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Fault Detection and Classication in Transmission Lines Based on Wavelet Transform and ANN
K. M. Silva, Student Member, IEEE, B. A. Souza, Senior Member, IEEE, and N. S. D. Brito
AbstractThis paper proposes a novel method for transmissionline fault detection and classication using oscillographic data. The fault detection and its clearing time are determined based on a set of rules obtained from the current waveform analysis in time and wavelet domains. The method is able to single out faults from other power-quality disturbances, such as voltage sags and oscillatory transients, which are common in power systems operation. An articial neural network classies the fault from the voltage and current waveforms pattern recognition in the time domain. The method has been used for fault detection and classication from real oscillographic data of a Brazilian utility company with excellent results. Index TermsArticial neural networks (ANNs), fault classication, fault detection, transmission lines, wavelet transforms.

I. INTRODUCTION RANSMISSION-LINE relaying involves three major tasks: detection, classication, and location of the fault. It must be done as fast and accurate as possible to de-energize the faulted line, protecting the system from the harmful effects of the fault. Following the transmission-line relaying, postanalysis of the fault is important to make decisions about the system restoration and to get specic information regarding the operation of the protection system. Thus, the oscillography is vital to the operation of an electric power system. It provides system monitoring and data recording by equipment, such as digital fault recorders (DFRs). The interconnection among this equipment forms a wide-area network (WAN) for data acquisition, termed the oscillographic network. The recorded data are organized into oscillographic records, which can be accessed by different users at the utility company (Fig. 1) [1]. The DFRs must register faults and normal maintenance operations, such as de-energization and energization of the transmission lines. However, this equipment sometimes also registers a large amount of power-quality (PQ) disturbances. It can produce troubles related to data archiving and trafc on the oscillographic network. Thus, it is necessary to detect faults by the oscillographic record analysis, to keep only relevant information for the oscillographys main purpose. In addition, the fault classication can be obtained as a byproduct.
Manuscript received July 18, 2005; revised January 19, 2006. This work was supported in part by the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq) and in part by the Hydro Electric Company of So Francisco (CHESF). Paper no. TPWRD00419-2005. The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande CEP58.109-970, Brazil (e-mail: kms@ee.ufcg.edu.br; benemar@ee.ufcg.edu.br; nubia@ee.ufcg.edu.br). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.876659

Fig. 1. Oscillographic network schedule to gather records.

Several algorithms have been reported for fault detection in transmission lines [2][5]. They are based on either articial neural networks (ANNs) or wavelet transform (WT). Most of them have been developed for relaying purposes and may only distinguish a fault from the normal steady-state power system operation. Fault classication algorithms based on ANN have been proposed [6], [7]. The WT has also used fault classication [8], [9]. Furthermore, combined techniques have already been used, such as ANN and WT [10]; ANN and fuzzy logic [11]; and WT and fuzzy logic [12]. As with fault detection, most of these algorithms have been developed for relaying purposes. Both fault detection and classication algorithms found in the literature have been developed from simulated data obtained using an Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) programs. In addition, generally these algorithms concern a specic transmission line with a power supply from each side. This paper proposes a novel method for fault detection and classication in transmission lines by the oscillographic record analysis. While previous researchers have distinguished faults only from steady-state operation of the power system, the proposed method is designed to evaluate also normal maintenance operations and PQ disturbance records. The detection step is achieved by means of a set of rules obtained from the current waveform analysis in time and wavelet domains. An ANN classies the fault by the voltage and current waveform pattern recognition in the time domain. Software based on the proposed method is installed in the oscillographic network of Hydro Electric Company of So Francisco (CHESF), the main utility company of Brazil, and good results have been obtained.

