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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to EMI
EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference) is the disruption of operation of an electronic device when it is in the vicinity of an electromagnetic field in the radio frequency spectrum that is caused by another electronic device. EMI consists of any unwanted, conducted or radiated signals of electrical origin that can cause degradation in equipment performance. Interference also leads to data loss, picture quality degradation on monitors, and other problems with PC, or problems with other devices such as television sets and radios. EMI refers to how different sets of electronic equipment interact with each other, usually in a negative manner. The recent advance in semiconductor devices and large scale integration has dramatically reduced the size of electronic equipment while increasing the probability for electromagnetic interference between the different systems and sub systems. Todays electronic designers must make sure their solutions work in an environment of high EMI. It is not practical to ask new product designers to test their equipment under all conditions and possible end-user configurations, therefore strict emissions regulations have been established. In the United States the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the use of radio and wire communications. Part of its responsibility concerns the control of electromagnetic interference. The standards for the allowed levels of electromagnetic emissions are outlined in part 15 of FCC rules and regulations. These rules apply to almost all electronic equipments. Under these rules, limits are placed on maximum allowable radiated emissions in the frequency range between 30 to 1000 MHz and on the maximum allowable conducted emissions on the AC power line in the frequency range of 0.450 to 30 MHz. The FCC defines a computing device as any electronic device or system that generates and uses timing pulses at a rate in excess of 1000 pulses (cycles) per second and use digital techniques; inclusive of telephone equipment that uses digital techniques or any device or system that generates and utilizes radio frequency energy for the purpose of performing data processing functions, such as electronic computations, operations, transformations, recording, filing, sorting, storage, retrieval or transfer. This definition was intentionally made broad to include as many products as possible. Thus, if a product uses digital circuitry and has a clock frequency greater than 10 KHz, it is a Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 2
1.1.1 EMI SOURCES:An EMI source can be any device that transmits, distributes, processes, or utilizes any form of electrical energy where some aspect of its operation generates conducted or radiated signals that can cause equipment performance degradation. Figure 1 shows taxonomy of the different sources of electromagnetic interference.
Natural
Broadband
Incoheren t
Radiated Conducte d
Unintentional
Natural EMI sources: sources that are associated with natural phenomena. They include
atmospheric charge/discharge phenomena such as lightning. All natural sources are classified as broadband, incoherent, radiated and unintentional.
Man made EMI sources: sources that are associated with man made devices such as
power lines, auto ignition, fluorescent lights etc.
Conducted EMI: noise signal transmitted via electrical conduction path (ie,wires,ground
planes, etc).
Radiated EMI: electric and magnetic fields transmitted through space from source to
receptor.
Natural
Man-made
Amplifiers
RADHAZ
IF Video Audio
EEDS Fuels
Natural EMI receptors - Natural receptors include humans, animals, and plants. Man-made EMI receptors - Man-made receptors can be categorized into 4 categories:
communication electronic receivers, amplifiers, industrial and consumer devices, and RADHAZ.
Amplifiers - Amplifiers include IF, video, and audio amplifiers. Industrial and consumer receptors - Industrial receptors include digital computers,
industrial process controls, electronic test equipments, biomedical instruments, and public address systems and intercoms. Consumer receptors include radio and TV receivers, hi-fi stereo equipment, electronic musical instruments, and climate control systems.
1.1.3 Causes of EMI :The causes of EMI can be within the system called as intrasystem problem or the EMI can occur from outside the system called as intersystem problem. A very common cause of both intra system and intersystem problems is, a signal intended for one circuit also reaches a circuit or circuits for which it was not intended. An electronic device should do two things: respond only to desired signals and not respond to undesired signals. If a receiver or other equipments respond to undesired signals, then this causes problems or EM interference. Here, the table 1 lists a number of intrasystem EMI causes and table 2 lists a number of intersystem Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 6
Intrasystem problems includes : car. Leakage of radar transmitter energy into the radar receiver. Interference from an automotive ignition system to a radio receiver within the
1.2 EMI SHIELDING:The purpose of shielding is to confine radiated energy to the bounds of a specific region or to prevent radiated energy from entering a specific region. Shields may be in the form of partitions and boxes as well as in form of cable and connector shields. In all cases shield can be characterized by its shielding effectiveness, which is the number of decibels by which the shield reduces the shield strength as the result of its being in place. Shielding effectiveness is dependant not only on the material of which the shield is made, and its thickness, but also upon frequency, the distance from source to the shield and the quantity and shape of any shield discontinuities.
