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A
PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT
ON
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TAKEN AT
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SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

DEGREE


RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Session 2010-2011

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY
Mrs. Kuntal Gaur KALRA CHIRAG
Seminar Coordinator Computer Engg
VII SEM CS VII SEM CS C
BMIT-JAIPUR 07EC024
BMIT-JAIPUR

DEPARTMENT OF CS & IT

BALDEV RAM MIRDHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

 
  
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Summer training is an important part of the engineering curriculum. The B.Tech. course
summer training helps a student in getting acquainted with the manner in which his/her
knowledge is being practically used outside his/her institute and this is normally different
from what he/she has learnt from books. Hence, when the student switches from the process
of learning to that of implementing his/her knowledge, he/she finds an abrupt change. This is
exactly why summer training session during the B.Tech. curriculum becomes all the more
important. Summer training is prescribed for the student of Technical College as a part of the
four year degree course of engineering by the AICTE. We are required to undergo summer
training for a period of 30 days in our 6th sem before the commencement of final exams. The
main objectives of summer training are:

A Correlate courses of study with the way industry or potential workplace operates
A Its business or work using technology.
A Work on implementing what has been learned in school, especially true for Computer
Science under-graduates.








 
  
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I am over whelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my depth to all those
who have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity and into something
concrete.

I am very thankful to my guide Mrs. KUNTAL GAUR (project coordinator) for her valuable
help. She was always there to show me the right track when i needed her help. With the help
of her valuable suggestions, guidance and encouragement, i was able to perform this project
work.

I would also like to thank Mr. Rajeev(ccna faculty) and Mr. Aarif Sheikh(IIHT Manager)
who helped me In every way I wanted.

I would also like to thank my colleagues, who often helped and gave me support at critical
junctures during the making to this project.

KALRA CHIRAG

VII SEM CS

 

 
  
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 INDEX
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. CERTIFICATE«««««««««««««««««««««««««..2
2. PREFACE«««««««««««««««««««««««««««..3
3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS«««««««««««««««««««..«.4
4. LOCAL AREA NETWORK«««««««««««..«««««««««6
5. WIDE AREA NETWORKING OVERVIEW .«««««««««««..«..10
6. OSI MODEL««««..««««««««««««««««««««««12
7. DEVICES AT DIFFERENT LAYERS««««««««««««««««.16
8.LAN TECHNOLOGIES ««««««««««««««««««««.«..16
9. ROUTER ADMINISTRATION «««««««««««««««««.«..19
10.THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE««««.««««««««««««««24
11. IP SUBNETTING «...«... «««««...«««««««««««««««.26
12. IP ROUTING ««««««««««...«««««««««««««««..27
13. LAN SWITCHING.«««««««««««««««««««««««...35
14. VLAN««««««««««««««««««««««.«««««««36
15. ACL«««««««««««««««««««««««««««.«««36
16. CONCLUSION «««««««««««««««««««««««««..38
17. REFRENCES««««««««««««««««««««««««««..39

 

 
  
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BRIEF ABOUT CCNA:-

LOCAL AREA NETWORK
A local area network (LAN) connects personal computers, printers, and other computer
resources together within a building or campus. Many schools, offices, and even homes now
have LANs. These networks allow printers, as well as documents and projects, to be shared.
LANs also enable computers to talk to one another and are often used to share Internet access
across all of the computers in a building or school. Most LANs use wires, or cables, to
connect computers and other peripheral devices. Inmost networks, a network cable (which
generally looks like an oversized telephone cord) connects a computer to a network jack in
the wall. Sometimes, in classrooms or business offices, many computers are connected to an
intermediate hub or switch, not directly to the network jack. The hub or switch into which all
of the computers are plugged is the device that is connected to the network jack. In both
cases, the network jack is connected to a small router by another cable. Printers are also often
shared using this method of hubs and switches. Some LANs are now wireless. Wireless
LANs are fundamentally the same as wired LANs, but the cabling is replaced by small
"radios" that are contained inside the computers. Wireless LANs are generally somewhat
slower than the wired networks, but they are much easier to set up and allow users to move
their machines around without having to reconnect network cables. Wireless LANs have
moved into the mainstream in schools and classrooms during the last few years; however, it is
important to note that security is much more difficult when using a wireless network.
Additionally, the adoption of competing protocols is creating some confusion in the
marketplace. Agencies need to select a wireless protocol with care, considering how the
network can be upgraded and whether it is compatible with existing wireless protocols.
Where a LAN may connect all of the computers within a building or campus, a wide area
network (WAN) connects multiple LANs. Many districts now have WANs connecting all of
the schools within the district for the sharing of Internet access, selected files, or other
resources.