0885-8977/$20.00 2006 IEEE

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windowing of the samples forms a set of input patterns to the ANN, which joins ve consecutive voltage and current samples (phase- and zero-sequence components) in each input pattern. A multilayer perceptron (MLP) analyzes the input patterns one by one and the nal fault classication is carried out by the most identied fault type. Finally, the results are reported and the record transfer is allowed. III. DETECTION MODULE A. Current Normalization The current samples are normalized to their waveform peak value at the rst cycle in the record, corresponding to the steadystate operation of the power system. By using this normalization, records from transmission lines with different rated voltage can be evaluated without distinction. It follows the fact that voltage and current waveforms range from 1 to 1, during the steady-state operation of the power system. B. Fault Detection In high and extra-high voltage transmission systems, the majority of voltage sags are caused by faults. Generally, a fault can be easily distinguished from a voltage sag, because only in the case of a fault, the circuit breakers (CBs) de-energize the line. In addition, a fault produces much harsh transient phenomena than a voltage sag. However, some voltage sags induce a large high-frequency component on the voltage and current waveforms. Thus, in order to distinguish these disturbances, it is necessary to analyze the fault in the frequency and time domain. As with voltage sags, a transmission-line energization induces a large high-frequency component on the voltage and current waveforms. However, in time domain, due to the difference in the behavior of the voltage and current waveforms, they can be easily distinguished and it is not necessary to compute the DWT for transmission-line energizations. The fault detection rules are established by means of the analysis of the current waveforms in time domain and in the rst decomposition level of the DWT. This level contains the highest frequency components. The energy of the current wavelet coefcients for a fault and a voltage sag is shown in Fig. 3. The fault detection algorithm is summarized by the following rules. and , it is not a fault. 1) If and , it is not a fault. 2) If , it is not a fault. 3) If 4) If and , it is not a fault. , , it is 5) If not a fault. and the aforementioned rules have not been 6) If reached, it is a fault. is the maximum energy of the current wavelet coefHere, is a threshold (setting) established by the analysis of cients; the wavelet coefcient energy, considering a variety of records, such as faults, maintenance operations, and PQ disturbances; and are, respectively, the peak values on the rst and operator delivers the last recording current cycles; and the maximum of its arguments.

Fig. 2. Flowchart of the proposed fault detection and classication method.

II. PROPOSED ALGORITHM The proposed algorithm involves two modules: detection and classication (Fig. 2). The rst step of the detection module is to get the voltage and current samples from the oscillographic record. The current samples are normalized before the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is computed. The fault detection is carried out through the analysis of the current wavelet coefcient energy. In the case of no fault, no data are transferred. Otherwise, the samples related to the fault clearing time are identied by means of the analysis of the current wavelet coefcients. The classication module only analyzes the voltage and current samples related to the fault clearing time. First, these samples are normalized by the correspondent largest absolute value in the record. Then, the waveforms are resampled for 1200 Hz (20 samples/cycle for a fundamental frequency of 60 Hz). A

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Fig. 4. Real record of a phase C to ground fault. Fig. 3. Energy of the current wavelet coefcients: (a) phase-ground fault and (b) voltage sag.

In order to compute the energy, a moving data window goes through the current wavelet coefcients shifting one coefcient at a time, viz

where window and

is the th wavelet coefcient within the is the window length, computed as

th

where is the number of samples within one cycle of the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz. C. Fault Clearing Time Identication The voltage and current waveform characteristics before, during, and after a transmission-line fault may be signicantly different. Therefore, a fault record should be divided into three intervals: prefault, fault, and postfault (Fig. 4). The rst interval (prefault) corresponds to steady-state operation of the power system, the second one to the fault clearing time and the last one (postfault) corresponds to the CBs operating to de-energize the line. The fault clearing time is identied by the analysis of the current wavelet coefcients at the rst decomposition level. Besides the phase components, the zero-sequence component of the currents has also been considered, because it provides a good exhibition of the ground fault effects. The hard wavelet threshold technique is applied to lter the coefcients before the fault clearing time identication, viz if otherwise where is the th wavelet coefcient and is the largest wavelet coefcient of the currents in absolute value.