1.2.1 Use of Polymers for EMI shielding:Polymers are complex and giant molecules and are different from low molecular weight compounds like, say, common salt. To contrast the difference, the molecular weight of common salt is only 58.5, while that of a polymer can be as high as several hundred thousands. These big molecules or macro-molecules are made up of smaller molecules. The small molecules, which combine to form a big molecule can be of one or more chemical compounds. To illustrate, imagine a set of rings of the same size and made of the same material. When these rings are interlinked, the chain formed can be considered as representing a polymer from molecules of the same compound. Alternatively, individual rings could be of different sizes and materials, and interlinked to represent a polymer from molecules of different compounds. The interlinking of many units has given the polymers its name, poly meaning many and mers meaning part (in Greek). Some of the polymer materials which can be used for EMI shielding are ABS ( Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ), PC (polycarbonate), PVC ( Polyvinyl chloride ) , HDPE(high density polyethylene), etc.
Advantages of ABS - Flame Retardant - Heat Resistance, High -Typical Resistance, Good Impact ABS Applications -- Flow, Good Applications Automotive - General Purpose - Appliances - Housings - Business Equipment - Appliance Components - Automotive Interior Parts Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009
Disadvantages of ABS - Limited weathering resistance - Moderate heat, moisture and chemical resistance - Relatively high cost generation
Disadvantages:
Polycarbonate (PC) has few disadvantages like low durability against organic solvents and alkaline chemicals, as well as high melt viscosity. In case of polycarbonates, shielding effectiveness is low and there is no electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) shielding. Although polycarbonate has high impact-resistance, it has low scratch-resistance and so a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. Polycarbonates are more expensive.
Applications of PC :
The price of polycarbonates restricts its use to mainly engineering applications. The engineering applications include; Equipment housings. Outdoor lighting fixtures. Exterior automotive components. Nameplates and bezels.
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for window and door frames. By adding plasticizers, it can become flexible enough to be used in cabling applications as a wire insulator. It is not recommended for use above 70 Celsius although it can be taken to 80 C for short periods.
Advantages of PVC
- General Purpose - Flexibility, Good - Flame Retardant - Impact Resistance, High
Disadvantages of PVC
-Sensitive to UV and oxidative degradation. - Higher density than many plastics. - Limited thermal capability. - Heat deflection temperature is low. - Shielding effectiveness is low.
Typical PVC applications : Wire and cable applications General purpose Profiles Tubing Automotive applications Medical / healthcare applications Cable jacketing.
53.5gm HDPE: 9.5gm CENO: 7gm compatibilizer 56.7gm HDPE: 6.3gm CENO: 7gm compatibilizer 60gm HDPE: 3gm CENO: 7 gm compatibilizer 70 grams of pure HDPE Table 1.3
The Structure of HDPE :HDPE is known as a linear polymer, which is a polymer molecule where all the atoms are linked together in a long chain. Unlike its less stable cousin, LDPE, which consists of many Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 12
Excellent resistance (no attack) to dilute and concentrated Acids, Alcohols and Bases. Good resistance (minor attack) to Aldehydes, Esters, Aliphatic and Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Ketones and Mineral and Vegetable Oils. Limited resistance (moderate attack and suitable for short term use only) to Halogenated Hydrocarbons and Oxidizing Agents. Good UV resistance.
