Wars and Conflicts of 1939

Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)--Japanese war of aggression against China. American support of China in this war was a leading cause of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Spanish Civil War (July 17, 1936-March 28, 1939) --Nationalist/Fascist rebel troops rebelled against the Leftish Republican government of Spain in 1936. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy sent troops and other aid to help the Fascist General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union aided the Leftist Spanish government forces. The war ended with Franco taking total control of Spain in 1939. Franco ruled Spain until his death in 1975. Arab Revolt in Palestine (19361939)--Arab revolt against British rule and against the Jewish population in Palestine. This was a precursor to the ArabIsraeli wars which began in 1948. German Occupation of Czechoslovakia (March 15, 1939) --German troops occupy the Czeck portion of Czechoslovakia. Hitler announces the "German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia." Czechoslovakia ceases to exist as a united nation until liberation in 1945. German Occupation of Memel/Klaipeda (March 23,1939) --German troops occupy the the port region of Memel (called Klaipeda in Lithuanian), from the small Baltic nation of Lithuania. Lithuania surrendered the region peacefully, under threat of German military action if it did not give up the land and city of Meme. Memel was formerly German territory, but was awarded to Lithuania following World War One. SlovakHungarian War (March 23, 1939-April 4, 1939)--Hungary, encouraged by Germany, picked a fight wtih the Slovak rump state left over after the German annexation of the Czech portion of Czechoslovakia. Hungary gained a stip of land from Slovakia. Italian Invasion of Albania (April 7, 1939- April 12, 1939) --Italy conducted a brief, but successful invasion across the Straits of Tiran to seize control of Albania. During World War Two, Albanian partisan guerrillas would resist Italian and German occupation forces.

Ariostazo Coup Attempt (August 25, 1939) --A brief revolt of the Tacna artillery regiment of the army of Chile in South America, led by General Ariosto Herrera. The revolt failed. The coup attempt is named after the General (his first name). NOTE: One of the few conflicts in the world to take place in 1939 not related to World War Two. Soviet-Japanese Border Wars (1938-1939) Battle of Khalkhin Gol (May-September, 1939)--also known as the Nomonhan Incident. Very large and bloody battle (Soviet casualties: at least 7,974 killed and 15,251 wounded. Japanese casualties: 8,440 killed, with 8,766 wounded.) Some historians consider this battle very significant given that Stalin now knew his troops could handle the Japanese, and the Soviet victory at Khalkhin Gol ensured that Japan would not intervene when the Soviet Union joined the new European war in Poland on September 17, 1939. German Invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939-October 6, 1939)--Germany invaded Poland on September 1, and Britain, France, and Canada, declared war on Germany on September 3. The Soviet Union joined the war on Germany's side on September 17, with the Soviet Invasion of Polandfrom the east. The German Invasion of Poland (called Operation Case White/Unternehmen Fall Weiss by the Germans), marks the beginning of World War Two in Europe. (NOTE: World War Two in Asia is generally considered to have begun with the Japanese Invasion of China in 1937) Winter War (November 30, 1939-March 12, 1939)-Soviet Invasion of Finland. Finland refused to surrender border lands to the Soviet Union, resulting in the Soviet attack on Finland. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the Finns made the Soviets pay a huge price for the war.(Soviet casualties: 87,506 dead, 188,671 wounded, 39,369 captured and missing). Soviet ineptitude in this war helped convince Hitler that the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 might succeed.

Korean Naval Battle (November, 2009)

The Korean War (1950-1953) officially never really ended. The warr's major fighting ended with an armistice signed on July 27, 1953 between North Korea and its foes, South Korea and the United Nations. Over the 50-plus years, numerous border battles, naval clashes, incidents, espionage thrillers,

assassination attempts, and terrorist acts have occurred between North and South Korea, often involving American forces as well. The most volatile part of the Korean border is western sea-border, which is very much in dispute between Seoul and Pyongyang. On November 09, 2009, a North Korean naval vessel entered South Korean waters, refused to return to the North, and then was brought under fire by the South Korean navy. The North Korean ship was partially destroyed, and managed to escape back across the Naval Limit Line, which is the sea-border between the Koreas. Perhaps not coincidentally, the Northern incursion came only days before U.S. President Barack Obama was due to visite East Asia. It is common for the Pyongyang regime to seek attention from the U.S. and from the world as a whole in order to put it's own agenda on the table and to force other nations to deal with North Korea. The naval battle took place near the South Korean-held island of Daecheongdo, 125 miles west of the South Korean capital of Seoul. The island is located ja mere 18 miles from the North Korean coast. North Korea reported one sailor died in the clash while three others were wounded.

War in Afghanistan: Operation Khanajar/Strike of the Sword (July 2009-Present)

Operation Khanjar (also known by the English name, Operation Strike of the Sword ) is an American-led military offensive against the Taliban in Helmand province in southern Afghanistan. Approximately 4,000 Marines from the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade along with 650 Afghan Army soldiers are taking part in the offensive. The operation began when the U.S.and Afghan forces entered the Helmand river valley in the early morning of July 2, 2009. This operation is the largest Marine Corps-led operation since the Vietnam War. Helmand Province's main population area is along the Helmand River Valley. The Taliban has grown increasingly powerful there, and the fairly small British contingent in the area has had difficulty establishing security there. This is the first major allied offensive in Afghanistan since President Obama's new war policy was announced earlier in 2009. The Marines plan on establishing a

presence in Helmand and working with local leaders to increase security and to protect the civilian population from the Taliban.

The Marines were dropped by helicopter at after midnight, July 2 behind the Taliban lines, striking them from the rear. The first shots of the operation were fired around 06:15 a.m. when a Marine unit came under Taliban small-arms fire. Cobra attack helicopters were called in and attacked the Taliban with strafing runs at the tree line from where the fire was coming from. During daylight the Marines made contact with a group of about 20 militants holed up in a mud-brick compound. The advancing troops refrained from using attack aircraft to bomb the compound fearing there could be civilians inside and the militants managed to escape. By the end of the first day a Marine battalion had captured the Khanashin District of the province. The Marines entered the capital of the district in a convoy of 70 heavily armoured vehicles, encountering no resistance. Another Marine battalion entered Nawa, another district south of Lashkar Gah. As the Marines advanced throughout Helmand, they generally encountered little resistance, as the Taliban fell back on classic guerrilla tactics and avoided a fight against superior forces. A number of Marines and British troops died due to an increase in improvised explosive devices (IEDs), but the Taliban did not choose to stand and fight in most places. On August 11, 2009 , Marine forces attacked the Taliban-held town of Dahaneh in southern Afghanistan.

Pre-war escalation

A declassified US State Department letter that confirms the existence of hundreds of "infiltrators" in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Dated during the events running up to the 1965 war.

Since Partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan and India remained in contention over several issues. Although the Kashmir conflict was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other

border disputes existed, most notably over the Rann of Kutch, a barren region in the Indian state of Gujarat. When Junagadh, a former princely state, had been integrated into India, whose Muslim prince wanted to join Pakistan. On March 20, 1965, and later in April 1965, fighting broke out between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch due to intentional provocation by the latter[12]. Initially involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed forces. In June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan awarded 350 square miles (900 km) of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of 3500 square miles.[13] After its success in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, believed the Indian Army would be unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of Kashmir as the Indian military had suffered a loss to China in 1962.
[14]

Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was generally discontented with Indian rule

and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating saboteurs. Pakistan attempted to ignite the resistance movement by means of a covert infiltration, codenamed Operation Gibraltar [15] The Pakistani infiltrators were soon discovered, however, their presence reported by local Kashmiris, and the operation ended in a complete failure. Pakistan claimed to have been concerned by attempts of India to absorb Kashmir - a state claimed by Pakistan as "disputed", into the Indian Union. The basis for this claim was the application of Articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution that allow the President of India to declare President's Rule in the State.

The war
On August 15, 1965, Indian forces crossed the border and launched an attack on the territory of Kashmir administered by Pakistan. Pakistani reports cite this attack as unprovoked while assessments from India and neutral sources cite this as a response to Pakistan's infiltration into Jammu and Kashmir as part of Operation Gibraltar.[14] Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success, capturing three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage. By the end of August, however, both sides had relative progress; Pakistan had made progress in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and Punch and India had captured the Haji Pir Pass, eight kilometers into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. On September 1, 1965, Pakistan launched a counterattack, called Operation Grand Slam, with the objective to capture the vital town of Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever communications

and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan made gains against Indian forces, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. India responded by calling in its air force to blunt the Pakistani attack. The next day, Pakistan retaliated, its air force attacked Indian forces and air bases in both Kashmir and Punjab. India's decision to open up the theater of attack into Pakistani Punjab forced the Pakistani army to relocate troops engaged in the operation to defend Punjab. Operation Grand Slam therefore failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture Akhnoor; it became one of the turning points in the war when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. India crossed the International Border on the Western front on September 6, marking an official beginning of the war.[16] On September 6, the 15th Infantry Division of the Indian Army, under World War II veteran Major General Prasad, battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the Ichogil Canal (BRB Canal), which was a de facto border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross the Ichhogil Canal was made over the bridge in the village of Barki, just east of Lahore. These developments brought the Indian Army within the range of Lahore International Airport. As a result, theUnited States requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in Lahore. However, the Pakistani counter attack took Khem Karan from Indian forces which tried to divert the attention of Pakistanis from Khem Karan by an attack on Bedian and the adjacent villages.

Lt. Col. Hari Singh of the India's18th Cavalry posing outside a captured Pakistani police station (Barkee) in Lahore District.

The thrust against Lahore consisted of the 1st Infantry Division supported by the three tank regiments of the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade; they quickly advanced across the border, reaching the Ichhogil (BRB) Canal by 6 September. The Pakistani Army held the bridges over the canal or blew up those it could not hold, effectively stalling any further advance by the Indians on

Lahore. One unit of the Indian Jat Regiment, 3 Jat, had also crossed the Ichogil canal and captured[17] the town of Batapore (Jallo Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of the canal. The same day, a counter offensive consisting of an armored division and infantry division supported by Pakistan Air Force Sabres forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by ammunition and stores vehicles, the higher commanders had no information of 3 Jat's capture of Batapore and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to GhosalDial. This move brought extreme disappointment[18] to Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat. Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3 Jat on21 September, for the second time but after a much harder battle due to Pakistani reinforcements. On the days following September 9, both nations' premiere formations were routed in unequal battles.India's 1st Armored Division, labeled the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towardsSialkot. The Division divided itself into two prongs, was forced back by the Pakistani 6th armoured division at Chawinda and was forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses of nearly 100 tanks. The Pakistanis followed up their success by launching Operation Windup, which forced the Indians back farther. Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st Armored Division, pushed an offensive towards Khemkaran, with the intent to capture Amritsar (a major city in Punjab, India) and the bridge on River Beas toJalandhar. The Pakistani 1st Armored Division never made it past Khem Karan, however, and by the end ofSeptember 10 lay disintegrated by the defences of the Indian 4th Mountain Division at what is now known as the Battle of Asal Uttar (lit. meaning - "Real Answer", or more appropriate English equivalent - "Fitting Response"). The area became known as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town), because of the large number of US-made Pakistani Patton tanks. Approximately 97 Pakistani tanks were destroyed or abandoned, with only 32 Indian tanks destroyed or damaged. The Pakistani 1st Armoured Division less 5th Armoured Brigade was next sent to Sialkot sector behind Pakistani 6th Armoured Division where it didn't see action as 6th Armoured Division was already in process of routing Indian 1st Armoured Division which was superior to it in strength. The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 710 mile (1,840 km) of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 210 mile (545 km) of Indian territory. The territory occupied by India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors,[19]while Pakistani land gains were primarily south in deserts opposite to Sindh and in Chumb sector nearKashmir in north.[20]

Aerial warfare

Main article: Aerial warfare in 1965 India Pakistan War Further information: Indian Air Force#Second Kashmir War 1965 and Pakistan Air Force#IndoPakistani War of 1965

The F-86 was the prime strike fighter of the PAF.

The war saw aircraft of the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) engaging in combat for the first time since independence. Though the two forces had previously faced off in theFirst Kashmir War during the late 1940s, that engagement was very limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict. The IAF was flying large numbers of Hawker Hunter, Indian-manufactured Folland Gnats, de Havilland Vampires, EE Canberrabombers and a squadron of MiG-21s. The PAF's fighter force comprised 102 F-86F Sabres and 12 F-104 Starfighters, along with 24 B-57 Canberra bombers. During the conflict the PAF was out-numbered by around 5:1.[21] The PAF's aircraft were largely of American origin, whereas the IAF flew an assortment of Soviet and European aeroplanes. It has been widely reported that the PAF's American aircraft were superior to those of the InAF, but according to some experts this is untrue because the InAF's MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland Gnat fighters actually had higher performance than their PAF counter-part, the F-86 Sabre.[22] Although the InAF's de Havilland Vampire fighterbombers were outdated in comparison to the F-86 Sabre, the Hawker Hunter fighters were superior in both power and speed to the F-86 according to Air Cdre (retired) Sajjad Haider, who lead the PAF's No.19 Squadron in combat during the war.[23] The F-86 claimed a fair share of Indian planes, though remaining vulnerable to the diminutive Folland Gnat, nicknamed "Sabre Slayer".[24] The PAF's F-104 Starfighter of the PAF was the fastest fighter operating in the subcontinent at that time and was often referred to as "the pride of the PAF". However, according to Air Cdre (retired) Sajjad Haider who flew with the PAF's No.19 Squadron, the F-104 did not deserve this reputation. Being "a high level interceptor designed to neutralise Soviet strategic bombers inaltitudes above 40,000 feet," rather than engage in dogfights with agile fighters at low altitudes, it was "unsuited to the tactical environment of the region."[25] It can be argued that, although the IAF is believed to have feared the Starfighter,

[25]

in combat it was not as effective as the IAF's far more agile, albeit much slower, Folland

Gnat fighter.[26][27] The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 35.
[28]

According to one independent source, the PAF flew 86 F-86 Sabres, 10 F-104 Starfighters and

20 B-57 Canberras in a parade soon after the war was over. Thus disproving the IAF's claim of downing 73 PAF fighters, which at the time constituted nearly the entire Pakistani front-line fighter force.[29] Indian sources have pointed out that, despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan sought to acquire additional aircraft from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China within 10 days of the beginning war.[citation needed] But this could be explained by the 5:1 disparity in numbers faced by the PAF.[citation needed]

Tank battles

Tanks of 18th Cavalry (Indian Army) on the move during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.

