Teng, Lin, and Hsu TECHNICAL PAPER

ISSN 1047-3289 J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 50:1940-1946

Copyright 2000 Air & Waste Management Association

Production of Activated Carbons from Pyrolysis of Waste Tires Impregnated with Potassium Hydroxide
Hsisheng Teng, Yu-Chuan Lin, and Li-Yeh Hsu Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

ABSTRACT Activated carbons were produced from waste tires using a chemical activation method. The carbon production process consisted of potassium hydroxide (KOH) impregnation followed by pyrolysis in N2 at 600900 C for 02 hr. The activation method can produce carbons with a surface area (SA) and total pore volume as high as 470 m2/g and 0.57 cm3/g, respectively. The influence of different parameters during chemical activation, such as pyrolysis temperature, holding time, and KOH/tire ratio, on the carbon yield and the surface characteristics was explored, and the optimum preparation conditions were recommended. The pore volume of the resulting carbons generally increases with the extent of carbon gasified by KOH and its derivatives, whereas the SA increases with degree of gasification to reach a maximum value, and then decreases upon further gasification. INTRODUCTION The disposal of waste tires has become an increasingly important issue worldwide in recent years. The tires not only take up large amounts of valuable landfill space, but also create fire hazards and provide a refuge for disease-

IMPLICATIONS Conversion of waste tires into valuable products through pyrolysis has been explored by numerous researchers. Reprocessing of the solid residue from pyrolysis into activated carbon has been considered to be a profitable way to do this. In developing the technology, almost all efforts have been devoted to producing activated carbon through physical activation, a process that would result in low carbon yield and high energy consumption. The present work has demonstrated that in the presence of KOH, activated carbon can be produced directly from the pyrolysis of waste tires. Without the secondary heating required in the physical activation, the production of activated carbon through KOH impregnation is very beneficial in terms of energy saving and emission control. This research can stimulate more in-depth investigations and other more practical studies on the pyrolysis of waste tires.