What Are Servers, Routers, and Firewalls?

LANs often involve a number of different components, including a dizzying variety of
servers, switches, routers, firewalls, and the like. This section provides descriptions of many
of these items.

Servers
While servers often are spoken of in almost mystical tones, they are really just powerful
computers running specialized software designed to share files, manage printers, or perform
any other specialized task assigned. Most of these computers are powerful enough to do more
than one thing at a time; for example, a single network server might be a file server, a print
server, and a mail server simultaneously.

 
  
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File server.
A file server is essentially the computer equivalent of a filing cabinet. Documents,
spreadsheets, and other (computer) files are stored on a file server, just as paper documents
are stored in a filing cabinet. The file server's job is to make those files available to computer
users on the LAN and, when appropriate, allow the users to update the files.

Print server.
A print server is a piece of software or hardware that manages print jobs submitted by users.
When a document is sent to a networked printer, the print server receives the job and queues
it (puts it in line behind previously submitted jobs). When a job gets to the front of the queue,
the print server sends it to the printer. It is not necessary to buy an individual printer for each
personal computer. Users in classrooms or offices often share printers, since not everyone is
typically printing at the same time. This option can save an agency a great deal of money.

Mail server.
The third common type of server is a mail server. The mail server acts as the conduit to the
outside world as messages are sent and received. Some servers are set up so that all of the
mail stays on the mail server until a user actively deletes it. In other configurations, the user
is able to move the mail from the server to the desktop computer. This process, called
"downloading," uses less space on the mail server.

Router
A router is a piece of equipment that acts as the interface between a local network and the
Internet, by routing traffic from one to the other. A router may be a computer dedicated to
managing the traffic of a WAN, or it may be a piece of software running on a computer that
is configured for other tasks as well. Routers also may be used in LANs to route internal
traffic.

Firewall
A critical component of any network is a firewall. A firewall in layman's terms is a wall that
acts as a firebreak²it keeps a fire from spreading. In this sense, a computer firewall keeps a
network secure from hackers (the "arsonists" of the Internet) by denying access to all or part
of the network. Management of firewalls requires a great deal of expertise. While the network
administrator must ensure that no unwanted traffic can enter the network from outside, a level
of access to and from the Internet must be created that will permit authorized users to conduct
their business safely and efficiently. A solid, well-designed firewall is critical to ensure that
only authorized users have access to a restricted network. Like routers and servers, firewalls
are available as either hardware or software. Choosing a firewall for a particular network is
an issue best addressed at the local level, after reviewing the options available.

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Server vs Desktop Computer

Advances in technology have blurred the distinctions between the computer on the desktop
and a network server. Computing power has continued to grow exponentially²in fact, most
users do not need all the computing power available tothem (at least for now). The same is
true of network servers, which have become so powerful that some network administrators
run applications, in addition to the server software, from the network server, rather than
installing applications directly on each of the computers connected to the network. Servers
are capable of managing a much greater workload today than they were in past years.
Running applications from a server has a number of advantages. One key advantage is in
licensing, since it is much easier to track usage. Another is that local users areprevented from
altering the configuration of applications, which can create software failure and cause
problems for other users. In addition, it is much easier to upgrade software since only one
copy needs to be upgraded, instead of upgrading one copy for each personal computer.
Applications run from a network server, however, are often comparatively slower than
applications running directly on a desktop computer. Another benefit to server-run
applications is the cost-saving use of thin clients. Thinclients are basic, low-cost computers
with insufficient power to run sophisticatedsoftware applications, but with enough power to
access applications installed on theserver.

Connecting to the Internet

There are many different ways to connect to the Internet. Agencies can generally purchase
several different kinds of on-ramps to the information superhighway based on their particular
need. Depending on the kind of connection to the Internet, access to information may be fast
or slow. The key to Internet speed is bandwidth. Bandwidth refers to the amount of data
transferred within a specified time. Greater bandwidth increases the speed of data transfer. A
general overview of the various types of Internet connections is listed below, starting with the
slowest (smallest bandwidth) and moving up to the faster (greater bandwidth) technologies.
Cost and service quality can vary widely. Use of a competitive bid process, with an
appropriate Request for Proposal (RFP), can better enable agencies to obtain needed service
while controlling cost. In other words, the agency should not commit to service from a
provider based on advertisements. Acronyms and abbreviations referenced in this appendix
are defined in the glossary. A reference table is provided at the end of this appendix for quick
comparison of the various Internet connection options discussed below.

