjo
Image:East Coast Park Panorama, Mar 06.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:East_Coast_Park_Panorama,_Mar_06.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jacklee,
Karshan, Sengkang
Image:Satellite image of Flevopolder, Netherlands (5.48E 52.43N).png  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Satellite_image_of_Flevopolder,_Netherlands_(5.48E_52.43N).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Galwaygirl, HenkvD, Paulbe, Red devil
666
Image:bay area fill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bay_area_fill.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Image:Hong Kong reclamation.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hong_Kong_reclamation.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Millevache, Mircea, Shizhao, 5
anonymous edits
License 401

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
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