carrying creatures. Because of their high heating value, tire incineration presents an option of solving the disposal problem as well as of producing additional energy.1 From an economical standpoint, however, the profit derived from energy recovery in tire incineration would be offset by the expense of meeting pollution legislation. The use of waste tires as an auxiliary fuel in cement kilns has recently been recognized as an acceptable means for disposing of waste tires through incineration. Apart from incineration, other reuse options, such as retreading and the production of rubber crumb, have been recommended.2 Recently, much effort has been devoted to the thermal degradation of tires into gaseous and liquid HCs and a solid char residue, all of which have the potential to be reprocessed into valuable products.2-12 The resulting HCs from thermal treatment can be used directly as fuel or added to petroleum refinery feedstocks. As for the solid residue, the char can be used either as low-grade reinforcing filler or as activated carbon. The use of the tire char as carbon black for tires has been reported to be unsatisfactory,6 mainly due to the high mineral matter content, while activation of the char with steam or CO2 to produce a high-surface-area (SA) carbon has been shown to be applicable.2,7-12 Because of the low reaction rate between the activating agent (steam or CO2) and the char, a high temperature (>800 C) for activation was necessary. Under this circumstance, the energy consumed in heating the activating agent would be relatively high. The production of activated carbon can also be achieved by chemical activation,13 which usually produces carbons with very high SA. This method consists of impregnation of the precursor with a dehydrating reagent, such as ZnCl2, H3PO4, or potassium hydroxide (KOH), followed by carbonization in an inert environment. In comparison with activation with steam or CO2, there are two important advantages of chemical activation. One is the lower energy consumption due to the fact that heating the activating agent is not required, and the other is that tire pyrolysis and activated carbon production can be
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achieved in one stage. Among the numerous chemical reagents, KOH was found to be effective in creating porosity in chars derived from tires in our preliminary study, due to the difference in the activation mechanism. The recent literature has reported that activated carbons prepared from KOH treatment have their specific uses, such as the removal of SO2 from flue gas and halogenated HCs and pesticides in drinking water purification.14 In this paper, the properties of the final carbons prepared from the pyrolysis of tires impregnated with KOH were the main concerns. The influence of the preparation parameters, such as the solvent during impregnation, the ratio of KOH to tires, and the pyrolysis temperature and holding time, on the pore structure of the activated carbons was extensively explored. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Materials Waste tires are the precursors used in the pyrolysis process. The tires used in the present work represent a mixture of used truck tires, containing no steel or synthetic cord. The proximate and ultimate analyses of the waste tires are shown in Table 1. Before being treated, the tires were ground and sieved to a size of 0.20.3 mm. Pulverization of the tire rubber provided the rubber a better contact with the chemical reagent during the course of reagent impregnation. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis of the waste tires was performed in the presence of a chemical reagent, KOH. The tires were impregnated with KOH prior to pyrolysis. In a 250-mL glass-stoppered flask, the impregnation process was initiated by mixing 1 g of tires with a KOH solution containing 50 g of water or C2H5OH as the solvent. The flask was immersed in a constant temperature shaker bath, with a shaker speed of 100 rpm. The mixing was performed at 85 C and lasted 3 hr. The concentration of the KOH solution was adjusted to give a w/w ratio of chemical reagent to tire (i.e., a chemical ratio) varying in the range of 08. After mixing, the tire-KOH slurry was subjected to vacuum drying at 110 C for 24 hr. The chemical-loaded samples were then pyrolyzed in a horizontal cylindrical furnace (60-mm i.d.) in N2 atmosphere, with a flow of 100 mL/min. Pyrolysis was carried out by heating the samples at 30 C/min from room temperature to heat-treatment temperatures in the range of 600900 C, followed by holding the samples at the treatment temperature for different lengths of time (02 hr) before cooling under N2. After cooling, the pyrolyzed products were washed by stirring with 250 mL of 0.5 N HCl solution at 85 C for 30 min, followed by filtration. The acid-washed sample was then leached by mixing with 250 mL of distilled water at 85 C, followed by filtration of the mixtures. Leaching was carried out several times until the pH of the water-carbon mixture was above 6. The leached products were then dried in a vacuum at 110 C for 24 hr to give the final carbon products. Carbon Characterization Specific SAs and pore volumes of the activated samples were determined by gas adsorption. An automated adsorption apparatus (Micromeritics, ASAP 2010) was employed for these measurements. Adsorption of N2 was performed at 196 C. Before any such analysis, the sample was degassed at 300 C in a vacuum at ~103 Torr. Nitrogen SAs and micropore volumes of the samples were determined from the application of the BET and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) equations,15 respectively, to adsorption isotherms at relative pressures between 0.06 and 0.2. The amount of N2 adsorbed at pressures near unity corresponds to the total amount adsorbed at both micropores and mesopores; consequently, the subtraction of the micropore volume (from the D-R equation) from the total amount (determined to be p/p0 = 0.98 in this case) will provide the volume of the mesopores.16 Although this procedure of determining the mesopore volume is justifiable only if the isotherm is typical of type IV, which has a distinct plateau at high p/p0,17 it still provides a rough estimation of pore-size distribution of different samples. If the pores are assumed to be parallel and cylindrical, the average pore diameter would have a value of 4V/BET, where V is the total pore volume and BET represents the SA.15 A scanning electron microscope (Jeol, JXA-840) was used to study the structural features of the carbon surface. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Previous studies18-21 have shown that chemical activation of bituminous coals with ZnCl2 or H3PO4 gives the highest porosity of the resulting activated carbon at a carbonization temperature of about 500600 C, which is much lower than the temperature in physical activation with steam or CO2.13,22,23 In our preliminary study, chemical activation of the tires with ZnCl2 and H3PO4 was tested, and the results are presented in Table 2, showing that high
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 1941

Table 1. Analysis of waste tires. Ultimate (wt %, Dry-Ash-Free Basis) Carbon Hydrogen Sulfur Oxygen Other 86.1 7.1 1.6 3.3 1.9 Proximate (wt %, As-Received) Moisture Volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash 0.2 66.1 29.4 4.3

