(Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity) 2.0.

1

CHAPTER 2: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY



In Swokowski
(Classic / 5
th
ed.)
In Thomas
(11
th
ed.)
2.1: An Introduction to Limits 2.1, 2.3 2.1, 2.4
2.2: Properties of Limits 2.3 2.2
2.3: Limits and Infinity I 2.4 2.4
2.4: Limits and Infinity II 2.4 2.5
2.5: The Indeterminate Forms 0/0 and

/ 2.1, 2.3, 2.4 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5
2.6: The Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem 2.3 2.2
2.7: Precise Definitions of Limits 2.2 2.3
2.8: Continuity 2.5 2.6



ASSUMPTIONS THROUGHOUT THE NOTES

Unless otherwise specified

We assume that f and g denote functions.

We assume that a, b, c, and k denote real constants.

We assume that the domain of a function is its implied domain.

We assume that graphs extend beyond the scope of the figures in an expected
manner, unless endpoints are clearly shown. Arrowheads may help to make this
clearer.

Before we get to multivariable calculus, we will assume that real constants are
real constant scalars, as opposed to vectors.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.1

SECTION 2.1: AN INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS

PART A: EASY EXAMPLES

Example 1 (Polynomial Function)

Assuming f x
( )
= 3x
2
+ x 1, evaluate

lim
x1
f x
( )
.

What is this asking?
means approaches. We will discuss this more rigorously later.

lim
x1
f x
( )
is read: the limit of

f x
( )
as x approaches 1.
It is the real number that

f x
( )
approaches as x approaches 1, if such a
number exists.

Solution Method
f is a polynomial function with presumably unrestricted domain R.
Here, we substitute (plug in)

x = 1 and evaluate

f 1
( )
.
Warning 1: Sometimes, lim
xa
f x
( )
does not equal

f a
( )
. We will see
examples of this later.

Solution


lim
x1
f x
( )
= lim
x1
3x
2
+ x 1
( )


Warning 2: When taking the limit of an expression
consisting of more than one term, make sure to group the
entire expression.



= 3 1
( )
2
+ 1
( )
1

Warning 3: When performing substitutions, be prepared
to use grouping symbols unless you are sure that they are
not required.

= 3
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.2
Notation
We can write:

lim
x1
f x
( )
= 3.
Alternatively, we can write: f x
( )
3 as

x 1.

A graph can demonstrate this.
Consider the graph of y = f x
( )
; here, y = 3x
2
+ x 1.
(Figure 2.1.a)
Imagine that the arrows in the figure above represent two lovers
running towards each other along the parabola. What is the
y-coordinate of the point that they are approaching? It is 3.
(Remember that y-coordinates correspond to function values here.)
Example 2 (Rational Function)

Assuming f x
( )
=
2x +1
x 2
, evaluate

lim
x3
f x
( )
.

Solution Method
f is a rational function with implied domain

x R x 2
{ }
.
Here, we observe that 3 is in the domain of

f , so we substitute
(plug in)

x = 3 and evaluate f 3
( )
.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.3
Solution


lim
x3
f x
( )
= lim
x3
2x +1
x 2
=
2 3
( )
+1
3
( )
2
= 7


A graph can demonstrate this.
Consider the graph of

y = f x
( )
; here, y =
2x +1
x 2
.
(Figure 2.1.b)

Note: You might not know how to graph the entire graph until later.
This will often be the case with these figures.
But wait! What if the lover on the left is running along the left branch of the
graph?

The left branch is irrelevant to our analysis. We really only care about
what happens when the lovers are in the immediate vicinity of

x = 3; this will be explained rigorously later.

LIMITS ARE LOCAL.

By the way, what are the brown dashed lines?

Theyre called vertical and horizontal asymptotes (VAs and HAs),
which are lines that the graph approaches in a long-run or
explosive sense. Well define them using limits later on.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.4
Example 3 (Constant Function)


lim
x
2 = 2.

A graph can demonstrate this.
Think:

f x
( )
= 2 . Consider the graph of

y = 2.
(Figure 2.1.c)

The term approaches
We can write 2 2 (i.e, 2 approaches 2) as x .
This is true, even though people are more used to thinking about a
sequence of distinct numbers such as 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, approaching
2. It helps to remember that, in math, the constant sequence 2, 2, 2,
is also said to approach 2.
Remember that all constant functions are also polynomial functions, and all
polynomial functions are also rational functions.
A Limit Theorem for Rational Functions
If:
f is a rational function;
its domain,

Dom f
( )
, is its implied domain; and
a is a real constant in Dom f
( )
,
then:


lim
xa
f x
( )
= f a
( )
.