The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest tank battles sinceWorld War II. At the beginning of the war, the Pakistani Army had both a numerical advantage in tanks, as well as better equipment overall.[30] Pakistani armour was largely American-made; it consisted mainly of Patton M47 and M-48 tanks, but also included many M4 Sherman tanks, some M24 Chaffee light tanks and M36 Jackson tank destroyers, equipped with 90 mm guns.[31] The bulk of India's tank fleet were older M4 Sherman tanks; some were up-gunned with the French high velocity CN 75 50 guns and could hold their own, whilst some older models were still equipped with the inferior 75 mm M3 L/40 gun. Besides the M4 tanks, India fielded the British-made Centurion Tank Mk 7, with the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun, and the AMX-13, PT-76, and M3 Stuart light tanks. Pakistan fielded a greater number and more modern artillery; its guns out-ranged those of the Indian artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik.[32]

At the outbreak of war in 1965, Pakistan had about 15 armoured cavalry regiments, each with about 45 tanks in three squadrons. Besides the Pattons, there were about 200 M4 Shermans rearmed with 76 mm guns, 150 M24 Chaffee light tank and a few independent squadrons of M36B1 tank destroyers. Most of these regiments served in Pakistan's two armoured divisions, the 1st and 6th Armoured divisions - the latter being in the process of formation. The Indian Army of the time possessed 17 cavalry regiments, and in the 1950s had begun modernizing them by the acquisition of 164 AMX-13 light tanks and 188 Centurions. The remainder of the cavalry units were equipped with M4 Shermans and a small number of M3A3 Stuart light tanks. India had only a single armoured division, the 1st 'Black Elephant' Armoured Division, also called 'Fakhr I Hind' ('Pride of India'), which consisted of the 17th cavalry Poona Horse, the 4th Hodson's Horse, the 16th 'Black Elephant' Cavalry, the 7th Light Cavalry, the 2nd Royal Lancers, the 18th Cavalry and the 62nd Cavalry, the two first named being equipped with Centurions,. There was also the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade, one of whose three regiments, the 3rd Cavalry, was also equipped with Centurions. Despite the qualitative and numerical superiority of Pakistani armour,[33] Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield by India, which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector, whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on Amritsar.[34];[35] they were sometimes employed in a faulty manner, such as charging prepared defenses during the defeat of Pakistan's 1st Armored Division at Assal Uttar.

Pakistani soldiers during theBattle of Chawinda. Brigadier A.A.K. Niazi, (3rd from left) observing a map

Although India's tank formations experienced same results, India's attack at the Battle of Chawinda, led by its 1st Armored Division and supporting units, was brought to a grinding halt by newly raised 6th Armoured Division(ex-100th independent brigade group) in the Chawinda sector. The Indians lost 12 tanks at Chawinda. The Pakistanis followed up with Operation Windup, which forced Indian forces back further. One true winner to emerge was India's Centurion battle tank, with its 105 mm gun and heavy armor, which proved superior to the overly complex Pattons and their exaggerated reputations.[35].However, in the Sialkot sector outnumbered Pattons performed exceedingly well in the hands of the 25th Cavalry and other regiments of the 6th Armoured Division, which exacted a disproportionately heavy toll of Centurions from the Poona Horse and

Hodson's Horse. The Indian Army has made much of the fact that some of its Centurions survived repeated hits; yet have failed to point out that the majority of tanks in the Sialkot sector were Shermans whose guns were inadequate even in 1944. Neither the Indian nor Pakistani Army showed any great facility in the use of armoured formations in offensive operations, whether the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division at Asal Uttar or the Indian 1st Armoured Division at Chawinda. In contrast, both proved adept with smaller forces in a defensive role such a the 2nd Armoured Brigade at Asal Uttar and the 25th Cavalry at Chawinda, where they defeated their better equipped but clumsier foes

Naval hostilities
The navies of India and Pakistan did not play a prominent role in the war of 1965, although Pakistani accounts dispute this.[36] On September 7, a flotilla of the Pakistani Navy carried out a small scale bombardment of the Indian coastal town and radar station of Dwarka, which was 200 miles (300 km) south of the Pakistani port of Karachi. Codenamed Operation Dwarka, it did not fulfill its primary objective of disabling the radar station and there was no immediate retaliatory response from India. Later, some of the Indian fleet sailed from Bombay to Dwarka to patrol the area and deter further bombardment. Foreign authors have noted that the "insignificant bombardment"[37] of the town was a "limited engagement, with no strategic value."[36] According to some Pakistani sources, one submarine, PNS Ghazi, kept the Indian Navy's aircraft carrierINS Vikrant besieged in Bombay throughout the war. Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, and wished to restrict the war to a landbased conflict.[38]Moreover, they note that the Vikrant was in dry dock in the process of refitting. Some Pakistani defence writers have also discounted claims that the Indian Navy was bottled up in Bombay by a single submarine, instead stating that 75% of the Indian Navy was under maintenance in harbour.[39] There were, however, unconfirmed reports of underwater attacks near Bombay by the Indian Navy against what they suspected were American-supplied Pakistani submarines.

Covert operations
The Pakistan Army launched a number of covert operations to infiltrate and sabotage Indian airbases.[40]On September 7, 1965, the Special Services Group (SSG) commandos were parachuted into enemy territory. According to Chief of Army Staff General Musa Khan, about 135 commandos were airdropped at three Indian airfields(Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur). The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster".[40] Only 22 commandos returned to Pakistan as planned, 93 were taken prisoner (including one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt), and 20 were killed in

encounters with the army, police or civilians[41] The reason for the failure of the commando mission is attributed to the failure to provide maps, proper briefings and adequate planning or preparation[42] Despite failing to sabotage the airfields, Pakistan sources claim that the commando mission affected some planned Indian operations. As the Indian 14th Division was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the Pakistan Air Force found the road filled with transport, and destroyed many vehicles.[43] India responded to the covert activity by announcing rewards for captured Pakistani spies or paratroopers.[44] Meanwhile, in Pakistan, rumors spread that India had retaliated with its own covert operations, sending commandos deep into Pakistan territory,[42] but these rumors were later determined to be unfounded.[45]

Assessment of losses
India and Pakistan make widely divergent claims about the damage they inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims.

Indian claims[46]

Pakistani claims[47]

Independent Sources[14][48]

Casualties -

3,000 Indian soldiers, 3,800 Pakistani soldiers

Combat flying effort

4,073+ combat sorties

2,279 combat sorties

Aircraft lost

35 IAF (official), 73 PAF.Other sources[49] based on the Official Indian Armed Forces History[50] put actual IAF 19 PAF, losses at 30 including 19 accidents (non 104 IAF combat sortie rate is not known) and PAF's combat losses alone at 43.

20 PAF, Pakistan claims India rejected neutral arbitration[51]. (Singh, Pushpindar (1991). Fiza ya, Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force. Himalayan Books. ISBN 81-7002-038-7. )

Aerial victories

17 + 3 (post war)

30

128 Indian tanks,[52] 152 Pakistani tanks captured, 150Pakistani Tanks tanks destroyed.[52] Officially 471 destroyed Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured

165 Pakistan tanks[53]

Land area 1,500 mi2 (3,885 km2) of Pakistani won territory

250 mi (648 km) of Indian territory

India held 710 mi(1,1840 km) of Pakistani territory and Pakistan held 210 mi(545 km) of Indian territory

Neutral assessments
There have been several neutral assessments of the losses incurred by both India and Pakistan during the war. Most of these assessments agree that India had a upper hand over Pakistan when ceasefire was declared. Some of the neutral assessments are mentioned below According to the United States Library of Congress Country Studies:

The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by "Hindu India" and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government.[54]

TIME magazine reported that India held 690 mi2 of Pakistan territory while Pakistan held

250 mi2 of Indian territory in Kashmir and Rajasthan. Additionally, Pakistan had lost almost half its armour temporarily.[55] The same article stated that Severely mauled by the larger Indian armed forces, Pakistan could continue the fight only by teaming up with Red China and turning its back on the U.N.

Devin T. Hagerty wrote in his book "South Asia in world politics"[56] -

The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened on September 22, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.

In his book "National identity and geopolitical visions",[57] Gertjan Dijkink writes -

The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.

An excerpt from Stanley Wolpert's India,[58] summarizing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965,

is as follows:
In three weeks the second Indo-Pak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced cessation of conflict before either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic UriPoonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.

In his book "War in the modern world since 1815", Jeremy Black mentions that "Pakistan

gambled and lost heavily".[59] He also writes about India's missed military opportunities India's chief of army staff urged negotiations on the ground that they were running out ammunition and their number of tanks had become seriously depleted. In fact, the army had used less than 15% of its ammunition compared to Pakistan, which had consumed closer to 80 percent and India had double the number of serviceable tanks.

Dennis Kux's "India and the United States estranged democracies" also provides a

summary of the war.[60]

Although both sides lost heavily in men and materiel, and neither gained a decisive military advantage, India had the better of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated.

"A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947" by Robert Johnson mentions[61] -

India's strategic aims were modest - it aimed to deny Pakistani Army victory, although it ended up in possession of 720 square miles of Pakistani territory for the loss of just 220 of its own.

An excerpt from William M. Carpenter and David G. Wiencek's "Asian security handbook:

terrorism and the new security environment"[62] A brief but furious 1965 war with India began with a covert Pakistani thrust across the Kashmiri cease-fire line and ended up with the city of Lahore threatened with encirclement by Indian Army. Another UNsponsored cease-fire left borders unchanged, but Pakistan's vulnerability had again been exposed.

English historian John Keay's "India: A History" provides a summary of the 1965 war[63] -

The 1965 Indo-Pak war lasted barely a month. Pakistan made gains in the Rajasthan desert but its main push against India's Jammu-Srinagar road link was repulsed and Indian tanks advanced to within a sight of Lahore. Both sides claimed victory but India had most to celebrate.

Uk Heo and Shale Asher Horowitz write in their book "Conflict in Asia: Korea, China-

Taiwan, and India-Pakistan"[64] Again India appeared, logistically at least, to be in a superior position but neither side was able to mobilize enough strength to gain a decisive victory.

Newsweek magazine, however, praised the Pakistani military's ability to hold of the much

larger Indian Army.[65]

"By just the end of the week, in fact, it was clear that the Pakistanis were more than holding their own."

Ceasefire
On September 22, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed a resolution that called for an unconditional ceasefire from both nations. The war ended the following day. The Soviet Union, led by Premier Alexey Kosygin, hosted ceasefire negotiations in Tashkent (now inUzbekistan), where Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than February 25,1966. The ceasefire was criticized by many Pakistanis who, relying on official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. The protests led to student riots.[66] Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing admirably in the war - which they incorrectly blamed as being initiated by India - and thus the Tashkent Declaration was seen as having forfeited the gains.
[67]

Some recent books written by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-ISIchief titled "The Myth

of 1965 Victory",[68] allegedly exposed Pakistani fabrications about the war, but all copies of the book were bought by Pakistan Army to prevent publication because the topic was "too sensitive".
[69][70]

India and Pakistan accused each other of ceasefire violations; India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India.[71] In addition to the expected exchange of small arms and artillery fire, India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to capture the Indian village of Chananwalla in the Fazilka sector. This village was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On October 10, a B-57 Canberra on loan to the PAF was damaged by 3 SA-2missiles fired from the IAF base at Ambala[72] A Pakistani

Army Auster was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pakistani army captain and on 2 February 1967, an AOP was shot down by IAF Hunters. The ceasefire remained in effect until the start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Intelligence failures
Strategic miscalculations by both India and Pakistan ensured that the war ended in a stalemate

Indian miscalculations

A Life magazine cover story on the war showing an Indian soldier in Kashmir with a bazooka.

Indian military intelligence gave no warning of the impending Pakistan invasion. The Indian Army failed to recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in Chumb and suffered significant losses as a result. The "Official History of the 1965 War", drafted by the Ministry of Defence of India in 1992, was a long suppressed document that revealed other miscalculations. According to the document, onSeptember 22 when the Security Council was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to delay accepting the ceasefire. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank losses. It was determined later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired and India held twice the number of tanks as Pakistan. By this time, the Pakistani Army had used close to 80% of its ammunition. Air Chief Marshal (retd) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the IAF and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did

not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo Syndrome", a patronizing attitude sometimes held by the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military.[46]

Pakistani miscalculations
The Pakistani Army's failures started with the supposition that a generally discontented Kashmiri people, given the opportunity provided by the Pakistani advance, would revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive surrender of Kashmir. The Kashmiri people, however, did not revolt. Instead, the Indian Army was provided with enough information to learn of Operation Gibraltar and the fact that the Army was battling not insurgents, as they had initially supposed, but Pakistani Army regulars.

Telegram from the Embassy of the United States in Karachi: "Continuing propaganda re[garding] achievements of Pak forces seems to have convinced most that only Pak forbearance saved the Indians from disaster."

The Pakistani Army also failed to recognize that the Indian policy makers would order an attack on the southern sector in order to open a second theater of conflict. Pakistan was forced to dedicate troops to the southern sector to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead using them to support penetrating into Kashmir. "Operation Grand Slam", which was launched by Pakistan to capture Akhnoor, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was also a failure. Many Pakistani commentators criticized the Ayub Khan administration for being indecisive during Operation Grand Slam. These critics claim that the operation failed because Ayub Khan knew the importance of Akhnur to India (having called it India's "jugular vein") and did not want to capture it and drive the two nations into an all-out war. Despite progress being made in Akhnur, General Ayub Khan relieved the commanding Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik and

replaced him with Gen. Yahya Khan. A 24-hour lull ensued the replacement, which allowed the Indian army to regroup in Akhnur and successfully oppose a lackluster attack headed by General Yahya Khan. "The enemy came to our rescue", asserted the Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command. Later, Akhtar Hussain Malik criticized Ayub Khan for planning Operation Gibraltar, which was doomed to fail, and for relieving him of his command at a crucial moment in the war. Malik threatened to expose the truth about the war and the army's failure, but later dropped the idea for fear of being banned.[73] Some authors have noted that Pakistan might have been emboldened by a war game conducted in March 1965, at the Institute of Defence Analysis, USA. The exercise concluded that, in the event of a war with India, Pakistan would win.[74][75] Other authors like Stephen Philip Cohen, have consistently commented that the Pakistan Army had "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military... the 1965 war was a shock".[76] Pakistani Air Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of PAF during the war, Nur Khan, later said that the Pakistan Army, and not India, should be blamed for starting the war.[77]
[78]

However propaganda in Pakistan about the war continued; the war was not rationally analyzed

in Pakistan,[79][80] with most of the blame being heaped on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the 1971 war, when Pakistan suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of India, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.