The algorithm to identify the rst and last samples of the fault clearing time is summarized by the following rules. 1) Identify the rst wavelet coefcient different from zero for each phase current and zero-sequence component of the currents. 2) The rst faulted wavelet coefcient is the largest one identied by rule 1. 3) Identify the last wavelet coefcient different from zero for each phase current. 4) The last faulted wavelet coefcient is the largest one identied by rule 3. 5) Identify the last wavelet coefcient different from zero for the zero-sequence component of the currents. 6) If the wavelet coefcient obtained by rule 4 is larger than that one obtained by rule 5, the last faulted wavelet coefcient becomes that one obtained by rule 5. 7) The rst and last samples of the fault clearing time are associated with the rst and last faulted wavelet coefcients, respectively. The rst and last samples of the fault clearing time are determined by the upsampling technique. By using this technique, the th wavelet coefcient at the rst decomposition level is associated with the th sample in time domain [13]. The ltered wavelet coefcients of the currents in Fig. 4 are shown in Fig. 5. By using the rules aforementioned, the rst and last faulted samples are 460 and 1306, respectively. For a sampling frequency of 15360 Hz, the beginning and end of the fault clearing time are 30 ms and 85 ms, respectively. IV. CLASSIFICATION MODULE A. Voltage and Current Normalization As with detection module, the samples normalization is done in the classication module. Nevertheless, in this case, both voltage and current samples within the fault clearing time are normalized by their largest values at the record. In this way, the inputs of the ANN range from 1 to 1, and they do not depend on the line on which the fault occurred.

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Fig. 6. Harmonic spectrum of an original faulted current and resampled signal.

TABLE I BINARY CODING OF THE ANNS OUTPUT

The frequency spectrum of an original faulted current and the correspondent resampled signal are similar (Fig. 6). In addition, the relevant signal characteristics for fault classication remain. C. Voltage and Current Windowing The input patterns of the ANN are done by windowing the samples within the fault clearing time, joining ve consecutive voltage and current samples (phase and zero sequence components) into a single input pattern. The moving data window goes through the fault clearing time getting one new sample and discarding the oldest sample at a time. It is performed for each voltage and current waveform. D. Fault Classication In order to classify faults, an MLP network is used, which must be trained before implementing the proposed method. In this way, the learning database must contain a great variety of faulted scenarios to improve the ANNs generalization capability [16]. Nevertheless, a variety of faults is not found with real fault records. Thus, besides them, it is essential to also use simulated fault records to accomplish the ANNs learning. By using this strategy, the ANN can classify correctly simulated and real faults. The output of the ANN must indicate which fault type is related to the actual input pattern. Hence, binary coding is used for the ANNs outputs in such a way that a fault is characterized by the presence (1) or absence (0) of one or more phases and of the ground, as shown in Table I, where no fault term indicates that the input pattern is not related to a fault. After the ANN learns, the fault classication is carried out through the analysis of each window obtained from windowing

Fig. 5. Detail wavelet coefcients of the currents: (a) phase A; (b) phase B; (c) phase C; and (d) zero-sequence component.

B. Voltage and Current Resampling A continuous-time signal can be represented in a discrete form as long as the sampling frequency is chosen properly. This is done by using the sampling theorem, termed the Nyquist theorem: the sampling frequency used to turn the continuous signal into a discrete signal must be twice as large as the highest frequency present in the signal [14]. The majority of DFRs use currently high sampling frequency such as 15360 Hz. However, it is indicated in [15] that lower frequency components are more relevant for fault classication than higher frequency components. In the proposed method, a resampling strategy has been applied to voltage and current waveforms within the fault clearing time to convert a high sampling frequency into a smaller one, chosen as 1200 Hz. This strategy is based on a procedure of compression, in which some samples are simply removed, depending of the original sampling frequency value.

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TABLE III 138-kV TRANSMISSION-LINE RESULTS

TABLE IV 230-kV TRANSMISSION-LINE RESULTS

Fig. 7. Simplied physical model of a part of the power system of CHESF.