Maximum Temperature: 248F , 120C Minimum Temperature: -148F , -100C Autoclavable: No Melting Point: 266F 130C Tensile Strength: 32 MPa Surface Hardness: SD65 Translucent Rigid Specific Gravity: 0.95
High density polyethylene (HDPE) Medium density polyethylene (MDPE) Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
HDPE: is defined by a density of greater or equal to 0.941 g/cm3. HDPE has a low degree
of branching and thus stronger intermolecular forces and tensile strength. Chromium/silica catalysts, Ziegler-Natta catalysts or metallocene catalysts can produce HDPE. The lack of Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 13
MDPE : is defined by a density range of 0.9260.940 g/cm3. LDPE : is defined by a density range of 0.9100.940 g/cm3. HDPE is readily available in many forms such as sheet, rod and tubing for fabrication:
Excellent for any food related products, FDA, NSF, and USDA approved for direct contact. This material machines extremely well. Good chemical resistance and high rigidity make it a good choice for trays and tanks. Other uses include pipe fittings, wear plates, hinges and cutting boards. Good impact resistance, light weight, very low moisture absorption, and high tensile strength. Not a good candidate for gluing. Mechanical fastening is one option, but preferably joined by hot air or nitrogen welding. Also, Ultrasonic, Laser, and infrared welding.
JOINTING :HDPE Pipes offer simple, easy, quick and economical method of jointing of pipes by Butt-Welding (Fusion Technique) and detachable insert type joints (Sockets, Bends, Tee, Elbow etc.)
-Light Weight -Flexibility -Shielding effectiveness is high -Toughness -Chemically Inert -Resistance to Abrasion -Smooth Surface -Environmental Stress -Corrosion Resistance -Hygienic Safety -Easy & Quick Installation -Low Thermal Conductivity
-Portable water supply -Irrigation/Agriculture -Gas Transmission -Industrial Effluents -Sewage & Drainage -Sprinkler System -Slurry Transportation -Chemical Industries -Tube wells
1.2.11 Cenosphere (filler material) :A cenosphere is a lightweight, inert, hollow sphere comprised largely of silica and alumina and filled with air and/or inert gases. Cenospheres are a naturally occurring byproduct of the burning process at coal-fired power plants, and they have most of the same properties as manufactured hollow-sphered products.
1.2.12 Importance of CENOSPHERES :Cenospheres are utilized as a High Performance Filler Material. This filler material imparts good electrical conductivity, mechanical strength and absorbs the radiations. Cenospheres can replace other fillers such as: Glass Spheres, Calcium Carbonate, Clays, Talc, and various Silicas. Cenospheres can also be utilized as an extender in many resin applications.
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LOW DENSITY: When density counts, cenospheres can be the answer with a density ranging from 0.50 to 0.80. Compared to most ground minerals and other resins, cenospheres are 30% - 85% lighter. IMPROVED FLOWABILITY: With the spherical shape of cenospheres, the flow rate will improve greatly for most applications. LOW RESIN DEMAND / HIGH LOADING POTENTIAL: Spheres have the lowest surface area to volume ratio achievable. With their spherical shape, cenospheres produce far less viscosity. LOW SHRINKAGE: Cenospheres are one of the few products in the filler industry today that can meet the requirements for low shrinkage. When used in high volume loadings, cenospheres can reduce shrinkage. STRENGTH: Cenospheres are three to ten times stronger than most man-made hollow glass spheres. Unlike glass spheres, cenospheres can produce a higher compressive strength due to a stronger outer shell. INERTNESS: Cenospheres can be utilized in solvents, organic chemicals, water, acids, or alkalis while maintaining their integrity. THERMAL STABILITY: Because cenospheres are formed in the boilers, they are thermally stable in temperatures exceeding 1,800 degrees F. COST EFFECTIVE: Cenospheres are 50% - 200% less expensive than man-made hollow glass spheres. Compared to less expensive fillers, cenospheres are cost effective based on volume loading and weight reduction.