Involvement of other nations

The United States of America, which had previously supplied military equipment to India and Pakistan, imposed an embargo against further supplies to both countries once the war had started. The US was apprehensive that military equipment that it had provided to be used in a battle against communism, would instead be used by the countries to fight one another. The American embargo especially affected Pakistan since the majority of its equipment was provided by America. This would cause Pakistan to believe that it could not continue the war beyond September.[81] Following imposition of the American embargo, other NATO allies (including the UK) discontinued providing military equipment to the nations. Both before and during the war, China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and had invariably admonished India, with whom it had fought a war in 1962. There were also reports of Chinese troop movements on the Indian border to support Pakistan.[82] As such, India agreed to the UN mandate in order to avoid a war on both borders.

India's participation in the Non-Aligned Movement yielded little support from its members. Pakistan, however, gained assistance from countries of Asia with large Islamic populations, including Turkey, Iranand Indonesia. The USSR was more neutral than most other nations during the war and even invited both nations to talks that it would host in Tashkent.[83][84]

Aftermath
India
In its October 1965 issue, the TIME magazine quoted a Western official assessing the consequences of the war[85]
Now it's apparent to everybody that India is going to emerge as an Asian power in its own right.

In light of the failures of the Sino-Indian War, the outcome of the 1965 war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory in India. The Indian premier, Lal Bahadur Shastri, was hailed as a national hero inIndia.[86] The Sunday Times of London, however, criticized Indian military leaders for failing to effectively use its superior armed forces to achieve a decisive victory over Pakistan.
[87]

The favorable outcome of the war encouraged Indian government and military officials to continue the steady increase in India's defense spending. The Indian Armed Forces, which was already undergoing rapid expansion and modernization, made further improvements in command and control to address some shortcomings. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India established the Research and Analysis Wing for external espionage and intelligence. China's repeated threats to intervene in the conflict in support of Pakistan increased pressure on the government to take an immediate decision to develop nuclear weapons.[88] Despite repeated assurances, the United States did little to prevent extensive use of American arms by Pakistani forces during the conflict which irked India.[89] At the same time, the United States and United Kingdom refused to supply India with sophisticated weaponry which further strained the relations between the West and India.[90] These developments led to a significant change in India's foreign policy India, which had previously championed the cause of non-alignment, distanced itself further from Western powers and developed close relations with the Soviet Union. By the end of 1960s, the Soviet Union emerged as the biggest supplier of military hardware to India.[91] From 1967 to 1977, 81% of India's arms imports were from the Soviet Union.[92] After the 1965 war, the arms race between India and Pakistan became even more asymmetric and India was outdistancing Pakistan by far.[93]

Pakistan

At the conclusion of the war, many Pakistanis considered the performance of their military to be positive.September 6 is celebrated as 'Defence Day' in Pakistan, in commemoration of the successful defence ofLahore against the Indian army. The performance of the Pakistani Air Force, in particular, was praised. However, the Pakistani government was accused by foreign analysts of spreading disinformation among its citizens regarding the actual consequences of the war.[94] In his book "Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani foreign policies", S.M. Burke writes[56]
After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 the balance of military power had decisively shifted in favor of India. Pakistan had found it difficult to replace the heavy equipment lost during that conflict while her adversary, despite her economic and political problems, had been determinedly building up her strength.

Most observers agree that the myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army was badly dented in the war, as critical breakthroughs were not made.[95] Several Pakistani writers criticized the military's ill-founded belief that their "martial race" of soldiers could defeat "Hindu India" in the war.[96][97] Rasul Bux Rais, a Pakistani political analyst wrote[98] The 1965 war with India proved that Pakistan could neither break the formidable Indian defenses in a blitzkrieg fashion nor could she sustain an all-out conflict for long.

Moreover, Pakistan had lost more ground than it had gained during the war and, more importantly, failed to achieve its goal of occupying Kashmir; this result has been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for Pakistan.[99][100][101] In his book titled The greater game: India's race with destiny and China, David Van Praagh wrote[102] India won the war. It gained 1,840 square kilometers of Pakistani territory: 640 square kilometers in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan's portion of the state; 460 square kilometers of the Sailkot sector; 380 square kilometers far to the south of Sindh; and most critical, 360 square kilometers on the Lahore front. Pakistan took 540 square kilometers of Indian territory: 490 square kilometers in the Chhamb sector and 50 square kilometers arounf Khem Karan.

Many high ranking Pakistani officials and military experts later criticized the faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar that ultimately led to the war. The Tashkent declaration was also criticized in Pakistan, though few citizens realised the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war. Political leaders were also criticized. Following the advice of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's foreign minister, Ayub Khan had raised very high expectations among the people of Pakistan about the superiority - if not invincibility - of its armed forces,[103] but Pakistan's inability to attain its military aims during the war, created a political liability for Ayub.[104] The defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal opposition.[105] And with the war creating a huge financial burden,Pakistan's economy, which had witnessed rapid progress in the early 60s, took a severe beating.[106][107]

Pakistan was surprised by the lack of support by the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. USA declared its neutrality in the war by cutting off military supplies to both sides,[14] leading Islamabad to believe that they were "betrayed" by the United States.[108] After the war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support. Another negative consequence of the war was the growing resentment against the Pakistani government in East Pakistan(present day Bangladesh),[76] particularly for West Pakistan's obsession with Kashmir.[109] Bengali leaders accused the central government of not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir.[110] In fact, despite some Pakistan Air Force attacks being launched from bases in East Pakistan during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector,[111] although East Pakistan was defended only by an understrenghted infantry division (14 Division), sixteen planes and no tanks.[112]Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was critical of the disparity in military resources deployed in East and West Pakistan, calling for greater autonomy for East Pakistan, which ultimately led to the Bangladesh Liberation war and another war between India and Pakistan in 1971.

India-Pakistan Wars
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition | 2008 | Copyright India-Pakistan Wars name given to the series of conflicts between India and Pakistan since 1947, when the Indian subcontinent was partitioned and the two countries became independent of Great Britain. The most violent outbreaks came in 1947-48, 1965, and 1971. The roots of the conflicts lie in the hostility between Hindus and Muslims and, initially, in the disposition of selfgoverning princely states. The 1947-48 War The first war arose over Kashmir , in NW India, in 1947 when Muslim subjects revolted and were supported by Pakistani troops. The Hindu ruler appealed to India for aid, agreeing to cede the state to India in return. India moved quickly to consolidate its position in Kashmir, pushing Pakistan's "volunteers" back. Conflicts also arose in the Punjab and in Bengal. The undeclared war in Kashmir continued until Jan. 1, 1949, when a truce was arranged through UN mediation; negotiations between India and Pakistan began and lasted until 1954 without resolving the Kashmir problem. Pakistan controlled part of the area, Azad (Free) Kashmir, while India held most of the territory, which it annexed in 1957. The 1965 War The second war began in Apr., 1965, when fighting broke out in the Rann of Kachchh, a sparsely inhabited region along the West Pakistan-India border. In August fighting spread to Kashmir and to the Punjab, and in September Pakistani and Indian troops crossed the partition line between the two countries and launched air assaults on each other's cities. After threats of intervention by China had been successfully opposed by the United States and Britain, Pakistan and India agreed to a UN-sponsored cease-fire and withdrew to the pre-August lines. Prime Minister Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri of India and President Ayub Khan of Pakistan met in Tashkent, USSR (now in Uzbekistan), in Jan., 1966, and signed an agreement pledging continued negotiations and

respect for the cease-fire conditions. After the Tashkent Declaration another period of relative peace ensued. The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated when civil war erupted in Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding greater autonomy. The fighting forced 10 million East Pakistani Bengalis to flee to India. When Pakistan attacked Indian airfields in Kashmir, India attacked both East and West Pakistan. It occupied the eastern half, which declared its independence as Bangladesh , on Dec. 6, 1971. Under great-power pressure, a UN cease-fire was arranged in mid-December, after Pakistan's defeat. Pakistan lost its eastern half, an army of 100,000 soldiers, and was thrown into political turmoil. Zulfikar AliBhutto emerged as leader of Pakistan, and Mujibur Rahman as prime minister of Bangladesh. Tensions were alleviated by the Shimla accord of 1972, and by Pakistan's recognition of Bangladesh in 1974, but tensions have periodically recurred.

First Indo-Pakistan War (1948-1949)--Also known as the First Kashmir War. Liberation of Hyderabad (1948)--Also known in India as "Operation Polo." Naga Rebellion (1954?-Present) Liberation of Goa (1961)--A conflict between India and Portugal. Goa had been a Portuguese colony for centuries prior to the Indian invasion of 1961. Also known in India as "Operation Vijay." Sino-Indian War (1962)--Border war between China and India. United Nations Offensive Operations in the Congo (1961-1964)--India contributed troops to the UN army which undertook offensive action against rebels in the Congo. Second Indo-Pakistan War (1965)--Also known as the Second Kashmir War. Sino-Indian Skirmish (1967)--Also known as the Chola "Incident." Third Indo-Pakistan War/Bengali War of Independence (1971)--India attacked Pakistan in support of rebels seeking the independence of Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan) from Pakistan. Assam-Nagaland border dispute (1979?-Present?)

Punjab Insurgency (1984-1989)--A rebellion in the Sikh-dominated Punjab region culminated in the bloody Battle at the Golden Temple in June of 1984. Follow-up operations in the countryside continued into 1989. India claims the Sikh rebels were backed by Pakistan. Siachen Operations (1984-Present)--The Siachen Glacier is one of the highest glaciers in the world, and it sits astride the demarcation line between India's and Pakistan's claims in Jammu and Kashmir. Since the mid-'80's, artillery and infantry battles have broken out along this stretch of the border. These battles are related to the ongoingKashmir Revolt (see below). Indian Intervention in Sri Lankan Civil War (1987-1990)--India intervened in the bloody Sri Lankan Civil War (which continues into 2000) in support of the Sinhalese majority-dominated government. After suffering heavy casualties and realizing that this was a conflict best left to the Sri Lankans, India removed her troops in 1990. Indian Intervention in the Maldives (1988)--India intervened to save the government of the Maldives Islands from a takeover by Sri Lankan rebels. Kashmir Revolt (1990-Present)-This is the internal Indian conflict involving Pakistan and Pakistani-supported Kashmir rebels.
NAME OF CONFLICT:

India-Bangladesh Border Conflict (2001)

ALTERNATE NAMES FOR CONFLICT: BELLIGERENTS:

India vs. Bangladesh

DATES OF CONFLICT:

BEGAN: April 18, 2001 ENDED: April 21, 2001

TYPE(S) OF CONFLICT: Inter-State Border Conflict RELATED CONFLICTS:

PREDECESSOR: (Related conflicts that occurred before) Bangladesh War of Independence (1971) India-Bangladesh Muhurichar Island Border Conflict (1975) India-Bangladesh Muhurichar Island Border Conflict (1979) India-Bangladesh Muhurichar Island Border Conflict (1985)

CONCURRENT: (Related conflicts occurring at the same time) SUCCESSOR: (Related conflicts that occur later)

CAUSES AND DESCRIPTION OF CONFLICT:

In 1971, India aided the people of Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan), gain independence from Pakistan. According to the Bangladesh government, ever since that military intervention, Indian forces have occupied a small sliver of land along their border near the village of Pyrdiwah. On April 18, troops of the Bangladeshi Rifles (border troops) occupied the disputed village. In the fighting that followed, 15 members of India's border forces, the Border Security Force (BSF) were killed, along with several of the attacking soldiers. Indian

forces responded and retook the village. Between 10,000 and 20,000 villagers living in the area fled the fighting, with at least 17 suffering wounds. The combat remained limited to the border troops of the respective nations, though mortars were used in addition to automatic weapons fire. Several villages were destroyed or heavily damaged in the fighting. Several of the Indian dead appeared to have suffered brutal, non-combat deaths, which were blamed on mob violence perpetuated by Bangladesh civilians. The governments of both nations worked quickly to defuse the tension and end the fighting. Since the creation of Bangladesh, the neighbors have had largely cordial relations, though the BSR and Bangladeshi Rifles have exchanged fire in the past. Those incidents centered on Muhurichar Island further to the south. Conflicting claims to ownership of this river island provoked gunfire in 1975, 1979 and 1985. The violence in 2001 was by far the most serious in the history of Indian-Bangladeshi relations.

India and Bangladesh began border talks in March, 2002.

CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT:

Increased difficulties in relations and an upsurge in Bangladeshi nationalism and ill will toward India.
CASUALTY FIGURES:

Fewer than two dozen Indian dead, with smaller numbers of Bangladeshi casualties. At least 17 Indian civilians were wounded.

UNIQUE FACTS OR TRENDS:

This was the first "serious" military conflict between India and Bangladesh since Bangali independence.
PRIMARY NAME OF WAR OR CONFLICT First Kashmir War (1947-1948) Second Kashmir War (1965) Bengali War of Independence (1971) Kashmir Border Conflict (1991-Present) 4th Indo-Pakistani War Kargil War (1999) Terrorist Attack on Indian Parliament (2001) Terrorist Attack on Mumbai (2008) Pakistani-supported terrorists attacked the Indian Parliament Pakistani-supported terrorists attacked the Indian city of Mumbai, killing 179. PLACEMENT IN SERIES OF CONFLICTS 1st Indo-Pakistani War 2nd Indo-Pakistani War 3rd Indo-Pakistani War

Pre-Historic Era
Stone Age
Main article: South Asian Stone Age Further information: Mehrgarh, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Edakkal Caves

Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in theNarmada Valley in Central Indiaindicate that India might have been inhabited since at least theMiddle Pleistocene era, somewhere between

200,000 to 500,000 years ago.[5][6] Most traces of the out of Africamigration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have been lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area. The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.[7] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest exmples of stone age writing. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE. The north-western part of the Subcontinent has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years.[8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[10] and some of its major civilizations.[11][12] The earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is thepalaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[13] Village life began with the Neolithic site ofMehrgarh,[14] while the first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization.[15][16]

Bronze Age
Main article: Indus Valley Civilization See also: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of India

Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

"Priest King" ofIndus Valley Civilization

The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into theGhaggar-Hakra River valley,[11] the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[17] Gujarat,[18] and southeastern Afghanistan.[19] The people of the Indus Valley are believed to have been by some as Dravidians, mainly the population of today'sSouthern India.[20][21] The civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthanprovinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira,Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses.