TABLE II SIMULATION VARIABLES DATA SET USED IN THE DIGITAL SIMULATION

process aforementioned. This means that the most identied fault type prevails. By using this strategy, even if the ANN makes a mistake for some windows, the fault classication will be correct anyway. V. PROPOSED METHOD IMPLEMENTATION A variety of real records obtained from different transmission lines has been used to establish the detection rule threshold , in which the value is chosen as 0.15. The proposed method was implemented using C++ language. The mother wavelet used was Daubechies 4 (db4) [17], because it is widely used in electromagnetic transient analysis. In addition, db4 owns a good time resolution providing an accurate detection of the fast transients induced by faults [18], becoming an important issue to fault clearing time identication. In order to construct the ANNs learning database, by using the Alternative Transients Program (ATP), faults were simulated in the line 04V4class 230 kV, 188 km long, belonging to CHESF (Fig. 7). The power system was modeled and simulated considering the highest load demand. The transmission line was modelled using distributed parameters without frequency dependence [19]. Table II presents the variables used for fault simulation in the transmission-line 04V4. In order to achieve good performance for the ANN, many network topologies were evaluated. A topology with 30 neurons in

the hidden layer showed the best tness for the problem. Moreover, there are also 40 sensory units in the input layer, because of the windowing process used, and four neurons in the output layer, because of the binary coding. Approximately 49 min were spent during the learning process on a 1.0-GHz PC. The training algorithm used was RPROP [20], [21]. It was necessary to have 426 iterations in order to achieve the minimum root-mean-square (rms) error of 0.02 for the validation set and 99.83% success for fault classication of the test set patterns. VI. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION To verify the performance of the proposed method, real and simulated oscillographic records were considered. A. Simulated Records Another set of faults was simulated by using the ATP to evaluate the proposed algorithm performance. In this case, the fault resistances and incidence angles are different from the ones shown in Table II. In total, 720 faults in the transmission line 04V4 were simulated and 100% success was achieved for fault detection and classication. B. Real Records Real fault records used were obtained from the oscillographic database of CHESF. The records came from transmission lines with different rated voltages. Furthermore, different line geometry and a double-circuit line were also used. Besides faults, voltage sags, oscillatory transients, and maintenance operations, there are records in which it is not visually possible to identify the disturbance, but the DFR registered them anyway. The results are summarized in Tables IIIV.

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TABLE V 500-kV TRANSMISSION-LINE RESULTS

VII. CONCLUSION The proposed method provides the selection of the records gathered by the DFRs in an attempt to provide a convenient way for retrieving only the essential information for oscillography major purposes, avoiding an overwhelming amount of recorded data, which makes the dissemination of the information difcult over the intranet using standard web services. The fault detection rules were almost always successful, except for some voltage sags. On the other hand, the fault clearing time identication was not correct for some fault records. Nevertheless, the fault classication was always correct, except for an AG fault in a 230-kV transmission line, which was classied as ABG. The obtained results show the effectiveness and efciency of the proposed method. In order to have a more dependable selection of fault records, it is necessary to evaluate other disturbance . records to conrm the threshold value The normalization scheme applied to voltage and current signals indicates that it is not necessary to retrain the ANN when the software is used for transmission lines different from those used in the learning process. However, misclassication may occur for situations in which incidence angle, fault resistance, and other parameters are very different from those used during the ANNs learning. If this is the case, it is necessary to add the misclassied fault record to the learning database and retrain the ANN. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank the crew members of this research project, especially the engineer, S. Sayonara, for her struggle and support that turned this project into a real application. REFERENCES
[1] M. Kezunovic and I. Rikalo, Automating the analysis of faults and power quality, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 4650, Jan. 1999. [2] , Detect and classify transmission line faults using neural nets, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 4247, Oct. 1996. [3] M. Oleskovicz, D. V. Coury, and R. K. Aggarwal, A complete scheme for fault detection, classication and location in transmission lines using neural networks, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., 7th Int. Conf. Developments in Power System Protection, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Apr. 2001, pp. 335338. [4] M. Solanki, Y. H. Song, S. Potts, and A. Perks, Transient protection of transmission line using wavelet transform, in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. 7th Int. Conf. on Developments in Power System Protection, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Apr. 2001, no. 479, pp. 299302. [5] C.-H. Kim, H. Kim, Y.-H. Ko, S.-H. Byun, R. K. Aggarwal, and A. T. Johns, A novel fault-detection technique of high-impedance arcing faults in transmission lines using the wavelet transform, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 921929, Oct. 2002.