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porosity carbon could not be produced through these activation processes. These preliminary results will not be further discussed in the present work. KOH was found to be more effective than ZnCl2 and H3PO4 in creating porosity in carbons derived from the tires. Two solventswater and C2H5OH were tested in the impregnation of tires with KOH. Experimental results showed that carbons prepared from KOH/alcohol solutions exhibit higher SAs. This can be attributed to the fact that alcohol, which is less polar than water and organic in nature, can more easily penetrate into the tire particles than water can. Therefore, carbons obtained from impregnation in KOH/alcohol solutions were employed to discuss the effects of pyrolysis parameters. The porosity development of the carbons prepared from KOH activation was investigated by N2 adsorption. Figure 1 shows the typical isotherms of N2 adsorption on the carbons prepared from the tires at different pyrolysis temperatures (600900 C) with a zero holding time. The chemical ratio of KOH to tires was fixed at 4. It can be seen from Figure 1 that the isotherms are not type I, which is typical of microporous carbons. In a type I isotherm, the knee of the isotherm is sharp and the plateau is fairly horizontal. The shapes of the isotherms in Figure 1 reflect that these samples are microporous carbons containing a high percentage of mesoporosity, since the knees of the isotherms are not obvious and, above the knees, the quantity of N2 adsorbed still increases significantly with the increasing relative pressure, indicating the adsorption of second and higher layers.15 The data show that the adsorption capacity at relative pressures near unity increases with the pyrolysis temperature in the low temperature regime (600800 C) and reaches a maximum at 800 C. Above 800 C, the capacity decreases with increasing pyrolysis temperature. However, at low relative pressures, the 700 C carbon was found to have the highest capacity, reflecting that the proportion of the pore volume in small pores is relatively high for this carbon. To explicitly discuss the influence of the variation in pyrolysis parameters, the isotherms of N2 adsorption on different carbons were obtained and employed to deduce the surface characteristics of these carbons. In addition, the yield of activated carbon was estimated according to carbon yield (%) = [Wac/Wtire] 100 (1)