That is, to compute the limit, substitute (plug in)

x = a and
evaluate

f a
( )
.

We will justify this theorem later.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.5

Be prepared to work with function and variable names other than f and x.

Example 4 (Revisiting Example 2)

Assuming

g t
( )
=
2t +1
t 2
, evaluate

lim
t 3
g t
( )
.

Solution


lim
t 3
g t
( )
= lim
t 3
2t +1
t 2
=
2 3
( )
+1
3
( )
2
= 7



PART B: ONE- AND TWO-SIDED LIMITS; EXISTENCE OF LIMITS

The limit problems of the form

lim
xa
f x
( )
in Part A were two-sided limit problems,
because we were interested in what happened when we approached

x = a from
both sides: from the left and from the right.

One-sided limit problems only focus on one of these approaches.

Example 5 (Left-Hand Limit)

Evaluate lim
x3

x + 3
( )
.

What is this asking?
This is an example of a left-hand limit problem, which is a type of
one-sided limit problem.

Let f x
( )
= x + 3.

lim
x3

f x
( )
is read:
the limit of

f x
( )
as x approaches 3 from the left.

It is the real number that

f x
( )
approaches as x approaches 3 from
lesser or lower numbers (imagine approaching

x = 3 from the left
along the real number line), if such a number exists.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.6

Solution Method
We use the same method that we used in Part A for two-sided limits.
f is a rational (in fact, polynomial) function with implied domain R.
Here, we observe that 3 is in the domain of f, so we substitute
(plug in)

x = 3 and evaluate

f 3
( )
.

Solution


lim
x3

x + 3
( )
= 3+ 3
= 6


Numerical / Tabular Method
Although it is not a comprehensively convincing method that is
typically accepted on exams, and it can even be misleading at times,
this method is at least easy to understand.

Select an increasing sequence of real numbers that approaches 3 such
that all the numbers are less than 3. Then, evaluate the function at
those numbers and take a guess as to what number, if any, the
function values are approaching. For example:
x
f x
( )
= x + 3
2.9 5.9
2.99 5.99
2.999 5.999

6 (?)

or
x 2.9 2.99 2.999

3
f x
( )
= x + 3
5.9 5.99 5.999

6 (?)

We guess:

lim
x3

x + 3
( )
= 6.

Warning 4: Be careful about associating the superscript with
negative numbers. Here, when considering the left-hand limit, we
want to consider positive numbers that are close to (but less than) 3.
If we were taking a limit as x approached 0, then we would associate
the superscript with negative numbers and the + superscript
with positive numbers.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.7
A graph can demonstrate this.
Consider the graph of y = f x
( )
; here, y = x + 3.
(Figure 2.1.d)
We only care about the lover to the left of

x = 3.
(A stand-up, perhaps?)
Example 6 (Right-Hand Limit)

Evaluate

lim
x3
+
x + 3
( )
.

What is this asking?
This is an example of a right-hand limit problem, which is a type of
one-sided limit problem.

Let

f x
( )
= x + 3.

lim
x3
+
f x
( )
is read:
the limit of

f x
( )
as x approaches 3 from the right.
It is the real number that f x
( )
approaches as x approaches 3 from
greater or higher numbers (imagine approaching

x = 3 from the right
along the real number line), if such a number exists.

Solution

lim
x3
+
x + 3
( )
= 3+ 3
= 6

(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.8

Numerical / Tabular Method
Select a decreasing sequence of real numbers that approaches 3 such
that all the numbers are greater than 3. Then, evaluate the function at
those numbers and take a guess as to what number, if any, the
function values are approaching. For example:
x
f x
( )
= x + 3
3.1 6.1
3.01 6.01
3.001 6.001

6 (?)

or
x
3
3.001 3.01 3.1

f x
( )
= x + 3

6 (?)
6.001 6.01 6.1

We guess:

lim
x3
+
x + 3
( )
= 6.
A graph can demonstrate this.
Consider the graph of

y = f x
( )
; here,

y = x + 3.
(Figure 2.1.e)
We only care about the lover to the right of

x = 3.
(Maybe the lovers have bad timing?)
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.9
Existence of Limits

A limit exists (if and only if, or iff) the limit can be expressed as a
single real constant. Otherwise, the limit does not exist (DNE).
Later, we will be able to say that a limit is (infinity) or (negative
infinity) in some cases, but the limit is still nonexistent in those cases. The
notation in those cases indicates why the limit does not exist.