Vedic period
Main article: Vedic Civilization See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans

Map of North India in the late Vedic period.

Vaishali was the capital of "Licchavi," believed to be the world's first republic.[22]

The Vedic periodis characterized by Indo-Aryanculture associated with the texts ofVedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed inVedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indiansociety. The Aryas established Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan during which immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of local people whom they called Dasyus. Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[23] After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[24] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings.[25] The kingdom of the Kurus[26] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BCE with the composition of theAtharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as yma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanning much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[25] TheVedic Period also established republics (such as Vaishali) which existed as early as the sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century AD. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Maha Janapadas.

Maha Janapadas

Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on the bank of river Falguin Bodh Gaya, Bihar.

Detail of a leaf with, The Birth ofMahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400.

The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda University is considered "one of the first great universities in recorded history." It was the center ofBuddhist learning and research in the world from 4501193 CE.

Main articles:Mahajanapadas andMagadha Empire Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of Jainism See also: Adi Shankara,Siddhartha Gautama, andMahavira Further information:Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian philosophy, and Ancient universities of India

In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as theMahajanapadas Kasi,Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena,Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha.[27] Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that theUpanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism andJainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period. It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the enlightened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th JainTirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[28]However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[29] The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached inPrakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia,East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia.

Persian and Greek conquests

See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Alexander the Great, Nanda Empire, andGangaridai

Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter.[30] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Greatconquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There, he defeated KingPuru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modernday Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[31] Alexander's march East put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empireof Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.

Maurya Period
Main article: Maurya Empire Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great

Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

The Maurya Empire (322185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great Maurya empire was established byChandragupta Maurya and this empire was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modernPakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is nowAfghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by Ashoka the Great.

Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden Age

Kharavela Empire Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire. Kushan Empire of Ancient India.

Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India

The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE.Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India.Gautamiputra Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. TheKushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southernTajikistan. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the IndoScythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Dynasty, Chera Dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty,Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya Dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South.

Northwestern hybrid cultures

The founder of theIndo-Greek Kingdom,Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205171 BCE).

See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and Indo-Sassanids The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the IndoScythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian kingDemetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas(Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently

into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the IndoParthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushanruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture.

Roman trade with India

Main article: Roman trade with India

Coin of the Roman emperor Augustusfound at the Pudukottai,South India.

Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus andhis conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.[32]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, thatPliny (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sestercesfrom our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[33]

These trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Gupta Dynasty
Main article: Gupta Empire See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana Further information:Meghadta, Abhijnakuntala, Kumrasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indi an numerals, and Kama Sutra

The Gupta Empire

Kalidasa's Sanskrit playAbhijnakuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta Empire.

In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. During this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns from central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century. The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.

Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical Age

Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India

Pala Empire under Dharmapala

Pala Empire under Devapala

Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E. Badami Chalukya Empire The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point ofempires - the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, thePratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Bengal.

The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha ofKannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death.

From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas ofMalwa, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of theRajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhanclan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic Sultanates. TheShahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south. The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnatakaand again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu,Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with theRoman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.[34][35] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time.

The Islamic Sultanates

Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the ByzantineHagia Sophia.

Main article: Islamic Empires in India See also: Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates After conquering Persia, Islamic Caliphate incorporated what is now Pakistan around 720 AD. They were keen to invade India[36], which was the richest classical civilization[37], with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. After several wars over three centuries between various north Indian kingdoms and the Caliphate, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. However, this had marked the introduction of an AbrahamicMiddle Eastern religion in Southern India's pre-existing Indian religions, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the south.

Delhi Sultanate

Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty.

Main article: Delhi Sultanate In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in the former Rajput holdings.[38]The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and Arabic speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240). A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.
[39]

The Sultan's army was defeated onDecember 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was

sacked, destroyed and left in ruins; his army fell killing and plundering for three days and nights. He ordered except for the Sayyids, the scholars, and the other Mussulmans, the whole city to be sacked; 100,000 war prisoners, mostly Hindus, were put to death in one day.[40]

The Mughal era

Approximate extent of theMughal Empire in the 17th century. Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals

Main article: Mughal Empire See also: Babur, Humayun, Akbar the Great, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years.[41] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of

1857. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors; most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[42] During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back theJazia Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their TurkoPersian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating uniqueIndo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in their downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority Hindu population.

Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms

Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Sikh Empire, Rajputs, andDurrani Empire See also: History of Sikhism Further information: Shivaji, Tippu Sultan, Nizam, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Shah Abdali

The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hinduempire of India.

Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs.

The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty as other small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself

Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditaryNizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity.

Colonial era
Main article: Colonial India Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[43] The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa,Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat[44] in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu.

The British Raj

Main article: British Raj

The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India.[45] Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperorFarrukh Siyar to grant themdastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717.
[46]

The Nawab of BengalSiraj Ud Daulah, the de factoruler of the Bengal province, opposed

British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[47] This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century.[48] The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent gained independence from Britain in August 1947.[49] During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[50] and the Indian famine of 18991900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[50] The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[51] Despite persistent

diseases and famines, however, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[52]

The Indian Independence movement

Main article: Indian independence movement See also: Mahatma Gandhi Further information: Freedom fighters of India

Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937.

Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer ofIndia's national anthem.

The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the Britishviceroy,[53] and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members; the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[54] From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj, using largely peaceful methods. Some other revolutionaries adopted militant approach; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The profound impactGandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made

him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example, wearing a minimum of homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. Subash Chandra Bose, a great freedom fighter, had organised a formidable army to fight against the British rule. Bhagat Singh was another Indian freedom fighter, considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement; he is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh (the word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another freedom fighter who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to pay tax to British Government. These movements succeeded in bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, Gandhi was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his homeland.

Common themes
Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (pururtha).[2] They centered philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying order, which is all pervasive and omniscient. The efforts by various schools were concentrated on explaining this order. All major phenomena like those observed in nature, fate, occurrences, etc. were outcomes of this order. The earliest mention of this appears in the Rig Veda, which speaks of the Brahman, or the universally transcendent and "ethereal" building block of all the world. It is described as dimensionless, timeless and beyond reach of the known frontiers of happiness and knowledge. The idea of ta, translated as "righteousness" or "the cosmic and social order" by Gavin Flood,
[3]

also plays an important role. the indian philosophy is different from western philosophy in their

basic approach indian philosophy is not only based on reason as the western philosphy is instead as the word implies darshana it focuses on the real encountering of the truth and ultimate and thats why all the indian schools weather beleive in god or not but they all have the same concepts of encountering the truth by some practical practises [edit]Periods pre-1500 BC - the Vedas and Upanishads pre-500 BC - the Jaina, the Buddha, the Bhagavad Gita, the Manu Smriti pre-300 BC - the rise of the orthodox Darshanas

200 AD - Nagarjuna and the rise of Mahayana Buddhism 600 AD - Shankaracharya and the rise of Vedanta post-900 AD - rise of other Vedantic schools: Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, etc. [edit]Schools Classical Indian philosophy can be roughly categorised into "orthodox" (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and "heterodox" (nstika) schools that do not accept the authorities of the Vedas.[4] [edit]Orthodox

Schools (Astika)

Main articles: Hindu philosophy and Hinduism Many Hindu intellectual traditions were codified during the medieval period of BrahmanicSanskritic scholasticism into a standard list of six orthodox (astika) schools (darshanas), the "Six Philosophies" (ad-darana), all of which cite Vedic authority as their source:[5][4][6] Nyaya, the school of logic Vaisheshika, the atomist school Samkhya, the enumeration school Yoga, the school of Patanjali (which assumes the metaphysics of Samkhya) Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the tradition of Vedic exegesis, with emphasis on

Vedic ritual, and Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with emphasis on

Vedic philosophy. These are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: NyayaVaishesika, Samkhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The six systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools such as the "Grammarian" school.[4] The Vedanta school is further divided into six subschools: Advaita (monism/nondualism), Visishtadvaita(monism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism-nondualism), Suddhadvaita, andAchintya Bheda Abheda schools. [edit]Heterodox

schools (Nastika)

Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are defined by Brahmins to be unorthodox (nastika) systems.[4]

[edit]Jain philosophy Main articles: Jain philosophy and Jainism Jainism came into formal being after Mahavira synthesized philosophies and promulgations, during the period around 550 BC, in the region that is present day Bihar in northern India. This period marked an ideological renaissance, in which the patriarchal Vedic dominance was challenged by various groups. Buddhism also arose during this period. Jains however believe that the Jaina philosophy was in fact revived by Mahavira, whom they consider as the 24th and final Jain Tirthankars (enlightened seers), a line that stretches to time immemorial. The 23rd seer, Parsva may be dated to around 900 B.C. Jainism may not be a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism),[7] [8] [9], even as there is constitutional ambiguity over its status. Jain tirthankars find exclusive mention in the Vedas and the Hindu epics. During the Vedantic age, India had two broad philosophical streams of thought: The Shramanaphilosophical schools, represented by Buddhism Jainism, and the long defunct Samkhya and Ajinkya on one hand, and the Brahmana/Vedantic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta, Vaishnava and other movements on the other. Both streams are known to have have mutually influenced each other.[10] The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area of the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai:10 Dec, 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism." Swami Vivekananda [11] also credited Jainsim as one of the influencing forces behind the Indian culture. A Jain is a follower of Jinas, spiritual 'victors' (Jina is Sanskrit for 'victor'), human beings who have rediscovered the dharma, become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the benefit of beings. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who are known as Tirthankars ('fordbuilders'). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, lived in c.6th century BC, which was a period of cultural revolution all over the world. Socrates was born in Greece, Zoroaster in Persia, Lao-Tse and Confuciousin China and Mahavira and Buddha in India[12]. The 23rd Thirthankar of Jains, Lord Parsvanatha is recognised now as a historical person, lived during 872 to 772 B.C.[13]. [14]. Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rishabha, as the First Tirthankar[12].

One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the immediate consequences of one's physical and mental behavior.[15] Because Jains believe that everything is in some sense alive with many living beings possessing a soul, great care and awareness is required in going about one's business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is considered to be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasises this equality of all life advocating the nonharming of even the smallest creatures. Non-violence ( Ahimsa) is the basis of right View, the condition of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in Jainism. Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one's own personal wisdom) and self-control (, vratae) which is considered vital for one's spiritual development. The goal, as with other Indian religions, is moksha which in Jainism is realization of the soul's true nature, a condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana). Anekantavada is one of the principles of Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism. [edit]Buddhist philosophy Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhism Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indianprince later known as the Buddha(from Sanskrit "buddhi", enlightenment). From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being as misleading views caused by reification, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism. Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma, a cause-and-effect relationship between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events. However, a major difference is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (atman). This view is a central one in Hindu thought but is rejected by all Buddhists.[citation needed] [edit]Crvka Main article: Crvka

Crvka is characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. While this branch of Indian philosophy is not considered to be part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism, it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[16] [edit]Modern

philosophy

Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British period (1750- 1947). The philosophers in this era gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophy. Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Anandkumar Swami, Ramana Maharshi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan interpreted traditional Indian philosophy in terms of contemporary significance. Osho and J. Krishnamurti developed their own schools of thought. Today, there are several spiritual personalities: philosophers, teachers (gurus) or thinkers, such as Sri Sri Ravishankar, Deepak Chopra, Amma, Anadamayi and movements such as the Brahmakumaris. [edit]Political

philosophy

The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy. The political philosophy most closely associated with India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) andSatyagraha, popularized by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. It was influenced by the Indian Dharmic philosophy (particularly the Bhagvata Gita as well as, secular writings of authors such as Leo Tolstoy, Henry David Thoreau and John Ruskin.[17] In turn it influenced the later movements for independence and civil rights, especially those led by Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak Dev

Main article: Guru Nanak Dev Guru Nanak Dev (14691538), founder of Sikhism, was born to Kalu Mehta and Mata Tripta, wherein the BediKhatri clan of a Hindu family in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore.[1] His father, a Hindu named Mehta Kalu, was a Patwari, an accountant of land revenue in the government. Nanak's mother was Mata Tripta, and he had one older sister,Bibi Nanki. From an early age Guru Nanak seemed to have acquired a questioning and enquiring mind and refused as a child to wear the ritualistic sacred thread called a Janeu and instead said that he would wear the true name of God in his heart as protection, as the thread which could be broken, be soiled, burnt or lost could not offer any security at all. From early childhood, Bibi Nanki saw in her brother the Light of God but she did not reveal this secret to anyone. She is known as the first disciple of Guru Nanak. Even as a boy, Nanak was fascinated by religion, and his desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home. It was during this period that Nanak was said to have met Kabir (1440-1518), a saint revered by many. Nanak married Sulakhni, daughter of Moolchand Chona, a trader fromBatala, and they had two sons, Sri Chand and Lakshmi Das. His brother-in-law, Jai Ram, the husband of his sister Nanki, obtained a job for him in Sultanpur as the manager of the government granary. One morning, when he was twentyeight, Guru Nanak Dev went as usual down to the river to bathe and meditate. It was said that he was gone for three days. When he reappeared, it is said he was "filled with the spirit of God". His first words after his re-emergence were: "there is no Hindu, there is no Muslim". With this secular principle he began his missionary work.[2]

He made four distinct major journeys, in the four different directions, which are called Udasis, spanning many thousands of kilometres, preaching the message of God.[1] Guru Nanak spent the final years of his life in Kartarpur where Langar (free blessed food) was available. The food would be partaken of by Hindus, rich, poor, high or/and so called low castes. Guru Nanak worked in the fields and earned his livelihood. After appointing Bhai Lehna as the new Sikh Guru, on 22 September 1539, aged 70, Guru Nanak met with his demise. [edit]Guru

Angad

Guru Angad Dev

Main article: Guru Angad Dev In 1538, Guru Nanak chose Lehna, his disciple, as a successor to the Guruship rather than one of his sons.[2] Bhai Lehna was named Guru Angad and became the successor of Guru Nanak. Bhai Lehna was born in the village of Harike in Ferozepur district in Punjab, on March 31, 1504. He was the son of a small trader named Pheru. His mother's name was Mata Ramo (also known as Mata Sabhirai, Mansa Devi, Daya Kaur). Baba Narayan Das Trehan was his grand father, whose ancestral house was at Matte-di-Sarai near Mukatsar. Under the influence of his mother, Bhai Lehna began to worshipDurga (A Hindu Goddess). He used to lead a group of Hinduworshippers to Jawalamukhi Temple every year. He married Mata Khivi in January 1520 and had two sons, (Dasu and Datu), and two daughters (Amro and Anokhi). The whole Pheru family had to leave their ancestral village because of the ransacking by the Mughal and Baloch military who had come with Emperor Babar. After this the family settled at the village of Khadur Sahib by the River Beas, near Tarn Taran Sahib, a small town about 25 km. from Amritsar City.