where Wac and Wtire are the weights of the activated carbon product and the tire precursor, respectively. The effects of the pyrolysis temperature, the chemical ratio of KOH to tire, and the holding time in pyrolysis were explored, and the data are presented in Tables 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The yield of the final carbon products was found to vary with the pyrolysis parameters. Table 3 shows that the carbon yield is a decreasing function of the pyrolysis temperature. The decrease in carbon yield with temperature can mainly be attributed to the increased carbon gasification by CO2 or oxygen in the alkali.18,24 It has been reported that at high temperatures the release of CO2 from K2CO3 formed during carbonization becomes significant.24 The evolved CO2 can react with carbon atoms to open up closed pores and enlarge existing micropores, resulting in the increase in porosity. Apart from the gasification by CO2, at a temperature higher than 700 C, the potassiumcontaining compounds (such as K2O and K2CO3) can be reduced by carbon to form K metal,25-27 thus causing the carbon gasification as well as the oxidation. A previous study has pointed out that alkaline surface salt complexes can be formed through the interactions between KOH and carTable 2. The surface characteristics of the carbons from pyrolysis of waste tires impregnated with ZnCl2 and H3PO4 at different a bonaceous materials at low temperatures. temperatures.28 These complexes are the active sites in gasification. Pore Size Distribution Because of the gasification Pyrolysis Carbon BET SA Pore Vol. Micropore Mesopore Average Pore Temp. (C) Yield (%) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)/(%) (cm3/g)/(%) Diam. (nm) mechanisms, the carbon yield was found to decrease with the inZnCl2 creases in chemical ratio and in 500 48 129 0.24 0.055/23 0.18/77 7.4 holding time, as shown in Tables 600 46 117 0.24 0.048/20 0.19/80 8.4 4 and 5, respectively. In Table 4, 700 36 85 0.33 0.036/11 0.29/89 15.4 the final carbons were obtained by carrying out the pyrolysis at a fixed H3PO4 temperature of 700 C for zero 500 50 74 0.33 0.030/9 0.30/91 18.0 holding time. A pyrolysis experi600 24 55 0.22 0.022/10 0.20/90 16.1 ment with no KOH added (i.e., 700 14 37 0.18 0.016/9 0.16/91 18.8 zero chemical ratio) was also cona The pyrolysis was performed by impregnating the tires with a reagent/tire ratio of 4, followed by heating the sample to the ducted at 700 C and the results pyrolysis temperature and holding for 1 hr. are presented in Table 4. It was
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formation of a rigid matrix, less prone to volatile loss upon heating to high temperatures.24 On the other hand, the low carbon yield obtained at high chemical ratios suggests that carbon loss resulting from gasification should be considered as an important issue in the pyrolysis of tires impregnated with KOH. How the chemical ratio would affect the amount of ash retained in the resulting carbons should be a concern in the application of these carbons. It has been reported that ash removal by caustic digestion may be enhanced by an increase in KOH.24 The amounts of ash retained in the carbons were evaluated. Figure 2 shows that a significant amount of ash was removed by the treatment with KOH, and the extent of demineralization increased with the chemical ratio, especially for ratios Figure 1. Adsorption isotherms of N2 on the carbons prepared from pyrolysis of KOH-treated tires at different temperatures (prior to the pyrolysis, which had a zero holding time at the pyrolysis temperature, less than 4. The ability of caustic the tires were impregnated with KOH to have a chemical ratio of 4). digestion seems to reach its limit at a chemical ratio of 4. found that the carbon yield from pyrolysis of tires having As for the variation of surface characteristics with the a zero chemical ratio is lower than those reported by other activation parameters, it can be seen from Table 3 that studies for tire pyrolysis.2-12 This can be attributed to the the pore volume increases with increasing carbonization mixing of tires with water at 85 C, which would remove temperature to a maximum at 800 C, and then decreases some functional groups capable of promoting cross-linkwith further increase of temperature. This was expected ing reactions facilitating char formation during pyrolysis.29 according to the isotherm data in Figure 1. The increase The acid-washing process might also remove a significant in pore volume caused by raising the temperature from portion of ash to reduce the carbon yield. The table also 600 to 800 C can be attributed to the enhanced carbon reflects that the carbon yield can be enhanced by the addigasification. In addition, the metallic K formed at high tion of an appropriate amount of KOH. This can be attribtemperatures may also intercalate to the carbon matrix, uted to the dehydrating properties of KOH, which may resulting in the increase in pore volume.27 promote the formation of cross-links, leading to the At temperatures higher than 800 C, the pore volume was found to decrease with a Table 3. Effects of pyrolysis temperature on the surface characteristics of the carbons from waste tires impregnated with KOH. the carbonization temperature. The decrease can be attributed to Pore Size Distribution the severe thermal treatment, Pyrolysis Carbon BET SA Pore Vol. Micropore Mesopore Average Pore which causes the breakdown of 2 3 3 3 Temp. (C) Yield (%) (m /g) (cm /g) (cm /g)/(%) (cm /g)/(%) Diam. (nm) cross-links in carbon matrix, with a consequent rearrange600 26 116 0.22 0.051/23 0.17/77 7.7 ment of carbonaceous aggregates 700 16 474 0.38 0.23/60 0.15/40 3.2 and the collapse of pores. It is 800 12 411 0.57 0.19/33 0.38/67 5.5 also possible that the extensive 900 11 306 0.45 0.11/24 0.34/76 5.9 gasification at high temperatures a The pyrolysis was performed by impregnating the tires with a KOH/tire ratio of 4, followed by heating the sample to the pyrolysis resulted in the destruction of pore structures.22 temperature and then cooling.