Two-Sided Limits

If a and L are real constants,
then lim
xa
f x
( )
= L

(

lim
xa

f x
( )
= L, and


lim
xa
+
f x
( )
= L).

That is, a two-sided limit exists the left-hand and right-hand limits
exist, and they equal the same real constant. The value of the two-sided
limit then equals that constant.
If either one-sided limit does not exist (DNE), or if the two one-sided
limits exist but are unequal, then the two-sided limit does not exist (DNE).
Example 7 (Revisiting Examples 5 and 6)

lim
x3

x + 3
( )
= 6, and

lim
x3
+
x + 3
( )
= 6, so
lim
x3
x + 3
( )
= 6.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.10
Revisiting our Limit Theorem for Rational Functions
If:
f is a rational function;
its domain, Dom f
( )
, is its implied domain; and
a is a real constant in

Dom f
( )
,
then:

lim
xa

f x
( )
= f a
( )
,

lim
xa
+
f x
( )
= f a
( )
, and, therefore,

lim
xa
f x
( )
= f a
( )
.
That is, to compute these limits, substitute (plug in) x = a and
evaluate

f a
( )
.
Lets look at a function that is not rational. The aforementioned theorem will not
apply.
Example 8
Let

f x
( )
= x +1.
Observe that

Dom f
( )
= x R x 0
{ }
, or 0,

)
.

(Figure 2.1.f)
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.11

Right-Hand Limit:

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
= 1.
This is because the function values approach 1 as we approach
x = 0 from the right.

Left-Hand Limit:

lim
x0

f x
( )
does not exist (DNE).
This is because function values in this example are undefined as
we approach

x = 0 from the left. In order for the left-hand limit
to exist, there must exist an interval of the form c, 0
( )
on
(i.e., throughout) which the function is defined, for some
negative real constant c. That is not the case here.

By the way, why did we give the interval form

c, 0
( )
and not

c, 0
(

above? We do not require the function to be defined at 0,

itself! We will discuss this issue later.
Two-Sided Limit: lim
x0
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE).
This is because the corresponding left-hand limit does not exist
(DNE).
Observe that f is not a rational function, so the aforementioned (revised)
Limit Theorem for Rational Functions does not apply, even though 0 is in

Dom f
( )
. f is, however, an algebraic function, and we will discuss a limit
theorem for algebraic functions later.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.12

PART C: THERE DOESNT HAVE TO BE A POINT!
IGNORE a THEOREMS

Example 9 (Modifying Examples 5-7)

Let g x
( )
= x + 3, x 3
( )
.
We are removing 3 from the domain of the function from Examples 5-7.

(Figure 2.1.g)

The point

3, 6
( )
is no longer on the graph. Instead, we have a hole;
later, we will say that there is a removable discontinuity at

x = 3.

Nevertheless, even though

f 3
( )
is now undefined, the following
statements are true:


lim
x3

g x
( )
= 6,

lim
x3
+
g x
( )
= 6, and
lim
x3
g x
( )
= 6.

In Examples 5-7, the limit value was attained by the function at

x = 3.
Here, it is not!
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.13


f a
( )
may or may not be relevant to lim
xa
f x
( )


The existence of

lim
xa
f x
( )
does not require the existence of

f a
( )
.
(See Example 9.)

Even if

f a
( )
exists,

lim
xa
f x
( )
could be a different value, or it might not
exist at all. (See Example 10.)

If

lim
xa
f x
( )
= f a
( )
, then f is continuous at a, as it was in
Examples 5-7 for

a = 3; we will discuss continuity later.
Example 10 (Modifying Example 9)

Let the function h be defined piecewise as follows:

h x
( )
=
x + 3, x 3
7, x = 3

(A piecewise-defined function uses different evaluation rules for different
subsets of i.e., different groups of values in its domain. This type of
function can lead to interesting limit problems.)

Evaluate

lim
x3
h x
( )
.

What does the graph of h suggest?

(Figure 2.1.h)

lim
x3
h x
( )
= 6 once again, even though

h 3
( )
= 7 .
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.14
Suggested solution

lim
x3
h x
( )
= lim
x3
x + 3
( )
= 3+ 3
= 6


Why is the suggested solution appropriate?