One day, Bhai Lehna heard the recitation of a hymn of Guru Nanak from Bhai Jodha (a Sikh of Guru Nanak Sahib) who was in Khadur Sahib. He was thrilled and decided to proceed to Kartarpur to have an audience (darshan) with Guru Nanak. So while on the annual pilgrimage to Jwalamukhi Temple, Bhai Lehna left his journey to visit Kartarpur and see Baba Nanak. His very first meeting with Guru Nanak completely transformed him. He renounced the worship of the Hindu Goddess, dedicated himself to the service of Guru Nanak and so became his disciple, (his Sikh), and began to live in Kartarpur. His devotion and service (Sewa) to Guru Nanak and his holy mission was so great that he was instated as the Second Nanak on September 7, 1539 by Guru Nanak. Earlier Guru Nanak tested him in various ways and found an embodiment of obedience and service in him. He spent six or seven years in the service of Guru Nanak at Kartarpur. After the death of Guru Nanak on September 22, 1539, Guru Angad left Kartarpur for the village of Khadur Sahib (near Goindwal Sahib). He carried forward the principles of Guru Nanak both in letter and spirit. Yogis and Saints of different sects visited him and held detailed discussions about Sikhism with him. Guru Angad introduced a new alphabet known as Gurmukhi Script, modifying the old Punjabi script's characters. Soon, this script became very popular and started to be used by the people in general. He took great interest in the education of children by opening many schools for their instruction and thus increased the number of literate people. For the youth he started the tradition of Mall Akhara, where physical as well as spiritual exercises were held. He collected the facts about Guru Nanak's life fromBhai Bala and wrote the first biography of Guru Nanak. He also wrote 63 Saloks (stanzas), which are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. He popularised and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar that had been started by Guru Nanak. Guru Angad travelled widely and visited all important religious places and centres established by Guru Nanak for the preaching of Sikhism. He also established hundreds of new Centres of Sikhism (Sikh religious Institutions) and thus strengthened the base of Sikhism. The period of his Guruship was the most crucial one. The Sikh community had moved from having a founder to a succession of Gurus and the infrastructure of Sikh society was strengthened and crystallized from being an infant, Sikhism had moved to being a young child and ready to face the dangers that were around. During this phase, Sikhism established its own separate spiritual path. Guru Angad, following the example set by Guru Nanak, nominated Sri Amar Das as his successor (The Third Nanak) before his death. He presented all the holy scripts, including those he received from Guru Nanak, to Guru Amar Das. He breathed his last on March 29, 1552 at the age of forty-eight. It is said that he started to build a new town, at Goindwal near Khadur Sahib

and Guru Amar Das Sahib was appointed to supervise its construction. It is also said that Himayun, when defeated by Sher Shah Suri, came to obtain the blessings of Guru Angad in regaining the throne of Delhi. [edit]Guru

Amar Das

Guru Amar Das

Main article: Guru Amar Das Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73.Goindwal became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He continued to preach the principle of equality for women, the prohibition of Sati and the practise ofLangar.[3] In 1567, Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of Punjab to have Langar. Guru Amar Das also trained 140 apostles, of which 52 were women, to manage the rapid expansion of the religion.[4] Before he died in 1574 aged 95, he appointed his son-in-law Jetha as the fourth Sikh Guru. It is recorded that before becoming a Sikh, Bhai Amar Das, as he was known at the time, was a very religious Vaishanavite Hindu who spent most of his life performing all of the ritual pilgrimages and fasts of a devout Hindu. One day, Bhai Amar Das heard some hymns ofGuru Nanak being sung by Bibi Amro Ji, the daughter of Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru. Bibi Amro was married to Bhai Sahib's brother, Bhai Manak Chand's son who was called Bhai Jasso. Bhai Sahib was so impressed and moved by these Shabads that he immediately decided to go to see Guru Angad at Khadur Sahib. It is recorded that this event took place when Bhai Sahib was 61 years old. In 1635, upon meeting Guru Angad, Bhai Sahib was so touched by the Guru's message that he became a devout Sikh. Soon he became involved in Sewa (Service) to the Guru and the

Community. Under the impact of Guru Angad and the teachings of the Gurus, Bhai Amar Das became a devout Sikh. He adopted Guru as his spiritual guide (Guru). Bhai Sahib began to live at Khadur Sahib, where he used to rise early in the morning and bring water from the Beas River for the Guru's bath; he would wash the Guru's clothes and fetch wood from the jungle for 'Guru ka Langar'. He was so dedicated to Sewa and the Guru and had completely extinguished pride and was totally lost in this commitment that he was considered an old man who had no interest in life; he was dubbed Amru, and generally forsaken. However, as a result of Bhai Sahib's commitment to Sikhi principles, dedicated service and devotion to the Sikh cause, Guru Angad Sahib appointed Guru Amar Das Sahib as third Nanak in March 1552 at the age of 73. He established his headquarters at the newly built town of Goindwal, which Guru Angad had established. Soon large numbers of Sikhs started flocking to Goindwal to see the new Guru. Here, Guru Amar Das propagated the Sikh faith in a vigorous, systematic and planned manner. He divided the Sikh Sangat area into 22 preaching centres or Manjis, each under the charge of a devout Sikh. He himself visited and sent Sikh missionaries to different parts of India to spread Sikhism. Guru Amar Das was impressed with Bhai Gurdas' thorough knowledge of Hindi and Sanskrit and theHindu scriptures. Following the tradition of sending out Masands across the country, Guru Amar Das deputed Bhai Gurdas to Agra to spread the gospel of Sikhism. Before leaving, Guru Amar Das prescribed the following routine for Sikhs:

He who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru, He must get up in the morning and say his prayers. He must rise in the early hours and bathe in the holy tank. He must meditate on God as advised by the Guru. And rid him of the afflictions of sins and evil. As the day dawns, he should recite scriptures, and repeat God's name in every activity. He to whom the Guru takes kindly is shown the path. Nanak! I seek the dust of the feet of the Guru's Sikh who himself remembers God and makes others remember Him. (Gauri)

Guru Ji strengthened the tradition of 'Guru ka Langar' and made it compulsory for the visitor to the Guru to eat first, saying that 'Pehle Pangat Phir Sangat' (first visit the Langar then go to the Guru). Once the emperor Akbar came to see Guru Sahib and he had to eat the coarse rice in the Langar before he could have an interview with Guru Sahib. He was so much impressed with this system that he expressed his desire to grant some royal property for 'Guru ka Langar', but Guru Sahib declined it with respect. He introduced new birth, marriage and death ceremonies. Thus he raised the status of women and protected the rights of female infants who were killed without question as they were deemed to have no status. These teachings met with stiff resistance from the Orthodox Hindus. He fixed three Gurpurbs for Sikh celebrations: Diwali, Vaisakhi and Maghi.

Guru Amar Das not only preached the equality of people irrespective of their caste but he also fostered the idea of women's equality. He preaching strongly against the practice of Sati (a Hindu wife burning on her husband's funeral pyre). Guru Amar Das also disapproved of a young widow remaining unmarried for the rest of her life. Guru Amar Das constructed "Baoli" at Goindwal Sahib having eighty-four steps and made it a Sikh pilgrimage centre for the first time in the history of Sikhism. He reproduced more copies of the hymns of Guru Nanak and Guru Angad. He also composed 869 (according to some chronicles these were 709) verses (stanzas) including Anand Sahib, and then later on Guru Arjan (fifth Guru) made all the Shabads part of Guru Granth Sahib. When it came time for the Guru's younger daughter Bibi Bhani to marry, he selected a pious and diligent young follower of his called Jetha from Lahore. Jetha had come to visit the Guru with a party of pilgrims from Lahore and had become so enchanted by the Guru's teachings that he had decided to settle inGoindwal. Here he earned a living selling wheat and would regularly attend the services of Guru Amar Das in his spare time. Guru Amar Das did not consider anyone of his sons fit for Guruship and chose instead his son-in law (Guru) Ram Das to succeed him. Guru Amar Das Sahib at the ripe age of 95 passed away to heaven onSeptember 1, 1574 at Goindwal in District Amritsar, after giving responsibility of Guruship to the Fourth Nanak, Guru Ram Das. [edit]Guru

Ram Das

Guru Ram Das

Main article: Guru Ram Das Guru Ram Das (Punjabi: ) (Born in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan on 24 September 1534 1 September 1581, Amritsar, Punjab, India) was the fourth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, and he became Guru on 30 August, 1574, following in the footsteps of Guru Amar Das.

He was born in Lahore to a Sodhi family of the Khatri clan. His father was Hari Das and mother Anup Devi, and his name was Jetha, meaning 'first born'. His wife was Bibi Bhani, the younger daughter of Guru Amar Das, the third guru of the Sikhs. They had three sons: Prithi Chand, Mahadev and Arjan Dev. As a Guru one of his main contributions to Sikhism was organizing the structure of Sikh society. Additionally, he was the author of Laava, the hymns of the Marriage Rites, the designer of the Harmandir Sahib, and the planner and creator of the township of Ramdaspur (later Amritsar). A hymn by Guru Ram Das from page 305 of the Guru Granth Sahib: One who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru shall get up early morning and meditate on the Lord's Name. Make effort regularly to cleanse, bathe and dip in the ambrosial pool. Upon Guru's instructions, chant Har, Har singing which, all misdeeds, sins and pains shall go away. Guru Ram Das nominated Guru Arjan Dev, his youngest son, as the next Guru of the Sikhs. [edit]Guru

Arjan

Guru Arjan Dev

Main article: Guru Arjan Dev In 1581, Guru Arjan the youngest son of the fourth guru became the Fifth Guru of the Sikhs. In addition to being responsible for building theGolden Temple, he prepared the Sikh Sacred text and his personal addition of some 2,000 plus hymns in the Gur Granth Shib. In 1604 he installed the di Granth for the first time as the Holy Book of the Sikhs. In 1606, for refusing to make changes to the Gur Granth Shib, he was tortured and killed by the Mughal rulers of the time.[2] He contributed much to Guru Granth Sahib [edit]Guru

Har Gobind

Guru Har Gobind

Main article: Guru Har Gobind Guru Har Gobind became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. He carried two swords one for Spiritual reasons and one for temporal (worldly) reasons.[5] From this point onward, the Sikhs became a military force and always had a trained fighting force to defend their independence. [edit]Guru

Har Rai

Guru Har Rai

Main article: Guru Har Rai Guru Har Rai (Punjabi: ) (26 February 1630 - 6 October 1661) was the seventh of the ten Gurus of Sikhism, becoming Guru on 8 March, 1644, following in the footsteps of his grandfather, Guru Har Gobind, who was the sixth guru. Before he died, he nominated Guru Har Krishan, his youngest son, as the next Guru of the Sikhs. The following is a summary of the main highlights of Guru Har Rai's life: continued the military traditions started by his grandfather Guru Har Gobind. maintained a cavalry of 2,200 soldiers throughout his Guruship.

As a very young child he was disturbed by the suffering of a flower damaged by his robe in passing. Though such feelings are common with children, Guru Har Rai would throughout his life be noted for his compassion for life and living things. His grandfather, who was famed as an avid hunter, is said to have saved the Moghul Emperor Jahangir's life during a tiger's attack. Guru Har Rai continued the hunting tradition of his grandfather, but he would allow no animals to be killed on his grand Shikars. The Guru instead captured the animal and added it to his zoo. He made several tours to the Malwa and Doaba regions of the Punjab. His son, Ram Rai, seeking to assuage concerns of Aurangzeb over one line in Guru Nanak's verse (Mitti Mussalmam ki pede pai kumhar) suggested that the word Mussalmam was a mistake on the copyist's part, therefore distorting Bani. The Guru refused to meet with him again. The Guru is believed to have said, "Ram Rai, you have disobeyed my order and sinned. I will never see you again on account of your infidelity." It was also reported to the Guru that Ram Rai had also worked miracles in the Mughal's court against his father's direct instructions. Sikhs are constrained by their Gurus to not believe in magic and myth or miracles. Just before his death at age, 31, Guru Har Rai passed the Gaddi of Nanak on to his younger son, the five year old Guru Har Krishan. Guru Har Rai was the son of Baba Gurdita and Mata Nihal Kaur (also known as Mata Ananti Ji). Baba Gurdita was the son of the sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind. Guru Har Rai married Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as Sulakhni), daughter of Sri Daya Ram of Anoopshahr (Bulandshahr) in Uttar Pradesh on Har Sudi 3, Samvat 1697. Guru Har Rai had two sons: Baba Ram Rai and Sri Har Krishan. Although, Guru Har Rai was a man of peace, he never disbanded the armed Sikh Warriors (Saint Soldiers), who earlier were maintained by his grandfather, Guru Hargobind. He always boosted the military spirit of the Sikhs, but he never himself indulged in any direct political and armed controversy with the contemporary Mughal Empire. Once, Dara Shikoh (the eldest son of emperor Shah Jahan), came to Guru Har Rai asking for help in the war of succession with his brother, the murderous Aurangzeb. The Guru had promised his grandfather to use the Sikh Cavalry only in defence. Nevertheless, he helped him to escape safely from the bloody hands of Aurangzeb's armed forces by having his Sikh warriors hide all the ferry boats at the river crossing used by Dara Shikoh in his escape. [edit]Guru