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Tables 4 and 5 also show how the pore size distribution varied Pore Size Distribution with the chemical ratio and the Chemical Carbon BET SA Pore Vol. Micropore Mesopore Average Pore holding time. It can be seen that Ratio Yield (%) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)/(%) (cm3/g)/(%) Diam. (nm) the increase in the values of these two parameters results in 0 22 86 0.31 0.040/13 0.27/87 14.4 a decrease in the micropore vol2 25 334 0.33 0.16/48 0.17/52 3.9 ume and a corresponding in4 16 474 0.38 0.23/60 0.15/40 3.2 crease in the mesopore fraction 6 15 367 0.43 0.17/40 0.26/60 4.6 and average pore diameter. 8 10 240 0.44 0.11/25 0.33/75 7.3 Again, these observed trends can a be explained by the fact that The pyrolysis was performed by heating the impregnated sample to 700 C and then cooling. carbon gasification was enhanced by the increased KOH a impregnation and the extended Table 5. Effects of pyrolysis holding time on the surface characteristics of the carbons from waste tires impregnated with KOH. holding time, thus causing the Pore Size Distribution removal of carbon atoms on Holding Carbon BET SA Pore Vol. Micropore Mesopore Average Pore pore walls, which widened the 2 3 3 3 (cm /g) (cm /g)/(%) (cm /g)/(%) Diam. (nm) Time (hr) Yield (%) (m /g) micropores. Figure 3 shows scanning elec0 16 474 0.38 0.23/60 0.15/40 3.2 tron micrographs of the external 1 14 397 0.57 0.19/33 0.38/67 5.7 surface structures of the carbons 2 12 285 0.57 0.080/14 0.49/86 8.0 prepared from different extents of KOH impregnation. It can be a The pyrolysis was performed by impregnating the tires with a chemical ratio of 4, followed by heating the sample to 700 C and seen from Figure 3a that the carthen holding for different periods of time. bon obtained from pyrolysis in the absence of KOH had an inAs for the variation of SA with pyrolysis temperature, tact external surface. As the chemical reagent was added unlike the variation of pore volume, the maximum value to the tires in pyrolysis, the resulting carbons showed a occured at 700 C, rather than at 800 C. Obviously, extenrugged surface, as indicated in Figures 3b and 3c for sive gasification to break through pore walls occurred by chemical ratios of 4 and 6, respectively. The degree of raising the temperature from 700 to 800 C, thus resulting erosion appearing on the external surface increased with in a decrease in SA and an increase in pore volume.30 the extent of KOH impregnation. Because of the void In addition to the temperature, increasing the chemistructure, the amount of KOH added in pyrolysis should cal ratio and holding time also results in enhanced carbe well adjusted to assure the mechanical properties of bon gasification and, thus, higher porosity development, the carbons. as reflected in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. However, the Although the production of activated carbons from development of SA does not show an increasing trend tires using steam or CO2 has been the subject of a large with increasing gasification. For pyrolysis performed at number of publications,4-12 results from chemical activa700 C, a chemical ratio of 4 and a zero holding time would tion have rarely been reported in the literature. A previgive the highest value for the SA of the resulting carbons. ous study has provided the results of tire activation with The results indicate again that severe gasification should KOH,10 but the influence of different parameters during be avoided if carbons with high SAs, rather than pore activation was not examined. The KOH-activated tire carvolumes, are preferred in the process. bon was reported to have a BET SA and micropore volPore size distribution and average pore diameter are ume of 820 m2/g and 0.274 cm3/g, respectively. The significantly affected by the pyrolysis parameters. Table 3 micropore volume found in the previous study is compashows that the mesopore volume generally increases with rable to those obtained here, whereas the SA is higher. an increase in pyrolysis temperature. This increase at high The difference in porosity might come from different chartemperatures can be attributed to the increased extent of acteristics of the material employed, or from less effective gasification, which enlarges the existing pores. Because of surface contact with KOH in the present work. the increase in the mesopore fraction, a corresponding inPrevious studies4-12 have shown that the porosity crease in average pore diameter with carbonization temof activated carbons derived from physical activation perature can be observed. generally increased with the extent of burn-off in steam
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Table 4. Effects of chemical ratio (KOH/tire) on the surface characteristics of the carbons from waste tires impregnated with KOH.a