Iron Oxide 1% - 5% Titania Fig 1.3 Physical Properties Size pH in Water Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 10-350 microns 6.0 - 8.0 16 0.5% - 1.5%
Compressive Strength 3000 - 5000 lbs. per square in. Softening Point Shape Color Above 1800 degrees F Spherical Grey - Light Grey - Off White
1.2.14 Compatibilizer :
Any polymeric interfacial agent that facilitates formation of uniform blends of normally immiscible polymers with desirable end properties can be called as a compatibilizer. Compatibilizer used in our project is grafted HDPE with di-butylene maliate. It is added to improve the compatibility between the two immiscible polymers (components). When mixing polymers with other components, be it fillers or even other polymers, these two or more components will not necessarily like each other. In most of the cases there will be a repelling force and there will be very poor or even no adhesion. This will occur while mixing or even in many cases also when trying to adhere such components. Without mixing the components will separate. In order to improve adhesion, adhesion promoters can be added. Adhesion promoters that are most easy to handle are polymeric adhesion promoters, which can also be called compatibilizers or coupling agents. They act as surfactants. For example detergent powder as surfactant will 'compatibilise' the dirt with the water in the washing machine and facilitate the washing cycle. When adhesion promoters are used to increase the compatibility of two immiscible polymers, they are called COMPATIBILIZERS. Through offering the required balance of physical and chemical properties, the applications for polymer blends continue to grow. Compatibilizers provide the mechanism for blending these immiscible polymers.
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2.EXPERIMENT DETAILS
Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 18
Composite Characterization of EMI shielding materials 2.1 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:The electrical properties which we are studying are:1. Surface resistivity 2. Volume resistivity 3. Dissipation Factor (tan) 4. Capacitance 5. Dielectric Constant 2.1.1 Surface resistivity:
Surface resistivity is the resistance to leakage current along the surface of an insulating material. The electrical resistance between 2 parallel electrodes in the contact with the specimen surface and separated by a distance equal to the contact length of the electrodes. The resistivity is therefore the quotient of the potential gradient in V/m, and the current per unit of the electrode length, A/m. since the four ends of the electrodes define a square, the length in the quotient cancel and surface resistivities are reported in ohms, although it is common to see the more descriptive unit of ohms per square. Unit of surface resistivity is ohms. Generally for a better EMI shielding, surface resistivity of the shielding material must be low.
s = R x D
0.1 Where R = resistance () D = perimeter of LV electrode (cm) Gap between LV and guard = 0.1 (cm) = 1 mm.
()
v = R () x (D/4)
t (cm)
Composite Characterization of EMI shielding materials 2.2 SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS:Shielding can be specified in terms of the reduction in magnetic and / or electric field strength caused by the shield. It is a measure of the reduction or attenuation in electromagnetic field strength at a point in space caused by the insertion of a shield between the source and that point stated in dB. In the design of a shielded enclosure there are two prime considerations: 1) The shielding effectiveness of the shield material itself and 2) The shielding effectiveness due to discontinuities and holes in the shield. The shielding effectiveness of a solid shield with no seams or holes is determined and then the effect of discontinuities and holes is considered. It is the shielding effectiveness of the apertures that usually determines the overall shielding effectiveness of a shield, not the intrinsic shielding effectiveness of the shield material. Shielding effectiveness varies with frequency, geometry of shield, position with the shield where the field is measured, type of field being attenuated, direction of incidence, and polarization. In this project we are considering the shielding provided by a plane sheet of moderately conducting material. The total Shielding effectiveness of a material is equal to the sum of the absorption loss (A) plus the reflection loss (R) plus a correction factor (B) to account for multiple reflections in thin shields. Total Shielding effectiveness therefore can be written as S=A+R+B dB.
The multiple reflection factor B can be neglected if the absorption loss A is greater than 9 dB.
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3.1.1 Principle:
The basic principle of blending carried here is REACTIVE BLENDING. Reactive blending is a process in which a chemical bond is formed between polymer and additives accompanied by the chemical reaction(s) of a polymer mixture with the aid of compatibilizer. The primary objectives of blending process are: To obtain a uniform blend of all the ingredients with adequate dispersion of the dry powders. To produce consecutive batches which are in degree of dispersion and viscosity, which is essential for consistency in processing and finished products.
Blending steps:
Viscosity reduction. Incorporation of ingredients. Distribution of ingredients.