Har Krishan

Guru Har Krishan

Main article: Guru Har Krishan Guru Har Krishan born in Kirat Pur, Ropar (Punjabi: ) (7 July 1656 - 30 March 1664) was the eighth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, becoming the Guru on 7 October 1661, following in the footsteps of his father, Guru Har Rai. Before Har Krishan died of complications of Smallpox, he nominated his granduncle, Guru Teg Bahadur, as the next Guru of the Sikhs. The following is a summary of the main highlights of his short life: MUTE RECITES SALOKAS: Sri Guru Harkrishan Ji was the epitome of sensibility, generosity and courage. There is a famous incident from his early age. Once on the way to Delhi from Punjab he met an arrogant Brahmin Pundit called Lal Chand in Panjokhara town. The Pundit asked him to recite Salokas from the Geeta since his name was similar to that of Lord Krishna. Guru Ji invited a mute person called Chhajju Mehra and placed his stick on his head. He immediately started interpreting salokas from the Geeta. Everybody around was dumbstruck. Lal Chand's arrogance too was shattered and he asked for Guru Ji's forgiveness. When Har Krishan stayed in Delhi there was a smallpox epidemic and many people were dying. According to Sikh history at Har Krishan's blessing, the lake at Bangla Sahib provided cure for thousands. Gurdwara Bangla Sahib was constructed in the Guru's memory. This is where he stayed during his visit to Delhi. Also Gurdwara Bala Sahib was built, where Har Krishan was cremated at the age of about 7 years and 8 months. Guru Har Krishan was the youngest Guru at only 7 years of age. He did not make any contributions to Gurbani. [edit]Guru

Tegh Bahadur

Guru Tegh Bahadur

Main article: Guru Tegh Bahadur Guru Tegh Bahadur is the ninth of the Sikh Gurus. Guru Tegh Bahadur sacrificed himself to protect Hindus. He was asked by Aurungzeb, the Mughal emperor, under coercion by Naqshbandi Islamists, to convert to Islam or to sacrifice himself. The exact place where he attained martyrdom is in front of the Red Fort in Delhi (Lal Qila) and the gurdwara is called SisGanj. [6] This marked a turning point for Sikhism. His successor, Guru Gobind Singh further militarised his followers. [edit]Guru

Gobind Singh Ji

Guru Gobind Singh

Main article: Guru Gobind Singh Guru Gobind Singh Ji was the tenth guru of sikhs. He was born in 1666 at Patna (Capital of Bihar, India). In 1675 Pundits from Kashmir in India came to Anandpur Sahib pleading to Guru Teg Bhadur Ji (Father of Guru Gobind Singh Ji) about Aurangzeb forcing them to convert to Islam. Guru Teg Bahadur told them that martyrdom of a great man was needed. His son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji said "Who could be greater than you", to his father. Guru Teg Bahadur Ji told pundits to tell Aurangzeb's men that if Guru Teg Bahadur Ji will become Muslim, they all will. Guru Teg

Bahadur Ji was then Martyred in Delhi, but before that he assigned Guru Gobind Singh Ji as 10th Guru at age of 9. After becoming Guru he commanded Sikhs to be armed. He fought many battles with Aurangzeb and some other Kings of that time, but always winner. In 1699 he created theKhalsa panth, by giving amrit to sikhs. In 1704 he fought the great battle with collective forces of Aurangzeb, Wazir Khan (Chief of Sarhind), and other kings. He left Anandpur and went to Chamkaur with only 40 sikhs. There he fought the Battle of Chamkaur with 40 sikhs, vastly outnumbered by the Mughal soldiers. His two elder sons (at ages 17, 15) were martyred there. Wazir Khan killed other two (ages 9, 6). Guru Ji sent Aurangzeb theZafarnamah (Notification of Victory). Then he went to Nanded (Mahareashtra, India). From there he made Baba Gurbakhash Singh, also aliased as Baba Banda Singh Bahadur, as his general and sent him to Punjab. He came in Punjab and took revenge of all. On the evening of the day when Baba Gurbakhash Singh left for Punjab, Guru Gobind Singh was visited by two Muslim soldiers. One of them was commissioned by Wazir Khan, Subedar of Sirhind, to assassinate Guru Gobind Singh. One of the assailants, Bashal Beg, kept a vigil outside the Guru's tent while Jamshed Khan, a hired assassin, stabbed the Guru twice. Khan was killed in one stroke by the Guru, while those outside, alerted by the tumult, killed Beg. Although The wound was sewn up the following day, the Guru died in Nanded, Maharashtra in India in 1708[7]. Shortly before passing away Guru Gobind Singh Ji ordered that the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh Holy Scripture), would be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs and temporal authority would be vested in the Khalsa Panth The Sikh Nation. The first Sikh Holy Scripture was compiled and edited by the Fifth Guru, Guru Arjan in AD 1604, although some of the earlier gurus are also known to have documented their revelations. This is one of the few scriptures in the world that has been compiled by the founders of a faith during their own life time. The Guru Granth Sahib is particularly unique among sacred texts in that it is written in Gurmukhi script but contains many languages including Punjabi,Hindi-Urdu, Sanskrit, Bhojpuri and Persian. Sikhs consider the Guru Granth Sahib the last, perpetual living guru. Guru Gobind Singh is a major figure in Sikhism.

Inventions
Autocannon and multi-barrel gun: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-

Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar in the Mughal Empire, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun.[1] Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannonsloaded with gunpowder.[1]

Bangles on display in India.

Bangle: Banglesmade from shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate,chalcedony etc.have

been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout India.[2] A figurine of a dancing girlwearing bangles on her left arm has been excavated fromMohenjo-daro (2600 BCE).
[3]

Other early examples of bangles in India include copper samples from the excavations at

Mahurjharisoon followed by the decorated bangles belonging to theMauryan empire (322 185 BCE) and the gold bangle samples from the historic site of Taxila (6th century BCE).
[2]

Decorated shell bangles have also been excavated from multiple Mauryan sites.[2] Other

features included copper rivets and gold-leaf inlay in some cases.[2] Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup

Bhatnagarand K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[4] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[4] Bounce lighting: Invented by cinematographer Subrata Mitra for The Apu Trilogy,

three Bengali filmsby parallel Indian film director Satyajit Ray from 1955 to 1959.[5][6] Bow drill: The bow drill appeared in Mehrgarh between 4th-5th millennium BCE.[7] It was

used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and cornelian and was made of green jasper.[7] Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilization and Iran one millennium later.[7] Button: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley Civilization for

ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[8] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread.[8] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[9]

Calico: Calico had originated in India by the 11th century and found mention in Indian

literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[10] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics fromGujarat appeared in Egypt.[10] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[10] Within India, calico originated in Calicut.[10] Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of

bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[11] The earliest evidence for using bowinstruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[11] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunakiwould loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[11]

Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time.

Chess: The precursors of chess originated in India during theGupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550

CE).[12][13][14][15] Both the Persiansand Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.[14][16][17] The words for "chess" in Old Persian andArabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively terms derived from caturaga in Sanskrit,[18][19] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps.
[20][21]

Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking

shape.[22] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persiannobility.[20] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.
[22]

Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, theByzantine empire and the

expanding Arabian empire.[21][23] Muslims carried chess to North Africa,Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century.[22]

Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[24] The

origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word (chitr) , which means a spot.[24][25] Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra

Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at theRoyal Society, London.[26] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver.
[27]

Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization by 2000 BC. The Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)on the origins of cockfightingholds: "The

game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524460 BCE). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century AD) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."[28] Corrosion-resistant iron: The first corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron

pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[29] Cotton Gin: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use

by the 5th century CE.[30] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[30] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[11] Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented

in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bose.[31][32] Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCEalthough certainly by 200 CEhigh

quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[33]In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[33] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common

era.[34] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[35][36] Dentistry, dental drill, and dental surgery: The Indus Valley Civilization has yielded

evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE.[37] This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen.[38] The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[39]

A scattering of diamonds shows off the many reflecting facets.

[40]

Diamond Gemstones: Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[40] Diamonds then

were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[40] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[41] India remained the only major source of diamonds in the world until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil.[42] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[42] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BC mention it as a wellknown and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[43] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[43] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BC mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[43] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".[43] Dice: The dice is attributed to India by some accounts.[44][45][46] Some of the earliest

archaeological evidence of oblong dice have been found in Harrapan sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Desalpur and surrounding territories, some dating back to the third millennium BCE, which were used for gambling.[47][48][49] The oblong or cubical dice (aka) is the precursor of the more primitive vibhakasmall, hard nuts drawn randomly to obtain factors of a certain integer.[50]Dicing is believed to have later spread westwards

to Persia, influencing Persian board games.[51]Early references to dicing can be found in the g Veda (c. early 2nd millennium BCE)[49][52][53] as well as the newer Atharva Veda (c. late 2nd millennium ~ early 1st millennium BCE).[47][54] Dike: Dikes were known to be widely used in the Indus valley civilization,[55][56] which are

believed to be the first dikes in the world,[56] built as early as the 1st millennium BCE.[56] This was the same period when the dockyard at Lothal was in operation.[56] The use of dikes became known from then onwards.[56] Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the

main current to avoid deposition of silt.[57] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[57] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[57] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[58] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[58] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[58]

Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.

Dyeing: Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton dyed with a

vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).[59] The dye used in this case was madder, which, along with other dyes such as Indigowas introduced to other regions through trade.[59] Contact with Alexander the Great, who had successfully used dyeing for military camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing from India.[59] Within India these dyes have found consistent mention in Indian literature and in some cases have been excavated in archaeological findings.

[59]

Dyes in India were a commodity of both Internal trade and exports.[59] Indian exports of

Indigo alone reached nearly 15, 097, 622 pounds in 1887-88 with the principle markets being the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France and Egypt.[59] Furnace: The earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley

Civilization, dating back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE). The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects.[60]
[63]

Hookah: The invention of the modern Hookah is attributed to Hakim Abul Fateh Gilani (c. Following the European introduction of tobacco to India, Gilani raised concerns after

1580 CE), who was a physician in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar (1542 - 1605 CE).[61][62] smoking tobacco became popular among Indian noblemen, and subsequently envisaged a system which allowed smoke to be passed through water in order to be 'purified'.[62] Gilani invented the Hookah after Asad Beg, then ambassador of Bijapur, encouraged Akbar to take up smoking.[62] Following popularity among noblemen, this new device for smoking soon became a status symbol for the Indian affluent.[62] Hospital: Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431

BCE.[64]The Indian emperor Ashoka (ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE) himself established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire (322185 BCE) by 230 BCE.[64] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[65] Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to

have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[66][67] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CEthe period it appeared in China all seem to haveDevangar carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[66]
[67]

Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the

spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[68][69][70] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devangar inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[66] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[67]

India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India

ink was India.[71][72] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[72][73] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.[74] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[74] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[75] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[76] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[77] Indian clubs: The Indian clubwhich appeared in Europe during the 18th centurywas

used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[78] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[78] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.
[78]

Laser Interferometer for measuring refractive index invented by M.V.R.K. Murty.

Interferometer, lateral shear: Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a Lateral Shear

Interferometer utilizes a laser source for measuringrefractive index.[79] The principle of the Murty Interferometer is: 'when a parallel plate of glass receives a collimated laser beam at an oblique angle, the reflections from front and back of the plate are always separated by a certain amount of shear depending on thickness and refractive index of the glass plate and angle of incidence of the beam. An interference fringe of uniform intensity is obtained in the common area of two laterally sheared beams. When a wedged plate of a few arc seconds instead of parallel plates is used as a shearing plate such as its apex of wedge lies in the horizontal plane, a set of straight fringes parallel to the horizontal direction are formed for the well collimated laser beam. The interferometer is insensitive to vibrations and therefore the fringes are stable even without isolation table.'[80] The schematic diagram for measuring refractive index of liquids or solids by using the Murty Interferometer is given in this figure.
[80]

The laser interferometer did not require any optical path compensation.[79]

Iron: Iron was developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but

independently of,Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BC1200 BC.[81] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans,axes, chisels, tong s, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BC to 200 BC have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[82] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[81] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[83] Iron pillar: The first iron pillar was the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected at the times

of Chandragupta IIVikramaditya (375413 CE).[84] Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[85] Suggestions on

how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[85] Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[86] The earliest evidence of this game

in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[86] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from hisharem.[86][87]. A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[86] Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's

in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.
[88][89]

origin in Bengal (known asRuhml in Arabic).[89] Oil spill, micro organisms as treatment of: Indian (Bengali) inventor and

microbiologist Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty created a species of man made micro organism to break down crude oil. In a highly controversial decision taken by the United States Supreme Court, Chakrabarty's discovery was granted a patent even though it was a living species. The

court ruling decreed that Chakrabarty's discovery was "not nature's handiwork, but his own..." The inventor Chakrabarty secured his patent in 1980 (see Diamond v. Chakrabarty).[90][91] Optical fibre: Narinder Singh Kapany is often described as the "father of fibre optics", for

inventing the glass fibre with cladding during the early 1950s.[92][93] Oven: The earliest ovens were excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley

Civilization. The ovens date back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE).[60]

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.

Pajamas: Pajamas in the original form were invented in India, which was for outdoor use

and was reinterpreted by the British to be sleepware.[94][95] The use of this garment spread throughout the world with increasing globalization.[94][95] Palampore: (Hindi language) of Indian origin[96] was imported to the western world

notable England and Colonial americafrom India.[97][98] In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[97]Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[98] Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[99] The

system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[99] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[100]The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during theAbbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[101] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[101] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[101]

Plough, animal-drawn: The earliest archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough

dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.[102]

[103]

Prayer flags: The Buddhist Sutras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers

regions of the world.[103] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags. were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[104] The legend may have given the Indian bhikkua reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[105]This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[105] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[104] Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and

movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[106] Private bathroom and Toilet: By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on the ground

floor, were found in nearly all the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization.[107] The pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, in some case, provision of a crib for sitting.
[107]

The Indus Valley Civilization had some of the most advanced private lavatories in the

world.[107] "Western-style" toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on top.[107] The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems.[107]

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting fivePandava, from left to right: Bhima,Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, andSahadeva (Museum Indonesia,Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.