Internet Service Providers

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide the portals, or access, that allow computer users to
connect to the Internet. There are numerous ways for education agencies to connect with an
ISP. Before selecting an ISP, the agency should determine its needs for bandwidth, speed,
and services. The agency should secure the services of an ISP through the RFP process.
Using the RFP process, the ISP should be required to identify the available connection speed
and the reliability of the system, sometimes measured by the amount of time the ISP's
services were down during the previous 6 months. Although most ISPs will advertise a high
connection speed, the agency should determine whether the full bandwidth is available at
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all times by requesting an assessment of the provider's typical bandwidth and connection
speed at different times of the day and on different days of the week.

Cable Modems
Cable modems have become, in recent years, the most popular broadband technology for
home computer users. The cable modem uses the same coaxial cable that carries cable TV
signals for high-speed data transmission. While not as robust as fiber optic connections, cable
modems can provide similar quality service at a fraction of the cost. The quality of a cable
modem connection, however, is dependent on the overall quality of the cable modem
provider's network, and the more people accessing the provider's network at the same time,
the slower each individual's connection to the Internet will be. Speed ranges from under 1 to
8 Mbps; costs are generally $100 to $250 per month for commercial users. Because of the
historically strong connection between education and the cable television community, many
schools are using cable modems. When contracting to provide cable service to a city or
county, the cable company typically makes the commitment to provide one cable connection
and one modem to each school within the service area of the cable company. There are cases,
however, in which cable companies have provided additional services.

Satellite
Some larger agencies have considered buying space on a satellite to upload and download
files. While the cost of transmitting information over wires would be removed, satellite
reliability is debatable. Weather (such as rain) or even sunspots can affect satellite
transmission.

Cellular Wireless
Traditionally, Internet access over cellular telephone networks has been slow and somewhat
unreliable. Wireless technology, however, is coming of age, and new, significantly faster
Internet connection services are offered throughout the United States. While these "third
generation wireless" services (generally referred to as 3G services) are not necessarily
suitable for building use, they may suit the needs of individuals within the agency as they
maintain contact with each other during the work day. Already, cellular phones are replacing
"walkie-talkies" in many secondary schools. It is still too soon to tell how much t hese
services will cost, but they will probably be metered, with cost depending upon the amount of
usage.

Fixed Wireless
Fixed wireless refers to the operation of wireless devices in a fixed location. Unlike mobile
wireless devices, which are battery powered, fixed wireless devices are electrically powered.
The basic idea behind fixed wireless is that the traditional wired connection (e.g., fiber optic,
telephone line, or cable TV line) is replaced by a high speed wireless connection. Depending
on the technology, bad weather (such as rain) can significantly interfere with fixed wireless
services. This service is usually most attractive in communities where traditional wired
connections are not available; however, the technology is also suitable for urban are as.
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Fixed wireless speed varies considerably, from under 1 Mbps to upwards of 15 Mbps. Cost
also varies widely

Wide-Area Networking Overview

Cisco IOS software provides a range of wide-area networking capabilities to fit almost every
network environment need. Cisco offers cell relay via the Switched Multimegabit Data
Service (SMDS), circuit switching via ISDN, packet switching via Frame Relay, and the
benefits of both circuit and packet switching via Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). LAN
emulation (LANE) provides connectivity between ATM and other LAN types.

Objectives
The 
  

 
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 presents a set of general
guidelines for configuring the following software components:

ÈATM

ÈBroadband Access: PPP and Routed Bridge Encapsulation

ÈFrame Relay

ÈFrame Relay-ATM Internetworking

ÈSMDS

ÈLink Access Procedure, Balanced and X.25

Organization
The 



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includes the following chapters:

ÈConfiguring ATM

ÈConfiguring Broadband Access: PPP and Routed Bridge Encapsulation

ÈConfiguring Frame Relay

ÈConfiguring Frame Relay-ATM Interworking

Introduction to NETWORKING
Network is the method to share hardware resources and software resources. We can share the
resources with the help of operating system like windows, Linux, UNIX etc. To connect
multiple networks we have to use internetworking devices like router, bridge, layer 3,
switches etc.