3.1.2 Process:
Almost all compounding ingredients exist as powders or granules. During incorporation stage these powders will breakdown into smaller molecules, still retaining irregularity in structure. The polymer will flow and wet these powders. The voids will get filled with the polymer. At this stage the blend becomes less compressible and denser. This will lead to further breakage. The viscosity will be slightly higher than the initial value because some polymer is getting immobilized by the irregular structure of the individual particles. The entire process will lead to some rise in temperature. In the next stage distributive mixing occurs concurrently with dispersion. Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 24
Fig 3.1
25
Fig 3.2
27
28
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Fig 4.1 Fig 4.1 The micrometer screw gauge :-In order to measure the thickness of the specimen (sheet), the specimen is placed between the jaws and the thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the specimen is secured. Note that the ratchet knob must be used to secure the object Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 30
Fig 4.2
Figure 4.2: The reading is 7.38 mm. In figure 4.2 the last graduation visible to the left of the thimble is 7 mm and the thimble lines up with the main scale at 38 hundredths of a millimeter (0.38 mm); therefore the reading is 7.38 mm. 4.1.2 Tabular column ( for thickness ) :95:5:10 1 2 3 Thickness of sheets ( mm ) 2.201 2.141 2.074 2.174 2.193 2.087 2.187 2.225 2.114 Average Average thickness(mm) thickness(cm) 2.1874 2.1864 2.0917 0.21874 0.21864 0.20917
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85:15:10 1 2 3
Thickness of sheets ( mm ) 2.08 2.054 2.44 2.18 2.058 2.087 2.31 2.02 2.053
Table 4.1
Average Average thickness(mm) thickness(cm) 2.1874 2.054 2.19 0.21874 0.2054 0.219
Thickness of sheets ( mm )
1.187 1.10
2.017 2.06
2.157 2.08
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The ADTR-2k comprises: HV supply board Analog board Relay board Interlock and ground protection board Digital board Key board Power supply board LCD panel. The rear panel of the chassis contains the power on socket and other connectors (HV, LV, INTLK, GND, RS232 etc).
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Fig 4.3
The test sample is connected to the ELTEL ADTR -2k, with the help of a electrode system (cell) as shown below :-
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Fig 4.4
4.2.2 VOLUME AND SURFACE RESISTIVITY CONFIGURATIONS:VOLUME RESISTIVITY:In this configuration type, the test specimen (sheet) is placed between the two electrodes of a cell. A cell consists of 2 electrodes i.e. high voltage electrode and low voltage electrode. For the measurement of volume resistivity the sheet is placed between the two electrodes where the low voltage electrode is placed above and the high voltage electrode is placed below. This cell is connected LV ELTEL device. The device displays the readings, to (Low voltage terminal) which are shown in tabular column.
Volume resistivity
Ground Sample
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Fig 4.5
Surface resistivity:
Similar procedure is followed here, the only difference is that, the sheet is placed between the high voltage electrode, which is placed above and the ground electrode, which is placed below. The device displays the readings, which are shown in tabular column.
Surface resistivity
HV (high voltage terminal)
Sample Ground
Fig 4.6
Procedure:a) Measure the thickness of the material to be tested (t in mm). If the thickness is uneven take multiple measurements and choose the highest reading for d. b) Keep the material to be tested between the H and LG electrodes. c) Keep the instrument OFF and make the connections for H, L and G electrodes. d) Switch ON the instrument and raise the AC voltage gradually (500 volts). e) Press 2 from the main menu of ADTR-2K as shown in the figure below;
1 2 3 4 5 6
AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT MANUAL MEASUREMENT VIEW RESULTS SETTING DATE/TIME PROPERTIES BACK LIGHT Table 4.2
f) If 2 is pressed from the menu it will go to the menu which is as shown below;
g) Press 1 for selecting AC testing, result appears as shown in the figure below;
Resistance Voltage
AC TESTING () (V) 37
Composition
Thickness (cm) 0.219 0.2054 0.219 0.2114 0.2366 0.19166 0.21874 0.21864 0.20917 0.1787 0.17466
Surface resistance (*10^13 ) 0.03149 0.03458 0.02835 0.0237 0.02159 0.0338.9 0.02102 0.03107 0.02674 0.02053 0.0368
Surface resistivity (*10^13 ) 2.37 2.6 2.13 1.78 1.62 2.55 1.584 2.342 2.016 1.54 2.77