Puppets and Puppetry: Evidence of puppetry comes from the excavations at the Indus

Valley.[108] Archaeologists have unearthed terracotta dolls with detachable heads capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BCE.[108] Other excavations include terracotta animals which could be manipulated up and down a stick-archiving minimum animation in both cases.[108] The epic Mahabharata; Tamil literature from the Sangam Era, and various literary

works dating from the late centuries BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era including Ashokan edictsdescribe puppets.[109] Works like theNatya Shastra and the Kamasutra elaborate on puppetry in some detail.[110] The Javanese Wayang theater was influenced by Indian traditions.[111] Europeans developed puppetry as a result of extensive contact with the Eastern World.[112] Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The first iron-cased and metal-

cylinder rocketswere developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[113][114] Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization period prior to

1500 BCE.[115] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inchless than 2 millimeters.[115] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracyto within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[116] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[117] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[117] Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it

was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[118][119] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even

with modern technology.[119] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[119] Sewage collection and disposal systems: Large-scale sanitary sewer systems were

in place in the Indus Valley by 2700 BCE.[107] The drains were 710 feet wide and 2 feet (0.61 m) below ground level.[107] The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning.
[107]

Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with

asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.[107] Shampoo: Shampoo originally meant head massage in several North Indian languages.

Both the word and the concept were introduced to Britain from colonial India,[107] by the Bengali entrepreneurSake Dean Mahomed.[120] Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on

morality.[121] This game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[121] Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley

Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro.[122] The three features of Indian stepwells are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[122] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[122] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[122] Rock-cut step wells in India date from 200-400 CE.[123]Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[123] Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[124] It was used as

a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[124] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[124] Swimming pool: The "great bath" at the site of Mohenjo-daro was most likely dug during

the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 meters, is lined with bricks and was covered with a tar-based sealant.[125]

Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that

held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[126] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[127][128] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[128] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[128] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[129] Buddhistcarvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[130][131][132]Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[132] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[127] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[128][131] Universal Serial Bus: Computer architect Ajay Bhatt was the co-inventor of the

Universal Serial Bus (USB).[133][134][135]

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement atSokhta Koh near Pasni on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization

Urban planning: Remains of major Indus cities (mature period c. 26001900 BCE)

display distinct characteristics of urban planning such as streets crossing each other at right angles, well arranged rows of structures as well as neatly built, covered drainage and sewage lines, complete with maintenance sumps, running along backlanes.[136][137] Drains in the ancient maritime city of Lothal for example, designed to be able to take out the citys entire domestic sewage and storm-water were mostly underground, and built to high levels of uniformity, whereby the slopes never exceed 1 in 10,000.[137][138] In terms of segregation, Lothal was divided into three districts: the citadel, the lower town and the dockyard, which

were further divided into smaller administration centres, all having well planned infrastructure such as wide, straight roads along neatly arranged buildings to suit their purpose.[137][139] Such planning is also evident from remains of Mohenjo-Daro, a city to the north-west of Lothal, which appears to have been built adhering to a complex level of city grid planning.[136][140] This leads archaeologists to the conclusion that these cities were conceived entirely if not to a large extent before they were builtthe earliest known manifestation of urban planning.[136][141]
[142]

Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[34] Wootz

steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[35][36] [edit]Discoveries [edit]Agriculture

Jute plants Corchorus olitoriusand Corchorus capsulariscultivated first in India.

Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the

handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[143] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11th century AD.[144]However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[144] Cotton: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by

the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[145]The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[146] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to theMediterranean and beyond.[147] Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the

earliest major center for its production and processing.[148] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[148] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[148] Jute: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[149] Raw jute was exported to

the western world, where it was used to makeropes and cordage.[149] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[149] The region of Bengalwas the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.[149]
[150]

Sugar: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating

in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[150] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of theImperial Guptas[151], and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[152] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[152] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[153] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[153] [edit]Mathematics

The Hindu-Arabic numeralsystem. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.

Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (476 550) was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 AD).[154]

Brahmagupta's theorem (598668) states that AF = FD.

Explanation of the sine rule inYuktibhasa.

0: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed

to India.[155] In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.[155][156] AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministicprimality-

proving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on August 6, 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[157][158] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".[158][159] Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using

abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[160]He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[160] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[160] Analysis, classical: Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the founder of classical

analysis,[161] for developing the firstTaylor series expansions of trigonometric functions and for first making use of an intuitive notion of a limit to compute his results in infintie series.[162]

Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any

complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[163][164] Binary numbers: The modern system of binary numerals appears in the works

of German polymath Gottfried Leibnitzduring the 17th century. However, the first description of binary numbers is found in the chanda-stra treatise of the Indian mathematician Pingala.[165][166] Binomial coefficients: The Indian mathematician Pingala, by 300 BCE, had also

managed to work with Binomial coefficients.[167][168] BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula,Brahmagupta interpolation

formula Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598668 CE).[169][170] Calculus textbook: The Yuktibhasa, written by Jyesthadeva of the Kerala school of

astronomy and mathematics in circa 1530, is widely considered to be the first textbook on calculus.[171][172][173][174] Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithmto

solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhskara II, (c. 1114 1185 CE)[175][176][177]although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[178]Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmaguptas approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[179] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakra ) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.
[179][180]

With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European

performances at the time of Bhskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[175][179][181] Decimal Number System: The modern decimal number system originated in India.[182][183] Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its

[184][185]

entirely, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion.[182] By the 9th century CE, this complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to China and the Islamic world well before that time.[156][185]

Derivative and Differential: In the 12th century, Bhskara II developed the concept of a

derivative and a differential representing infinitesimal change.[186] Differential equation: In 499, the Indian mathematician Aryabhata used a notion

of infinitesimalsand expressed an astronomical problem in the form of a basic differential equation. Manjula, in the 10th century, elaborated on this differential equation in a commentary. This equation was eventually solved by Bhskara II in the 12th century.[186] Diophantine equation and Indeterminate equation: The ulba Stras (literally,

"Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars.[187] Certain Diophantine equations, particularly the case of finding the generation ofPythagorean triples, so one square integer equals the of the other two, are also found.[188] Fibonacci numbers: In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of

numbers named after Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci.[189] Fibonacci's 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics, although the sequence had been previously described in Indian mathematics.[189] The so-called Fibonacci numbers were also known to the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[168]
[190]

Hindu-Arabic numeral system: The Hindu-Arabic numeral system originated in India. Graham Flegg (2002) dates the history of the Hindu-Arabic system to the Indus valley

civilization.[190] The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.[190] This system was later transmitted to Europe by the Arabs.[190] Large numbers: The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use

of large numbers.[191] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasahit (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[191] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the avamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.[191] Limit (mathematics): The mathematicians of the Kerala school of astronomy and

mathematics were the first to make use of an intuitive notion of a limit to compute their results in infintie series.[162]

Leibniz formula for pi The Leibniz formula for pi was derived in the early part of the 15th

century byMadhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425 CE), an Indian mathematician and founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics over 200 years before Leibniz.
[192][193]

Mean value theorem: An early version of this calculus theorem was first described

byParameshvara (13701460) from the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in his commentaries on Govindasvmi and Bhskara II.[194] Negative numbers: The use of negative numbers was known in ancient India and their

role in mathematical problems of debt and directions between points on a straight line was understood.[195][196] Consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated.[156] The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[195] Pascal triangle: The so-called Pascal triangle was solved by the Indian

mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[167][168] Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian where N is a nonsquare integer, in his Brhma-sphua[198]

scholarBrahmagupta (598668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakiti (Pell's equation):[197][198] siddhnta treatise.

Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for is attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c.

1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[199][200] He made use of the series expansion of arctanx to obtain an infinite series expression, now known as the Madhava-Gregory series, for.[199] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for .[162] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,
[162]

104348 / 33215 for correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. 3.14159265359.[192][193]

Pythagorean theorem, statement of: Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed

theBaudhayana Sulba Sutra, the best-known Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simplePythagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35,37)[201] as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square."[201] It also contains the general statement of the

Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together."[201] Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan

graphand Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[202] Rolle's theorem: The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was first stated

by theIndian mathematician, Bhskara II, in the 12th century.[203] Sign convention, operational use of: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were

employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematicianastronomer Aryabhatarecommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.
[160]

By the 7th centuryBrahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns,

even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[160] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[160] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[160] A dot symbol fornegative numbers was also employed.[160] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.[160]The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[160] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[204] Taylor-Maclaurin series: In the 14th century, the earliest examples of the Taylor-

Maclaurin series were first given by Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. They found a number of special cases of the Taylor series, including those for thetrigonometric functions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[205][206][207] Trigonometric functions: The trigonometric functions of Sine and Versine, from which

it was trivial to derive the Cosine, were discovered by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[208][209] [edit]Medicine

Cataract in the Human Eyemagnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeonSusruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.

Amastigotes in a chorionic villus.Upendranath Brahmachari(December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.

Angina pectoris: The concept of Hritshoolaliterally heart painwas known

to Sushruta (6th century BCE).[100] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007) hold that: 'It embodies all the essential components of present day definition, i.e. site, nature, aggravating and relieving factors and referral."[100] Sushruta also linked this kind of pain to obesity (medoroga).[100] Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th

century BCE).[210] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[210] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.
[210]

Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only

be performed when absolutely necessary.[210] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[210] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[211] Circulatory system: The knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was

known to Sushruta (6th century BCE).[100]He also seems to possess knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[100]

Diabetes: Sushruta (6th century BCE) identified Diabetes and classified it

as Medhumeha.[100] He further identified it withobesity and sedentary lifestyle, advising exercises to help cure it.[100] Hypertension: Sushruta (6th century BCE) explained hypertension in a manner which

matches the modern symptoms of the disease.[100] Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation and variolation

for smallpox is found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[212] He included a special chapter on smallpox(masrik) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[212] Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the

Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[213] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (15001200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[214] Obesity: Obesity was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE), who also related it with

diabetes and heart disorder.[100] He recommended physical work in order to help cure it and its side effects.[100] Stones: The earliest operation for curing stone is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th

century BCE).[215] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[215] Veterinary medicine: The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of

the Vedic periodin India offer the first written records of veterinary medicine.[216] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272 - 231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[65] Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical

practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-

kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[217] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[218] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.[218] [edit]Mining Diamond: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[43][219][220] where

significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[221] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the 18th century.[222][223] Zinc: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India.[224][225] Zinc mines of Zawar,

near Udaipur,Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[226] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in theCharaka Samhita (300 BCE).[226] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[226][227] [edit]Science

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form.

A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a humanDNA clamp protein that is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that includeGlycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.

Atomism: The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6th

century BCE.[228][229] The Nyaya andVaisheshika schools developed elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pairs, then trios of pairs).[230][231] The references to atoms in the West emerged a century later from Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systematized his views. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term tomos (Greek: ), which means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., something that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by Democritus.[232] Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy managed to

synthesize NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.[233] Prior to Rays synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.[233] Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper

in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.[234]Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.[234] BoseEinstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On June 4, 1924 the Bengali

professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bosemailed a short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical Magazine.
[235]

The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be

used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of photons.[235][236] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift fr Physik.
[235][236]

Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted

the Bose-Einstein condensate.[236][237]

Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named

afterSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work onstellar structure and stellar evolution.[238] Cosmic ray showers, theoretical explanation of: In 1936, physicist Homi Jehangir

Bhabhacollaborated with Walter Heitler to formulate a theory on cosmic ray showers.[239] They conjectured that the showers were formed by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.[239] In this process, high energy electrons passing through matter would turn into high energy photons by means of the bremsstrahlung process.
[239]

The photons then produced a positive and negative electron pair, which then led to

additional production of photons.[239] This process continued until the energy of the particles went below a critical value.[239] Formal language and formal grammar: The 4th century BCE Indian scholar Pini is

regarded as the forerunner to these modern linguistic fields.[240] Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra

Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.[241] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals comprising of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light.[241] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.[242] Linguistics: The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and one-half

millennia.[243]During the 5th century BCE, the Indian scholar Pini had made several discoveries in the fields ofphonetics, phonology, and morphology.[243] Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta

Chandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[244] Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the

Bengali chemistPrafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[233] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.[233]

Metrology: The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated system

ofstandardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.[245] This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.
[245]

Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case

of some devices.[245] Molecular biophysics: Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran is considered

one of the founders of the rapidly developing field of molecular biophysics,[246] for bringing together different components such as peptide synthesis, X-ray crystallography, NMR and other optical studies, and physico-chemical experimentation, together into the one field of molecular biophysics. He founded the first Molecular Biophysics Unit in 1970.[247] Panini-Backus Form: Pini's grammar rules have have significant similarities to the

BackusNaur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages, hence the notation is sometimes referred to as the PaniniBackus Form.[248][249][250] Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The

Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[247] Raman effect: The Encyclopedia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of

light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[251] Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar

Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general relativity.[252]

Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad

Saha(October 6, 1893 February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.[253] Universe: The earliest known philosophical models of the universe are found in

the Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC. They describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Hindu and Buddhist philosophers also developed a theory of five classical elements: Vayu (air), Ap (water), Agni (fire),Prithvi/Bhumi (earth) and Akasha (aether). In the 6th century BC, Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshikaschool, developed a theory of atomism and proposed that light and heat were varieties of the same substance.[254] In the 5th century AD, the Buddhist atomist philosopher Dignga proposed atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy. They denied the existence of substantial matter and proposed that movement consisted of momentary flashes of a stream of energy.[255] [edit]Innovations

Housed at the Muse Guimet,Paris: 17th century Ivory relief from Tamil Nadu, India. Ivory has been used in India since the Indus Valley Civilization.

Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook: The operator is named after Prabhu Lal Bhatnagar, E. P.