We only care about the behavior of the h function in the immediate
vicinity of

x = 3, excluding

x = 3, itself.

The function rule h x
( )
= x + 3 applies to the values of x that are in the
immediate vicinity of x = 3, excluding x = 3, itself.

More precisely, we can find an open interval containing 3, say
2.9, 3.1
( )
or even the entirety of R, on which the h function is defined
using the function rule

h x
( )
= x + 3, except at

x = 3, itself.

Therefore,

h x
( )
= x + 3 is the only rule that is relevant when we
consider approaching x = 3 from the left or from the right.
As a consequence, either

lim
x3
h x
( )
= lim
x3
x + 3
( )
, or neither limit
exists. We know lim
x3
x + 3
( )
= 6, so we can conclude that
lim
x3
h x
( )
= 6.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.15
How do we generalize this approach? (Perhaps look at Example 11 now.)

The "Ignore a" Theorem for Two-Sided Limits:
Evaluating the two-sided limit lim
xa
f x
( )

even if f is not a rational function with a in its domain

If:
f is a function that is defined by the function rule

r x
( )
on (i.e., throughout) some open x-interval
containing the real constant a, possibly excluding a,
itself,
then:
lim
xa
f x
( )
= lim
xa
r x
( )
, or neither limit exists.

We can develop modified theorems for one-sided limits as follows.
These modifications will be made clearer in Example 11.
Basically, when evaluating a left-hand limit, we use the function rule
that governs the x-values immediately to the left of a on the real
number line. Likewise, when evaluating a right-hand limit, we use the
rule that governs the x-values immediately to the right of a.

The "Ignore a" Theorem for Left-Hand Limits
If:
f is a function that is defined by the function rule

r x
( )
on (i.e., throughout) some open x-interval of
the form

c, a
( )
, where c is a real constant and

c < a ,
then:

lim
xa

f x
( )
= lim
xa

r x
( )
, or neither limit exists.

The "Ignore a" Theorem for Right-Hand Limits
If:
f is a function that is defined by the function rule
r x
( )
on (i.e., throughout) some open x-interval of
the form

a, c
( )
, where c is a real constant and

c > a ,
then:
lim
xa
+
f x
( )
= lim
xa
+
r x
( )
, or neither limit exists.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.16
Whats the bottom line? Does it matter what happens to a function f at a

or not when we evaluate limits like lim
xa
f x
( )
?
In theory, were not supposed to care what happens to the function
at

x = a .

Often, though, it helps to know what happens at

x = a .
For example, if we have a rational function f that has a in its
domain (and the domain is the implied domain), then
lim
xa
f x
( )
= f a
( )
. (We will come back to this issue when we cover
continuity.)
Example 11

Let the function f be defined piecewise as follows:


f x
( )
=
3, if x 0
2x
2
, if 0 < x <1
2x, if x >1

Consider the graph of

y = f x
( )
.

(Figure 2.1.i)
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.17

lim
x1

f x
( )
= lim
x1

2x
2
= 2 1
( )
2
= 2


The left-hand limit as x 1

:
The relevant function rule is

2x
2
, because
that rule applies to the x-values in an open
interval of the form

c, 1
( )
, where

c <1;
for example, consider the interval 0.9, 1
( )
.
lim
x1
+
f x
( )
= lim
x1
+
2x
= 2 1
( )
= 2


The right-hand limit as x 1
+
:
The relevant function rule is

2x , because
that rule applies to the x-values in an open
interval of the form 1, c
( )
, where c >1;
for example, consider the interval 1, 1.1
( )
.
lim
x1
f x
( )
= 2

The two-sided limit as x 1:
The left-hand and right-hand limits as
x 1 exist and are equal, so the two-sided
limit exists and equals their common value.

lim
x0

f x
( )
= lim
x0

3
= 3


The left-hand limit as x 0

:
The relevant function rule is 3, because
that rule applies to the x-values in an open
interval of the form

c, 0
( )
, where

c < 0; for
example, consider the interval 0.1, 0
( )
.