Teng, Lin, and Hsu

gasification, which diminished SA.30 It has been shown that activated carbons with a specific SA as high as 1000 m2/g can be produced from tires with physical activation.10 However, the yields of the high SA products are generally low. Considering the effectiveness of activation, the total SA in units of m2/(g tire) is the actual measure of activation efficiency for producing activated carbons from tires. The maximum value of total SA obtained in the present study is as high as 83 m2/(g tire), which is comparable to the reported results from physical activation.4-12 It should be noted that the hydrophobic nature of the tire surface restricted the penetration of KOH into the rubber matrix. Providing better surface contact of tires with KOH is expected to promote efficiency of activation.

Figure 2. Influence of the chemical ratio of KOH to tire on the amount of ash retained in the carbons prepared from pyrolysis at 700 C with zero holding time.

or CO2, and high porosity carbons were obtained with low yields. This trend of porosity variation with yield is also obeyed in the case of KOH activation. Tables 3-5 show that the total pore volume of the carbons generally increased with a decrease in the yields. The results indicate that the extent of carbon removal by gasification predominantly controls pore formation, which is similar to the situation in physical activation. As for BET SA, it shows a decreasing trend with a decrease in yield at high extents of gasification, and this has been attributed to destruction of pore walls upon severe

CONCLUSIONS This study has demonstrated that activated carbons with medium porosities can be produced from pyrolysis of waste tires impregnated with KOH. The pyrolysis process produces carbons having SAs and pore volumes as high as 470 m2/g and 0.57 cm3/g, respectively. The effects of different parameters during pyrolysis were investigated. The carbon yield was found to decrease with the pyrolysis temperature, holding time, and KOH/tire ratio. At a KOH/tire ratio of 4 and zero holding time, the SA of the resulting carbons increased with the pyrolysis