200V Volume resistance (*10^13 ) 0.0914. 0.09588 0.0935.3 0.086 0.0907 0.0882 0.08524 0.08132 0.0442 0.08721 0.0606
Volume resistivity (*10^13 cm) 1.88 2.11 1.93 1.84 1.734 2.083 1.762 1.685 0.956 2.207 1.57
85:15:10
2.36667
1.97
90:10:10
1.9833
1.884
95:05:10
1.980667
1.4676
Pure HDPE
2.155
1.8885
Table 4.5
Surface Resistivity v/s % of Cenospheres and Volume Resistivity v/s % of Cenospheres at 200V :-
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surface re
2.5
2
Fig 4.7
surface resistivity
1.5 2 1 1.95
Fig 4.8
Volume re
OBSERVATION :-
istivity
0.5 1.9
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4.2.5 TABULAR COLUMN AND GRAPH FOR 500 V: 500V Volume resistance (*10^13 ) 1.57 2.03 1.88 0.898 0.57 0.77 0.613 0.431 0.523 6.98 7.6
Composition
Thickness (cm) 0.219 0.2054 0.219 0.2114 0.2366 0.19166 0.21874 0.21864 0.20917 0.1787 0.17466
Surface resistance (*10^13 ) 0.0195 0.0108 0.015 0.09 0.086 0.088 0.074 0.0248 0.057 0.017 0.011
Surface resistivity (*10^13 ) 1.47 0.814 1.13 6.7858 6.48 6.635 5.57 1.87 4.29 8.06 8.29
Volume resistivity (*10^13 cm) 33.1 42.8 38.83 19.05 12.09 18.18 12.86 9.04 11.32 178.65 194.44
85:15:10
1.138
38.24
90:10:10
6.59766
16.44
95:05:10
3.91
11.0733
Pure HDPE
8.175
186.5454
Table 4.6
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surface r
9 8 7
Fig 4.9
surface resistivity
6 5 60 4
50 3
Fig 4.10
Volume res
esistivity
2 40 1
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4.3 CAPACITANCE AND DISSIPATION FACTOR MEASUREMENT:TETTEX INSTRUMENT:This instrument is used to measure the capacitance and dissipation factor of the shielding material. This instrument gives a accurate values of capacitance and tan . It uses a 4 capacitance bridge arrangement to measure the capacitance and tan values. The main advantage of this bridge are its simple operation, its high accuracy for dissipation factor measurements and its high sensitivity also for low test voltages. The scope of supply is that precision measuring system for dissipation factor tan and capacitance type 2822. it uses only one power cable, line voltage is from 115V to 220V, 50Hz or 60Hz. The caonnecting cables are included with the test cells.
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Fig 4.11 The capacitance and dissipation factor of the samples are tested by using a instrument known as Tettex instrument.
Though tan & r can be measured by ADTR-2K, we are not using it because the error caused by ADTR-2K is very high. So Capacitance and Dissipation factor are measured by using Tettex instrument. Later r is calculated by using a formula. 43
4.3.1 DESCRIPTION :-
Tettex bridge (instrument) is an instrument used to measure the electrical properties like capacitance and dissipation factor (tan ). It consists of HV (high voltage) and LV (low voltage) electrodes between which specimen (sheet) will be placed, a temperature control unit in which temperature is set to 27C and voltmeter which is set to 500V ( for C and tan measurements at 200V, voltmeter is set to 200 V ), at a pressure of 2 N/cm^2. This bridge also consists of a galvanometer, which is set to show null deflection and precision tan and C bridge in which C (capacitance) and tan values are varied in order to obtain balance condition and then readings are taken. For each specimen, minimum of 3 readings are taken. This measuring bridge has been developed particularly for testing liquid and solid insulants. Its design is based on the fact that dielectric tests of insulants require a broad measurement range for the dissipation factor tan . The tan measurement range of this bridge reaches from 1.10^-5 to 10. The bridge can also be used for normal capacitance measurements in the range of 9 to 10,000pF. The main advantages of this bridge are its simple operation, its high accuracy for dissipation factor measurements and its high sensitivity. And it is also used for low-test voltages. Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 44
4.3.2 TABULAR COLUMN AND GRAPH:Capacitance and tan values at 200V & 500V : -
Sl.No,
Sample
1 2 3 4
Table 4.7
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20
15
200V 500V
e n t i c p a C
10
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
% of cenosphere
Fig 4.12 OBSERVATION :From the graph we can observe that, with the addition of filler material (cenosphere), capacitance value is initially increasing. Later, with the increase in filler content (cenosphere), the capacitance value is gradually decreasing . Generally, for a better EMI shielding, the EMI shielding composite materials must have high capacitance value. Here, composite material with 5% of cenosphere (filler material) is having high capacitance value. Hence, composite material with 5% cenosphere (95:5:10) is a better EMI shielding material, compared to other compositions. Dissipation Factor V/S % of Cenosphere at 200V & 500V is shown below :-