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
= lim
x0
+
2x
2
= 2 0
( )
2
= 0


The right-hand limit as x 0
+
:
The relevant function rule is

2x
2
, because
that rule applies to the x-values in an open
interval of the form

0, c
( )
, where

c > 0;
for example, consider the interval 0, 0.1
( )
.

lim
x0
f x
( )

does not exist (DNE)

The two-sided limit as x 0 :
The left-hand and right-hand limits as

x 0 exist but are unequal, so the
two-sided limit does not exist (DNE).
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.18

PART D: MORE EXAMPLES OF LIMITS THAT DO NOT EXIST (DNE)

Example 11

Let

f x
( )
= sin
1
x

.
Evaluate lim
x0

f x
( )
, lim
x0
+
f x
( )
, and lim
x0
f x
( )
.

(Figure 2.1.j)

As x approaches 0 from the left or from the right, the function values
oscillate between

1 and 1. They do not approach a single real
constant as x approaches 0 from the left, nor from the right. Therefore,


lim
x0

f x
( )
does not exist (DNE),

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE), and

lim
x0
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE).

We say that we have evaluated

lim
x0
f x
( )
, even though the limit
does not exist (DNE) and has no real value.

Note: The y-axis is not a vertical asymptote (VA) here, because the
graph and the function values are not exploding around the y-axis.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.19

Example 12

Let

f x
( )
=
1
x
.

(Figure 2.1.k)
When we discuss (infinity) and (negative infinity) in a later
section, we will be able to say:


lim
x0

f x
( )
= ,

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
= , and
lim
x0
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE).

In fact, all three indicated limits do not exist;
the first two statements indicate why those limits do not exist.


lim
x0

f x
( )
, for example, does not exist, because the function values
do not approach a single real constant as x approaches 0 from the left.
We will revisit this function in later sections.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.20
Example 13

Let

f x
( )
=
x
x
.

Note: f is not a rational function, but it is an algebraic function, since

f x
( )
=
x
x
=
x
2
x
.

Remember the piecewise definition of x :


x =
x, if x 0
x, if x < 0

Then,

f x
( )
=
x
x
=
x
x
= 1, if x > 0
x
x
= 1, if x < 0

and

f 0
( )
is undefined.

(Figure 2.1.letter l)


lim
x0

f x
( )
= 1,

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
= 1, and

lim
x0
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE)
due to the fact that the aforementioned left-hand
and right-hand limits exist but are unequal.
(Section 2.1: An Introduction to Limits) 2.1.21.

FOOTNOTES

1. Limits do not require continuity. In a later section, we will discuss continuity, a property of
many functions that helps the lovers run along the graph of a function without having to jump
or hop. In the first few problems of this section, we had the luxury of imagining the lovers
running towards each other (one from the left, one from the right) while staying on the graph
of f and without having to jump or hop, provided they were placed on appropriate parts of
the graph. Sometimes, the run really requires jumping or hopping. For example, consider
the following function f. It turns out to be true that lim
x0
f x
( )
= 0 .
f x
( )
=
0, if x is a rational value
x, if x is an irrational value

2. Misconceptions about limits.
See Why Is the Limit Concept So Difficult for Students? by Sally Jacobs in the Fall 2002
edition (vol.24, No.1) of The AMATYC Review, pp.25-34.
Students can be misled by the use of the word limit in real-world contexts. For example, a
speed limit is a bound that is not supposed to be exceeded; there is no such restriction on
limits in calculus.
Limit values can sometimes be attained. For example, if a function f is continuous at

x = a (see Examples 5-7 for

a = 3), then the function value takes on the limit value at
x = a .
Limit values do not have to be attained. See Examples 9 and 10.

Observations:
The dynamic view of limits, which involve ideas of motion and approaching (for example,
our lovers), may be more accessible to students than the static view preferred by many
textbook authors. The static view is exemplified by the formal definitions of limits we will
see later. The dynamic view greatly assists students in transitioning to the static view and the
formal definitions.
Leading mathematicians in 18
th
- and 19
th
-century Europe had heated debates about ideas of
limits.

3. Multivariable calculus. When we go to higher dimensions, there will be more than two
possible approaches when dealing with limit problems!

4. An example where a left-hand limit exists but not the right-hand limit.
Let

g x
( )
=
x + x 1+ x
( )
x
sin
1
x
|
.

=
xsin
1
x
|
.

, if x < 0
2 + x
( )
sin
1
x
|
.

, if x > 0

. (Figure 2.1.m)
Then,

lim
x0

f x
( )
= 0, which can be proven by the Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem, something
we will cover in a later section. However,

lim
x0
+
f x
( )
does not exist (DNE).
See William F. Trench, Introduction to Real Analysis (free online), p.39.