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Administrator model for Networks

 We can say that there are four components which are required to create networks

1. Software
2. Protocol Stack
3. Network Interface Card
4. Media

Software
Networking software can be divided in two categories:

Server software: The software used to provide a particular service.

Client software: The software which is used to access service provided by server^

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Design Considerations
Server software and Client software should be compatible.

 
  
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Protocol stack must be same.

Connectivity can be performed via switch/hub etc.
If NIC standards are different then translational bridge is required.
If media is different then Trans-Receiver is required.

OSI Model
OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement networks. OSI model
provides following advantages: -

(i) Designing of network will be standards based.

(ii) Development time of new technologies will be reduced.
(iii)Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
(iv) Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easier.

Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates user
interface between application software and protocol stack^

 
  
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‰ Presentation Layer: -
This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs other
function like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.

Jpg file
Online song

‰ Session Layer: -
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.

Telephone trunk

‰ Transport Layer: -
Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like

Positive Acknowledgement & Response

Error checking Flow Control
Buffering Windowing
Multiplexing Sequencing

Connection Oriented Communication

 

 
  
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Connection less Communication

   
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 X Error checking
 Transport layer generates cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and forward the
CRC value to destination along with data. The other end will generate CRC
according to data and match the CRC value with received value. If both are
same, then data is accepted otherwise discarded.

(ii) Flow Control

 Flow control is used to control the flow of data during communication. For
this purpose following methods are used: -

(a) Buffering
 Buffer is the temporary storage area. All the data is stored in the buffer
memory and when communication ability is available the data is forward
to another.

(b) Windowing
Windowing is the maximum amounts of the data that can be send to
destination without receiving Acknowledgement. It is limit for buffer to
send data without getting Acknowledgement.

(c) Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is used for multiple application on same IP ^

(iii) Sequencing

Transport layer add sequence number to data, so that out of sequence data can
be detected and rearranged in proper manner

(vi)Positive Acknowledgement and Response

            

 
  
  
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Network Layer
This layer performs function like logical addressing and path determination. Each
networking device has a physical address that is MAC address. But logical addressing
is easier to communicate on large size network.
Its other responsibilities are:

Fragmentation Quality of Service

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Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of addressing
is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some examples of logical
addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.

Path determination
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and ARP etc. to
perform the path determination for different routing protocol^

Data Link Layer

The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers

‰ Logical Link Control

‰ Media Access Control

‰ Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the NIC to
delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link Control are ARPA
(Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.


‰ Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and establish the
identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of Media Access Control are
CSMA/CD, Token Passing.


Physical Layer
Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this layer deals with
the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform modulation
and demodulation as required^

 
  
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Data Encapsulation

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Devices at different Layers

Physical Layer Devices
Hub, Modem, Media, DCE (Data comm. Equipment)
CSU/DSU, Repeater, Media converter

Data Link Layer

NIC, Switch, Bridge

Network Layer Device

Router, Layer 3 Switch

All Layers Device

PC, Firewall


DCE: - DCE convert the bits into signal & send them on media.
FDDI ± Fiber Distributed Data Interface
Switch forwards frames on the base of MAC address.
Router forwards packets on the base of IP address.

LAN TECHNOLOGIES
ETHERNET
In these days, we use Ethernet with switches and in switches the technology is made
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance). So this reason Ethernet is best compare with Token Ring,
FDDI & Wi-Fi.

  
  
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LAN segmentation using bridge.

 

Collision domain

A group of pc, in which collision can occur, is called a collision domain.

Broadcast domain

A group of pc in which broadcast message is delivered is called broadcast domain

LAN segmentation using Switches

Advantages of Switches: -

1.Bandwidth will not be shared and overall throughput will depend on

wire speed of the switch. Wire speed is also called switching capacity
measured in mbps or gbps.
Minimum port on switches = 4
Maximum port on switches = 48
2. Any time access technology.
3. One to one communication so that network will be more secures.
4.Switches will perform micro segmentation and no collision will occur
in network

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(2) Flash RAM

Flash Ram is the permanent read/write memory. This memory is used
to store one or more copies of router o/s. Router o/s is also called IOS
(Internetwork Operating System).
w Flash Ram stores the only o/s.
The size of flash ram in the router is 4mb to 128mb. The flash ram may
be available in one of the following three packages: -

SIMM Flash: Single In-Line Memory Module

PCMCIA Flash: Personal Computer Memory Card Interface Architecture

Compact Flash: X

) 

(3) NVRAM
NVRAM is a ³Non Volatile Random Access Memory´. It is used to
store the configuration of the Router. The size of NVRAM is 8 KB to
512 KB.