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200V 500V
r c f n o t a p s i D
% of Cenosphere
Fig 4.13 OBSERVATION :From the graph we can observe that, with the addition of filler material (cenosphere), dissipation factor is initially increasing. Later, with the increase in filler content (cenosphere), the dissipation factor is gradually decreasing. Generally, the dissipation factor is high in case of conductors. Here, composite material with 5% of cenosphere (filler material) i.e., (95:5:10) is showing high dissipation factor value, where as, the composite material with 15% of cenosphere (85:15:10) is showing low dissipation factor value.
4.4 CALCULATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (r) :a) The values of capacitance of the test samples are obtained from TETTEX instrument. b) The formula for capacitance is ; C = (0*r*A) / t F.
c) Therefore, r can be calculated by the formula; r = ( C * t ) / (0*A). Where; 0 = 8.854*10^-12 . r = dielectric strength . Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 47
Sl. No. 1 2
Sample
0.2132
4.76
1.57
19.69
2.48
0.21438
4.56
1.55
18.73
2.26
Table 4.8
Dielect
3
2.5
Fig 4.14 OBSERVATION :-
onstant
2
48
CHAPTER-5
Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 49
50
Fig 5.1
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Fig 5.2 5.2 GENERAL TEST SET UP :The test setup contains the following parts:o Specimen Holder- It is an enlarged, coaxial transmission line with special taper sections and notched matching grooves to maintain a characteristic impedance of 50 throughout the entire length of the holder. o Signal Generator- A source capable of generating a sinusoidal signal over the desired portion of the frequency range. o Receiver- A device with a 50 input impedance capable of measuring signals over the same frequency range as the signal generator. o Coaxial Cables and Connectors- These are devices for connecting power between specific components without causing interference with other components. It should have a impedance lesser than 50. o Attenuators- These are devices used to isolate the specimen holder from the signal generator and the receiver. Their main purpose in this system is for impedance matching. The test samples are prepared as below and then it can be subjected to the SE test
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REFERENCE
5.3 TEST procedure:-
Fig 5.3
LOAD
The samples are prepared according to the measurements given. 2 specimens are prepared namely Reference Specimen and the Load specimen. Determine all frequencies for which SE values are to be measured for the Reference specimen, change to the load specimen, and then record load values at these same frequencies. Measure the received power (or voltage) while using the reference specimen. Record the measured received values as P2 or V2 values at each frequency. Determine all frequencies for which SE values are to be measured. The specimen mounting procedure requires more time and effort then changing frequency, so it is more efficient to record values at all frequencies for the reference specimen, change to load specimen, and then record load values at these same frequencies. This procedure can be automated if a computer and ancillary equipment with IEEE-488 bus capability are available. Replace the reference specimen with the load specimen. Record the measured values as P1 or V1 values at the same frequencies. If the recorded units are watts use the power ratio equation to calculate SE. If the recorded units are volts, use the voltage ratio equation to calculate SE. The procedure for inserting the specimen is a follows use a support structure to support the specimen holder in a vertical position. Remove two nylon screws, and carefully lift off the upper half of the holder. Place the two pieces of the reference specimen on the flange of the Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 53
5.4 SE test results:This test was conducted in the frequency range of 100KHz to 1GHz and the following results were obtained:Sample Pure HDPE HDPE with 5% Cenosphere HDPE with 10% Cenosphere HDPE with 15% Cenosphere Shielding Effectiveness from 100KHz to 1GHz 1dB 4dB 2dB 2dB Table 5.1
Observation:The above results show. that there is no much difference in attenuation level with respect to all compositions. However, from the results obtained we can conclude that, HDPE with 5% cenosphere is a better EMI shielding material.