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs of carbons prepared from 700 C pyrolysis of tires impregnated with KOH at a KOH/tire ratio of (a) 0, (b) 4, and (c) 6.
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temperature to a maximum at 700 C and then began to decrease with temperature, whereas the pore volume passed through a maximum at 800 C. At a fixed temperature of 700 C and zero holding time, the pore volume of the carbons was found to be an increasing function of the KOH/tire ratio, while the SA reached a maximum at a ratio of 4. Under the experimental conditions investigated, the mesopore volume and the average pore diameter generally increased with the pyrolysis temperature, KOH/tire ratio, and holding time. It is recommended, based on the results of the present work, that a KOH/ratio of 4, a pyrolysis temperature of 700 C, and a zero holding time are the optimum values of the parameters for producing high SA carbons from pyrolysis of waste tires impregnated with KOH. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The financial support from the National Science Council of Taiwan, through Project NSC 89-EPA-Z-006-004, is gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES
Teng, H; Chyang, C.-S.; Shang, S.-H.; Ho, J.-A. Characterization of Waste Tire Incineration in a Prototype Vortexing Fluidized Bed Combustor; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 1997, 47, 49. 2. Cunliffe, A.M.; Williams, P.T. Influence of Process Conditions on the Rate of Activation of Chars Derived from Pyrolysis of Used Tires; Energy Fuels 1999, 13, 166. 3. Schulman, B.L.; White, P.A. Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires Using the Tosco II ProcessA Progress Report. In Solid Wastes and Residues: Conversion by Advanced Thermal Processes; Jones, J.L., Radding, S.B., Eds.; ACS Symposium Series 76; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1978; p 274. 4. Ogasawara, S.; Kuroda, M.; Wakao, N. Preparation of Activated Carbon by Thermal Decomposition of Used Automotive Tires; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1987, 26, 2552. 5. Torikai, N.; Meguro, T.; Nakamura, Y. Pore Size Distribution of Activated Carbons Made from Tires which Contain Carbon Blacks Differing in Particle Size; Nippon Kagaku Kaishi 1979, 11, 1604. 6. Williams, P.T.; Besler, S.; Taylor, D.T. The Pyrolysis of Automotive Tires: The Influence of Temperature and Heating Rate on Product Composition; Fuel 1990, 69, 1474. 7. Merchant, A.A.; Petrich, M.A. Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires and Conversion of Chars to Activated Carbon; AIChE J. 1993, 39, 1370. 8. Teng, H.; Serio, M.A.; Wjtowicz, M.A.; Bassilakis, R; Solomon, P.R. Reprocessing of Used Tires into Activated Carbon and Other Products; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1995, 34, 3102. 9. Wjtowicz, M.A.; Serio, M.A. Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires: Can It Be Profitable?; CHEMTECH 1996, 10, 48. 10. Sun, J.; Brady, T.A.; Rood, M.J.; Lehmann, C.M.; Rostam-Abadi, M.; Lizzio, A.A. Adsorbed Natural Gas Storage with Activated Carbons Made from Illinois Coals and Scrap Tires; Energy Fuels 1997, 11, 316. 11. Lehmann, C.M.B.; Rostam-Abadi, M.; Rood, M.J.; Sun, J. Reprocessing and Reuse of Waste Tire Rubber to Solve Air-Quality Related Problems; Energy Fuels 1998, 12, 1095. 1. 12. Allen, J.L.; Gatz, J.L.; Eklund, P.C. Applications for Activated Carbons from Used Tires: Butane Working Capacity; Carbon 1999, 37, 1485. 13. Wigmans, T. Industrial Aspects of Production and Use of Activated Carbons; Carbon 1989, 27, 13. 14. Evans, M.J.B.; Halliop, E.; MacDonald, J.A.F. The Production of Chemically Activated Carbon; Carbon 1999, 37, 269. 15. Lowell, S.; Shields, J.E. Powder Surface Area and Porosity, 3rd ed.; Chapman & Hall: London, 1991. 16. Rodrguez-Reinoso, F.; Molina-Sabio, M.; Gonzalez, M.T. The Use of Steam and CO2 as Activating Agents in the Preparation of Activated Carbons; Carbon 1995, 33, 15. 17. Sing, K.S.W. Physisorption of Gases by Porous Carbons. In Porosity in Carbons: Characterization and Applications; Patrick, J.W., Ed.; Edward Arnold: London, 1995; p 58. 18. Ahmadpour, A.; Do, D.D. The Preparation of Active Carbons from Coal by Chemical and Physical Activation; Carbon 1996, 34, 471. 19. Jagtoyen, M.; Thwaites, M.; Stencel, J.; McEnaney, B.; Derbyshire, F. Adsorbent Carbon Synthesis from Coals by Phosphoric Acid Activation; Carbon 1992, 30, 1089. 20. Teng, H.; Yeh, T.-S. Preparation of Activated Carbons from Bituminous Coals with Zinc Chloride Activation; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1998, 37, 58. 21. Teng, H.; Yeh, T.-S.; Hsu, L.-Y. Preparation of Activated Carbons from Bituminous Coals with Phosphoric Acid Activation; Carbon 1998, 36, 1387. 22. Teng, H.; Ho, J.-A.; Hsu, Y.-F.; Hsieh, C.-T. Preparation of Activated Carbons from Bituminous Coals with CO2 Activation1. Effects of Oxygen Content in Raw Coals; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1996, 35, 4043. 23. Teng, H.; Ho, J.-A.; Hsu, Y.-F. Preparation of Activated Carbons from Bituminous Coals with CO2 ActivationInfluence of Coal Oxidation; Carbon 1997, 35, 275. 24. Illan-Gomez, M.J.; Garcia-Garcia, C; Salinas-Martinez de Lecea, C.; Linares-Solano, A. Activated Carbons from Spanish Coal. 2. Chemical Activation; Energy Fuels 1996, 10, 1108. 25. Yamashita, Y.; Ouchi, K. Influence of Alkali on the Carbonization ProcessCarbonization of 3,5-Dimethylphenol-Formaldehyde Resin with NaOH; Carbon 1982, 20, 41. 26. Hu, Z, Vansant, E.F. Chemical Activation of Elutrilithe Producing Carbon-Aluminosilicate Composite Adsorbent; Carbon 1995, 33, 1293. 27. Ahmadpour, A.; Do, D.D. The Preparation of Active Carbon from Macadamia Nutshell by Chemical Activation; Carbon 1997, 35, 1723. 28. Ehrburger, P.; Addoun, A.; Addoun, F.; Donnet, J.B. Carbonization of Coals in the Presence of Alkaline Hydroxides and Carbonates: Formation of Activated Carbons; Fuel 1986, 65, 1447. 29. Teng, H.; Wei, Y.-C. Thermogravimetric Studies on the Kinetics of Rice Hull Pyrolysis and the Influence of Water Treatment; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1998, 37, 3806. 30. Walker, P.L., Jr.; Almagro, A. Activation of Pre-Chlorinated Anthracite in Carbon Dioxide and Steam; Carbon 1995, 33, 239.

About the Authors Hsisheng Teng (corresponding author), Ph.D., is a professor of Chemical Engineering at National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan. He can be reached by e-mail at hteng@mail.ncku.edu.tw or by fax at 886-6-2344496. At the time of this research, Yu-Chuan Lin and Li-Yeh Hsu were research assistants at National Cheng Kung University.

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