(4) RAM
 Ram of the router is divided into two logical parts.

(i) Primary RAM

(ii) Shared RAM


Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: -

(a) Running copy of IOS.

(b) Running configuration
X Routing table
(d) ARP table (IP address to MAC address)
(e) Processor & other data structure


Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from different
interfaces. Size of ram in a router may vary from 2 mb to 512 mb. The types of
memory that may be present in a ram are: -

(a) DRAM Dynamic RAM

(b) EDORAM Extended Data Out RAM
(c) SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic RAM

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(5) BIOS ROM

 The BIOS ROM is the permanent ROM. This memory is used to store
following program & Routines: -

(i) Boot strap loader (doing booting)

(ii) Power on self test routines
(iii) Incomplete IOS
X! ROM Monitor (ROM-MON

Types of routers:-
(1) Fixed configuration router
(2) Modular router
(3) Chassis based router

Access Router using console

Connect PC serial port to router Console using console cable.

Click the Start button on the Windows Taskbar, and select Programs > Accessories >
Communications > HyperTerminal. HyperTerminal launches and displays the Connection
Description dialog box. Type any name

Router Access Modes

When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes. According
to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.

 
  
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User mode

Privileged mode

Global configuration

Line configuration mode

Interface configuration mode

Routing configuration mode



Configuring Passwords
There are five types of password available in a router

p Console Password

router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

) Vty Password

router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit


  Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

 Enable Password

router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit


 
  
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 Enable Secret Password

Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in configuration where as
enable secret password is the encrypted password with MD5 (Media Digest 5) algorithm.

Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit

Encryption all passwords

All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. We can encrypt all
passwords using level 7 algorithm. The command to encrypt all passwords are:

Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#service password-encryption

Managing Configuration
There are two types of configurations present in a router

(1) Startup Configuration (2) Running Configuration

Startup configuration   stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to save

settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in to the Primary
RAM^

Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a command for
configuration, this command is written in the running configuration^

To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration

To display startup configuration

Router#show startup-configuration

To erase old configuration

Router#erase startup-configuration
Router#reload

 
  
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Save[y/n]:n

To save configuration
Router#copy running-config startup-config
Or
Router#write


To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-config running-config

Telnet access*
Telnet is a virtual port through which we can access router command line using interfaces




  

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To accept telnet connection we have to configure following options on router:

Configure IP on interface
Configure VTY, enable secret password
On client PC test connectivity with router & use command ùtelnet <router_ip>¶

THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Application Layer
This layer contains a large no. of protocols. Each protocol is designed to act as server
& client. Some of protocol will need connection oriented. TCP and others may need
connection less UDP for data transfer.

Application layer use port no¶s to identity each application at Transport layer. This
layer performs most of functions, which are specified by the Application, Presentation, and
Session layer of OSI model.

Transport Layer
Two protocols are available on Transport layer

Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol

p Transmission Control Protocol:

 
  
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TCP performs connection-oriented communication. Its responsibilities are: -

Error Checking Acknowledgement

Sequencing Flow Control
Windowing

‰ Source Port and Destination Port fields together identify the two local end points of the
particular connection. A port plus its hosts¶ IP address forms a unique end point. Ports are
used to communicate with the upper layer and distinguish different application sessions on the
host.
‰ The Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields specify bytes in the byte stream.
The sequence number is used for segment differentiation and is useful for reordering or
retransmitting lost segments. The Acknowledgment number is set to the next segment
expected.
‰ Data offset or TCP header length indicates how many 4-byte words are contained in the TCP
header.
‰ The Windowfield indicates how many bytes can be transmitted before an acknowledgment is
received.
‰ The Checksum field is used to provide extra reliability and security to the TCP segment.
‰ The actual user data are included after the end of the header.

0 User Datagram Protocol

UDP is considered to be a connectionless protocol. It leaves reliability to be handled by the

application layer. All it cares about is fast transmission.