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6.1 CONCLUSION:The above work leads to the following conclusions: HDPE with 5%, 10% and 15% of cenosphere as filler content and di-butylene maliate as compatibilizer (composite materials) have been studied. The volume resistivity of HDPE with ceno has increased with increase in ceno content from 5 to 15%. The dissipation factor and dielectric constant have decreased with increase in ceno from 5 to 15%. These samples have been evaluated for different electrical parameters like surface and volume resistivity, capacitance, tan , dielectric constant and then subjected to electromagnetic shielding effectiveness test. Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 55
6.2 Future Scope: HDPE with increased level of ceno addition i.e. more than 15% need to be tried for improved shielding effectiveness due to EMI. Filler material other than ceno such as graphite may be tried for improved EMI performance. Applicability of these composite materials as shields for the electronic devices like energy meters. Study of the mechanical properties of these shielding materials.
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7.1 Appendix A
Tettex instrument:Description
This measuring bridge has been developed particularly for testing liquid and solid insulants. Its design is based on the fact that dielectric tests of insulants requires a broad measurement range fro the dissipation factor tan values for new, pure and clean oil, for example, are approximately 10^-4, 10^-3 etc.. While tan for old, used and dirty oil may amount up to approximately 5 (500%). The tan measurement range of this bridge reaches from 1*10^-5 to 10 *(1000%). The bridge can also be used for normal capacitance measurements in the 9 to 10,000pF range, mainly for type tests of plastic capacitors with accurate tan requirements. Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 58
Fig 7.1
7.2 Appendix B
ELTEL-ADTR 2K
Automatic Dielectric Constant Tan & Resistivity Test Set
Dept of E&E, Sir MVIT, 2009 59
Fig 7.2 The ADTR-2K is an automated instrument for measuring the electrical characteristics of transformer oil, insulating liquids & other insulating material samples. The ADTR-2K measures Capacitance, Dielectric Constant (r), Dielectric Loss, Tan Delta (Dissipation Factor) Resistance & Resistivity of the test sample. The Tan Delta value gives an indication of the condition of the oil sample. There are several reasons due to which the Tan Delta value may be affected such as moisture, dissolving of some of the transformer varnish, insulating material deteriorating etc. ADTR-2K is especially designed to work with the IEC & ASTM type oil cell with a 2mm spacing and will apply a stress in the range of 100-1200 volts per mm as recognised by ASTM and other specifications.
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Fig 7.3 The ELTEL automatic Dielectric Constant, tan and resistivity test set, (model ADTR-2k) is an instrument designed to measure three important parameters of a insulation medium. Once the instrument is installed and test connections are made, test can be carried out ever disturbing the test set up. Many advanced features and safety checks are built into this instrument, making it more reliable, simple and safe instrument to operate and maintain. This instrument is fully automatic and microprocessor controlled, it measures dielectric constant, tan and resistivity of the transformer oil as well as other insulating media at set voltages and display results.
7.3 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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1. Van nostrand and Reinhold, Metal and polymer composites 2. Kubel, E., materials Engineering 102:25 (January 1985). 3. Bradish, F., Conductive Composites for Shielding, Spe composites institute, (1980). 4. T. Araki, Electromagnetic Interference and Preventice Measure, pp.129-143, Tokyo Denki University, 1984. 5. K. Nakanighi, Rapidly Developing EMI shielding Materials, Nikkei New Materials, No. 51, pp. 74-89, 1988. 6. Kodali, V.P., Engineering Electromagnetic compatibility. 7. Henry W. Ott, Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1989. 8. Hand Book of Electrical and Electronic insulating Materials, Shugg.W.Tillar. 9. Principle of Electromagnetic Compatibility, 3rd Edition, Bernhard Keiser.
SITES
1. www.google.com 2. www.wickepedia.com 3. www.sciencedirect.com 4. www.freepatents.com 5. www.ieeexplorer.org 6. www.astm.org
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