[6] T. Dausten and B. Kulieke, Neural network approach to fault classication for high speed protective relaying, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 10021009, Apr. 1995. [7] R. N. Mahanty and P. B. D. Gupta, Application of rbf neural network to fault classication and location in transmission lines, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 151, no. 2, Mar. 2004. [8] J.-A. Jiang, P.-L. Fan, C.-S. Cen, C.-S. Yu, and J.-Y. Sheu, A fault detection and faulted-phase selection approach for transmission lines with haar wavelet transfroms, in Proc. IEEE/Power Eng. Soc. Transmission Distribution Conf. Expo., Dallas, TX, Sep. 2003, vol. 1, pp. 285289. [9] M. Solanki and Y. H. Song, Transient protection of EHV transmission line using discrete wavelet analysis, in Proc. IEEE Power Engineering Soc. General Meeting, Toronto, ON, Canada, Jul. 2003, vol. 3, pp. 18681873. [10] K. H. Kashyap and U. J. Shenoy, Classication of power system faults using wavelet transforms and probabilistic neural networks, in Proc. Int. Symp. Circuits and Systems, Bangkok, Thailand, May 2003, pp. 423426. [11] S. Vasilic and M. Kezunovic, Fuzzy art neural network algorithm for classifying the power system faults, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 13061314, Apr. 2005. [12] O. A. S. Youssef, Combined fuzzy-logic wavelet-based fault classication technique for power system relaying, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 582589, Apr. 2004. [13] C. S. Burrus, A. G. Ramesh, and H. Guo, Introduction to Wavelets and Wavelet Transforms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. [14] A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989. [15] W. L. A. Neves, N. S. D. Brito, B. A. Souza, A. V. Fontes, K. M. C. Dantas, A. B. Fernades, and S. S. B. Silva, Sampling rate of digital fault recorders inuence on fault diagnosis, in Proc. IEEE/Power Eng. Soc. Transmission and Distribution Latin America Conf., Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2004. [16] S. Haykin, Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999. [17] I. Daubechies, Ten Lectures on Wavelets, ser. CBMS-NSF Regional Conference Series. Philadelphia, PA: SIAM, 1992. [18] W. A. Wilkinson and M. D. Cox, Discrete wavelet analysis of power system transients, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 20382044, Nov. 1996. [19] N. S. D. Brito, W. L. A. Neves, B. A. Souza, K. M. C. Dantas, A. V. Fontes, F. B. Costa, A. B. Fernades, and S. S. B. Silva, Transmission line model inuence on fault diagnosis, in Proc. IEEE/Power Eng. Soc. Transmission Distribution Latin America Conf., Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2004. [20] M. Ricdmillci and H. Braun, A direct adaptive method for faster backpropagation learning: The RPROP algorithm, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Neural Networks, San Francisco, CA, 1993, pp. 586591. [21] B. A. Souza, N. S. D. Brito, W. A. Neves, K. M. Silva, R. V. Lima, and S. S. B. Silva, Comparison between backpropagation and rprop algorithms to fault classication in transmission lines, in Proc. Int. Joint Conf. Neural Networks, Budapest, Hungary, Jul. 2004, pp. 29132918. K. M. Silva (S06) was born in Joo Pessoa, Brazil, in 1980. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from the Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande, in 2004 and 2005, respectively, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree. His research interests are electromagnetic transients, power quality, fault diagnosis, and power system protection. B. A. Souza (M02SM05) was born in Crato, Brazil, in 1954. He received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Federal University of Paraba, Campina Grande, Brazil, in 1977, 1981, and 1995, respectively. Currently, he is a Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande. His research activities are mainly focused on optimization methods applied to power systems, electromagnetic transients, power quality, and fault diagnostics. N. S. D. Brito was born in Antenor Navarro, Brazil, in 1965. She received the B.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Federal University of Paraba, Campina Grande, Brazil, in 1988 and 2001, respectively, and the M.S. degree from Campinas State University, Campinas, Brazil. Currently, she is a Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande. Her research activities are mainly focused on power quality, especially on applications that involve fault detection and classication in electric systems.