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Internet Layer
The main function of Internet layer is routing and providing a single network interface to the upper
layers protocols. Upper or lower protocols have not any functions relating to routing. To prevent this,
IP provides one single network interface for the upper layer protocols. After that it is the job of IP and
the various Network Access protocols to get along and work together. The main protocols are used in
Internet layer:-

1) Internet Protocol (IP)

2) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
3) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
4) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
5) Proxy ARP

Internet Protocol
This protocol works at internet layer. It is responsible for logical addressing, defining type of
service and fragmentation^


  
  
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‰ Source Port and Destination Port fields together identify the two local end points of the
particular connection. A port plus its hosts IP address forms a unique end point. Ports are used
to communicate with the upper layer and distinguish different application sessions on the
host.
‰ The Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields specify bytes in the byte stream.
The sequence number is used for segment differentiation and is useful for reordering or
retransmitting lost segments. The Acknowledgment number is set to the next segment
expected.
‰ Data offset or TCP header length indicates how many 4-byte words are contained in the TCP
header.
‰ Window indicates how many bytes can be transmitted before an acknowledgment is received.
‰ Checksum is used to provide extra reliability and security to the TCP segment.
‰ User data represents the actual data which are always included at end of the header^

IP Subnet
In TCP/IP by default three sizes of networks are available: -

(1) Class A -224 PC -> 16777216

(2) Class B - 216 PC-> 65536

(3) Class C ± 28 PC -> 256

In subneting, we will divide class A,B & C network into small size sub networks. This
procedure is called subneting.

Subneting is performed with the help of subnet mask. There are two types of subneting that
we performed: -

(1) FLSM Fixed Length Subnet Mask

(2) VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask
IP Routing
When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then we have
to use IP Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing between the
networks. A router will perform following functions for routing.

(1) Path determination

(2) Packet forwarding

p Path determination 
The process of obtaining path in routing table is called path determination. There are three
different methods to which router can learn path.

i) Automatic detection of directly connected n/w.

ii) Static & Default routing
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iii) Dynamic routing



 Packet forwarding

It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will perform packet
forwarding only if route is available in the routing table.

Static Routing
In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify routes for
different networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork topology and then
specify the route for each n/w that is not directly connected to the router



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Router>en

Router0#conf t

Router(config)#int s1/0

Router(config)#ip ad 192.168.0.1 255.255.255.0

Router(config)#no shut

Router(config)#clock rate 64000

Router(config)#exit

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Router>en

Router1#conf t

Router(config)#int s 1/0

Router(config)#ip ad 192.168.0.2 255.255.255.0

Router(config)#no shut

Router(config)#exit

Router#conf t

Router(config)#int s 1/1

Router(config)#ip ad 172.168.0.1 255.255.0.0

Router(config)#no shut

Router(config)#clock rate 64000

Router(config)#exit

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Router>en

Router2#conf t

Router(config)#int s 1/0

Router(config)#ip ad 172.168.0.2 255.255.0.0

Router(config)#no shut

Router(config)#exit

  
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For Router 0

Router0#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.0.2

Router0#ip route 30.0.0.0. 255.0.0.0 192.168.0.2

Router0#ip route 172.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.2

For Routert 1

Router1#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.0.1

Router1#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 172.168.0.2

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For Router 2

Router2#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 172.168.0.1

Router2#ip route 20.0.0.0. 255.0.0.0 172.168.0.1

Router2#ip route 192.168.0.1 255.0.0.0 172.168.0.1

Advantages of static routing

(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router^
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.

Disadvantages of static routing

X 1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually^


Routing Information Protocol



Features of RIP: -

‰ Distance Vector
‰ Open standard
‰ Broadcast Updates
(255.255.255.255)
‰ Metric - Hop Count Timers
Update 30 sec
Invalid 180 sec
Hold 180 sec
Flush 240 sec

‰ Loop Control

Split Horizon
Triggered Updates
Maximum Hop Count
Hold Down

‰ Maximum Hop Count 15

‰ Administrative Distance 120
‰ Equal Path Cost Load Balancing
‰ Maximum Load path 6 Default 4
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‰ Does not support VLSM

‰ Does not support Autonomous system

RIP CONFIGURATION
Router 0

Router(config)#network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router(config)#network 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.0

Router(config)#network 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0.

Router 1

Router(config)#network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0.

Router(config)#network 30.0.0.0. 255.0.0.0.

Router(config)#network 172.168.0.0 255.255.0.0.

Router 2

Router(config)#network 10.0.0.0. 255.0.0.0

Router(config)#network 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0.

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Router(config)#network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router(config)#network 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router 4

Router(config)#network 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router(config)#network 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router 5

Router(config)#network 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0

Router(config)#network 50.0.0.0. 255.0.0.0

Link State Routing

This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under

(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.

(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighborship table. Hello
packets are send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.

(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state information
from one neighbor is also forwarded to other neighbor.

(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state advertisement
received from different routers.

(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table^

Problems of Link State Routing

The main problems of link state routing are: -

(1) High bandwidth consumption.

(2) More hardware resources required that is processor and memory (RAM)

The routing protocols, which use link state routing are: -

(1) OSPF (2) EIGRP

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Features: -

* Cisco proprietary
* Hybrid protocol
Link State

 
  
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Distance Vector
* Multicast Updates using
Address 224.0.0.10
* Support ASN
* Support VLSM
* Automatic Route Summarization
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Metric (32 bit composite)
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability
MTU
* Neighbor Recovery
* Partial updates
* Triggered updates
* Backup Route
* Multi Protocol Routing


Open Shortest Path First

Features: -

* Link State
* Open standard
* Multicast updates
224.0.0.5
224.0.0.6
* Support VLSM
* Support Area similar to AS
* Manual Route Summarization
* Hierarchical model
* Metric Bandwidth
* Equal path cost load balancing
* Support authentication
* Unlimited hop count




 
  
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LAN Switching
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet networks. Switches forward the traffic
on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which MAC addresses
and Port No are used to perform switching decision. Working of bridge and switch is similar
to each other.

Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: -

Types of switches based on working

p Store & Forward
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and start forwarding data to the
destination.
0 Cut through
This switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of the frame are received.
 Fragment-free
This switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error checking and then start forwarding data.
 Adaptive cut-through
It changes its mode according the condition. If there are errors in frames then it changes its mode
to Store & Forward.

Types of switches based on management

(1) Manageable switches
(2) Non-Manageable switches
(3) Semi-Manageable switches


Types of switches based on OSI layer

X 1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)


Types of switches based on OSI layer

(1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)


Switches based on hierarchical model

(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches
(3) Access layer switches


 
  
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VLAN (Virtual LAN)

VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices,
which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices of
different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan devices
will use different n/w addresses. Vlan provides following advantages: -

(1) Logical Segmentation of network (2) Enhance network security

Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP)

With the help of VTP, we can simplify the process of creating Vlan. In multiple switches, we
can configure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will be configured as VTP
client. We will create Vlans on VTP server switch. The server will send periodic updates to
VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans from the update received from the VTP
server.

VTP server
VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans. The server will send
periodic updates for VTP clients.

VTP client
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The client will receive and
forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp update.

VTP Transparent
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able to create,
delete and modify Vlans locally. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and will
not learn any information from received vtp update.

Access Control List

ACL are the basic security feature that is required in any network to control the flow
of traffic. Most of time our network may have servers and clients for which traffic control is
required. We can also use ACL to classify the traffic. ACLs are used in features like QOS
(Quality of Service), Prioritize traffic and interesting traffic for ISDN.

Types of ACL based on Protocol: -

(1) IP Access Control List

(2) IPX Access Control List
(3) Appletalk Access Control List

Types of ACL based on Feature: -

(1) Standard ACL
(2) Extended ACL



  
  
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Types of ACL based on Access mode: -

X 1) Numbered ACL
(2) Named ACL
Types of ACL based on Order of rules: -
(1) Deny, permit
(2) Permit, deny
Types of ACL based on direction: -
(1) Inbound ACL
(2) Outbound ACL

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 CONCLUSION
So after making my project report and completing my summer training I have concluded
many new things and now I learnt the importance of summer training, and learnt about the
experience of working in an industry and how the atmosphere is in an IT industry.

I also learnt very deeply about networking and all its fundamentals and so I can say that I
have the potential to withstand in any networks related company and I can survive there with
my abilities and qualities I have gained during my summer training.

I also got a very good experience to work with my faculties and my seniors who worked very
generously and I learnt how to tackle every problem coming between your way to success.

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 REFERENCES
Websites from which I got the reference about my content
A www.Google.com
A www.cisco.com
A www.w3schools.com
A www.docstoc.com


Reference Books
A Cisco Press
A kross & ross
A Tenenbaum


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