Gross, and Max Krook, the three scientists who introduced it in a paper in Physical Review in 1954.[256]

BCH code: The BCH error detecting codes were discovered by

Hocquenghem, Bose & Ray-Chaudhuri by 1960, and are named after their inventors.[257] Pati-Salam model: A mainstream Grand Unification Theoryproposed by Jogesh Pati in

collaboration with Abdus Salam in 1974.[258][259]

[260]

Ivory: The use of ivory in India dates to the Indus Valley Civilization (2300-1750 BCE). Archaeological excavations have yielded combs, buttons, and other material made from Banglapedia (2008) holds that: "Stone inscriptions found at the ruins of Sanchi Stupa

Ivory.[260] The use of ivory for making figurines in India continued into the 6th century BCE.
[260]

speak of trading in ivory crafts at Bidisha in the 1st century BC. During the Sung rule (1st century BCE) ivory craftsmen were engaged to work on the gates of the stupas at Bharhut, Buddhgaya and Sanchi. Ivory artefacts dating from the Sung period meant for cosmetic use have also been found at Chandraketu Garh in West Bengal. Ivory crafts were also popular during the Kushan period, as suggested by the abundance of ivory artefacts found at Taxila and Begram.".[260] Public bathing: According to John Keay the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro was the size of

'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[261] The bath is housed inside a largermore elaboratebuilding and was used for public bathing.[261] Radio: In 1894, the Bengali physicist, Jagdish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the

use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patenting his work.[262] He also ignited gunpowderand rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves, showing independently that communication signals can be sent without using wires. In 1896, the Daily Chronicle of England reported on his UHF experiments: "The inventor (J.C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel." The 1895 public demonstration by Bose in Calcutta was before Marconi's wireless signalling experiment on Salisbury Plain in England in May 1897.[263][264] Same language subtitling: Same Language Subtitling (SLS) refers to the idea of

subtitling in the same language as the audio, converse to the original idea of subtitling, which was to present a different language.[265][266] This idea was struck upon by Brij Kothari, who believed that SLS makes reading practice an incidental, automatic, and subconscious part of popular TV entertainment, at a low per-person cost to shore up literacy rates in India. His idea

was well received by the Government of India who now uses SLS on several national channels.[265][266] For his idea, Kothari was adjudged a winner at the Development Marketplace the World Banks Innovation Award which gave him enough funds to implement this programme nationally. The innovation has been recognised by theInstitute for Social Inventions, UK and the Tech Museum of Innovations, San Jose, USA.[265][266] Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's

computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore.[267][268] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organizations.[269][270] Wilson-Bappu effect: In a paper published in 1957, American astronomer Olin

Chaddock Wilsonand Manali Kallat Vainu Bappu had described what would later be known as the Wilson-Bappu effect.[271] The effect as described by L.V. Kuhi is: 'The width of the Ca II emission in normal, nonvariable, G, K, and M stars is correlated with the visual absolute magnitude in the sense that the brighter the star the wider the emission.'[271] The paper opened up the field of stellar chromospheres for research.[272] [edit]Footnotes

1.

^ The term India in this article encompasses the greatest extent of territory of British

India (which included modern-day Pakistan and Bangladesh) including the princely states as well as Portugese, French, Danish and Dutch enclaves before the partition of India in 1947, and the territory of only the Republic of India post-partition. The term India as used here is what was referred to as Bharat for centuries. Bharat is what the majority of Indians call their country even today.

Indian maritime history

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

To the northwest of Lothal (2400 BCE) lies the Kutchpeninsula. Proximity to the Gulf of Khambhat allowed direct access to sea routes. Lothal's topography and geology reflects its maritime past.

Roman trade with India according to the Periplus Maris Erythraei (1st century CE).

Muziris, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana.

Chola territories during Rajendra Chola I, c. 1030.

Model of a Chola (200848 CE) ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli.

Indian vessel as shown in the Fra Mauro map (1460).

Image of Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572.

This figure illustrates the path of Vasco da Gama's course to India (black), the first to go around Africa. Voyages ofPro da Covilh (orange) and Afonso de Paiva (blue) are also shown with common routes marked in green.

The Treaty of Nanking was signed in 1842 onboard HMS Cornwallis (1813), made by shipbuilders at the Bombay Dockyard.[1]

A Punjabi seaman of the Royal Indian Navy holding twinLewis Guns, in the Mediterranean (1943), during the Allied invasion of Sicily.

Aircraft carrier INS Viraat with Sea Harriers.

Image of ships participating in the Malabar 2007 naval exercise from the navies of India, United States, Japan,Australia and Singapore in the Bay of Bengal.

Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiated maritime trading contact withMesopotamia.
[2]

The Roman historian Strabomentions an increase in Roman trade with Indiafollowing the

Roman annexation of Egypt.[3] By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India.[4] As trade between India and the Greco-Roman world increased spices became the main import from India to the Western world,[5]by passing silk and other commodities.[6]Indians were present in Alexandria[7] whileChristian and Jew settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire,[8] which resulted in Rome's loss of theRed Sea ports,[9] previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman worldsince the Ptolemaic dynasty.[10] The Indian commercial connection with South East Asiaproved vital to the merchants of Arabia andPersia during the 7th8th century.[11]

On orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa toMalindi to sail across the Indian Ocean toCalicut.[12] The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore.[12] ThePortuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.[12]
Contents
[hide]

o o

1 Prehistory 2 Early Kingdoms 3 Early Common EraHigh Middle Ages 4 Late Middle AgesModern Period 5 Contemporary Era (1947present) 5.1 Military 5.2 Civil 6 Notes 7 References

[edit]Prehistory Further information: Lothal and Indus Valley Civilization The region around the Indus river began to show visible increase in both the length and the frequency of maritime voyages by 3000 BCE.[13] Optimum conditions for viable long-distance voyages existed in this region by 2900 BCE.[14] Mesopotamian inscriptions indicate that Indian traders from the Indus valleycarrying copper, hardwoods, ivory, pearls, carnelian, and gold were active in Mesopotamia during the reign of Sargon of Akkad (ca. 2300 BCE).[2] Gosch & Stearns write on the Indus Valley's pre-modern maritime travel:[15]
Archaeological research at sites in Mesopotamia, Bahrain, and Oman has led to the recovery of artifacts traceable to the Indus Valley civilization, confirming the information on the inscriptions. Among the most important of these objects are stamp seals carved insoapstone, stone weights, and colorfulcarnelian beads....Most of the trade between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley was indirect. Shippers from both regions converged in Persian Gulf ports, especially on the island of Bahrain (known as Dilmun to the Sumerians). Numerous small Indus-style artifacts have been recovered at locations on Bahrain and further down the coast of theArabian Peninsula in Oman. Stamp seals produced in Bahrain have been found at sites in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, strengthening the likelihood that the island may have acted as a redistribution point for goods coming from Mesopotamia and the Indus area....There are hints from the digs at Ur, a major Sumerian city-state on the Euphrates, that some Indus Valley merchants and artisans (bead makers) may have established communities in Mesopotamia.

The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[16] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplaryhydrography and maritime engineering.[16] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[16] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[17] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as theGulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[17] The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with northsouth arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).[17] [edit]Early

Kingdoms

Further information: Roman trade with Indiaand Spice trade Indian cartography locates the Pole star, and other constellations of use in navigational charts.
[18]

These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of

navigation.[18] Detailed maps of considerable length describing the locations of settlements, sea shores, rivers, and mountains were also made.[19] The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a time when sea trade between India and Egypt did not involve direct sailings.[20] The cargo under these situations was shipped to Aden:[20]
Eudaimon Arabia was called fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to Egypt nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just asAlexandria receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.

The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the mythological epic Mahabharata.[21] Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organize a navy in India, as described by Megasthenes(ca. 350 BCE290 BCE), is attributed toCandragupta Maurya (reign 322 BC298 BCE).
[21]

The Mauryan empire (322185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperor Ashoka(reign

27332 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece, Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia and Epirus.[21]Following nomadic interference in Siberiaone of the sources for India's bullionIndia diverted its attention to the Malay peninsula, which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritime trade routes.
[22]

The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world

engage increasingly in theIndian Ocean martitime voyages.[22] According to the historian Strabo (II.5.12.) theRoman trade with India trade initiated byEudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing.[4] Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the thriving maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power.[23]In India, the ports

of Barbaricum (modernKarachi), Barygaza, Muziris, Korkai,Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu on the southern tip of India were the main centers of this trade.[24] The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, topaz, coral, storax, frankincense, vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "costus, bdellium, lycium, nard,turquoise, lapis lazuli, Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and indigo".[24] In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.[24] The Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.[8] Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in Europe.
[7]

The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the

manner of this influence.[7]Clement of Alexandria mentions the Buddha in his writings and other Indian religions find mentions in other texts of the period.[7] The Indians were present in Alexandria[7] and the Christian and Jew settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire,[8] which resulted in Rome's loss of the Red Sea ports,[9] previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty.[10] [edit]Early

Common EraHigh Middle Ages

Further information: Chola dynasty, Chera dynasty, Pandya dynasty, and Pallava dynasty Textiles of India were in demand in Egypt, East Africa, and the Mediterranean between the 1st2nd centuries CE.[22] These regions became overseas markets for Indian exports.
[22] [11]

In Java and Borneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics. These trading outposts later served the Chinese and Arab markets as well.[11] The Periplus Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the

Maris Erythraei names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed towards east to Khruse.
[25]

ports of India and Sri Lanka.[26] After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports were sometimes shipped to East Africa, where they would be used for many purposes, including burial rites.[26] The Chola dynasty (2001279) was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.[27]Emperors Rajaraja Chola I (9851014) and Rajendra Chola I (10121044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.[28] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.[29] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[30] Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya (7th13th century) in the Malay archipelago.[31]

The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia between 7-8 century CE.[11] The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China.[32] Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form ofmusk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultan of Yemen.[32] The kingdoms ofVijaynagar and Kalinga established foothold over Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java.[1] The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[33] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.[34][35] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[36][37]
[38]

The Tang dynasty(618 907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under

the Sailendras, and theAbbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading partners.[39] During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 790), the Chera dynasty were a close ally of the Pallavas.[40] Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king.[40] Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.[40] Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (fourteenth century).[26] Chinese traveler Hsuan Tsang mentions the town ofPuri where "merchants depart for distant countries."[41] Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.
[42]

Buddhism, in particular, traveled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and

literacy.[43] [edit]Late

Middle AgesModern Period

Further information: Shivaji and British Raj Christians missionaries traveling with trade, such as, Saint Francis Xavier, were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in the East.[44] Christianity competed with Islam to become the dominant religion of the Moluccas.[44] However, the natives of the Spice Islands accommodated aspects of both the religions easily.[45] The European traveler Marco Polo (1292) described Indian vessels:" ...built of fir timber, having a sheath of boards laid over the planking in every part, caulked with oakum and fastened with iron nails. The bottoms were smeared with a preparation of quicklime and hemp, pounded together and mixed with oil from a certain tree which is a better material than pith."[1] Descriptions between the 14th - 15th century indicate that the Indian vessels could carry over 100 seamen and were equipped withbulkhead (partition).[1] Ma Huan (1413-51)

reached Cochin and noted that Indian coins, known as fanam, were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one fen and one li according to the Chinese standards.[46]They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each.[46] On the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gamarounded the Cape of Good Hope In 1497, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut.[12] The first Dutch expedition left from Amsterdam (April 1595) for South East Asia.[47] Another Dutch convoy sailed in 1598 and returned one year later with 600, 000 pounds of spices and other Indian products.[47] The United East India Company forged alliance with the principal producers of cloves and nutmeg.[47] Shivaji Bhonsle (reign 16641680) maintained a navy under the charge of general Kanhoji Angre (served 16981729).[48] The initial advances of the Portuguese were checked by this navy, which also effectively relieved the traffic and commerce in India's west coast of Portuguese threat.[48] The Maratha navy also checked the English East India Company, until the navy itself underwent a decline due to the policies of general Nanasaheb (reign 1740 - 1761).[49] The British East India Company shipped substantial quantities of spices during the early 17th century.[47] Rajesh Kadian (2006) examines the history of the British navy in as the British Raj was established in India:[50]
In 1830 ships of the British East India Company were designated as the Indian navy. However, in 1863, it was disbanded when Britains Royal Navy took control of the Indian Ocean. About thirty years later, the few small Indian naval units were called the Royal Indian Marine (RIM). In the wake of World War I, Britain, exhausted in manpower and resources, opted for expansion of the RIM. Consequently, on 2 October 1934, the RIM was reincarnated as the Royal Indian Navy (RIN).

The Indian rulers weakened with the advent of the European powers.[1] Shipbuilders, however, continued to build ships capable of carrying 800 to 1000 tons.[1] The shipbuilders at the Bombay Dockyard built ships like the HMS Hindostan (1795) and HMS Ceylon (1808), inducted into the Royal Navy.[1] The historical ships made by Indian shipbuilders included HMS Asia (1824) (commanded by Edward Codrington during the Battle of Navarino in 1827), the frigate HMS Cornwallis (1813) (onboard which theTreaty of Nanking was signed in 1842), and the HMS Minden (on which The Star Spangled Banner was composed by Francis Scott Key).
[1]

David Arnold examines the role of Indian shipbuilders during the British Raj:[51]

Shipbuilding was a well-established craft at numerous points along the Indian coastline long before the arrival of the Europeans and was a significant factor in the high level of Indian maritime activity in the Indian Ocean region....As with cotton textiles, European trade was initially a stimulus to Indian shipbuilding: vessels built in ports like Masulipatam and Surat from Indian hardwoods by local craftsmen were cheaper and tougher than their European counterparts. Between the seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries Indian shipyards produced a series of vessels incorporating these

hybrid features. A large proportion of them were built in Bombay, where the Company had established a small shipyard. In 1736 Parsi carpenters were brought in from Surat to work there and, when their European supervisor died, one of the carpenters, Lowji Nuserwanji Wadia, was appointed Master Builder in his place. Wadia oversaw the construction of thirty-five ships, twenty-one of them for the Company. Following his death in 1774, his sons took charge of the shipyard and between them built a further thirty ships over the next sixteen years. The Britannia, a ship of 749 tons launched in 1778, so impressed the Court of Directors when it reached Britain that several new ships were commissioned from Bombay, some of which later passed into the hands of the Royal Navy. In all, between 1736 and 1821, 159 ships of over 100 tons were built at Bombay, including 15 of over 1,000 tons. Ships constructed at Bombay in its heyday were said to be vastly superior to anything built anywhere else in the world.

[edit]Contemporary

Era (1947present)

Further information: Indian navy and Ports in India [edit]Military In 1947, the Republic of Indias navy consisted of 33 ships, and 538 officers to secure a coastline of more than 4,660 miles (7,500 km) and 1,280 islands.[50] The Indian navy conducted annual Joint Exercises with other Commonwealth navies throughout the 1950s.[50] The navy saw action during various of the country's wars, including Indian integration of Junagadh,[52] the liberation of Goa,[53] the 1965 war, and the 1971 war.[54] Following difficulty in obtaining spare parts from the Soviet Union, India also embarked upon a massive indigenous naval designing and production programme aimed at manufacturing destroyers, frigates, corvettes, and submarines.[50] Indias Coast Guard Act was passed in August 1978.[50] The Indian Coast Guard participated in counter terrorism operations such as Operation Cactus.[50] During contemporary times the Indian navy was commissioned in several United Nations peacekeeping missions.[50] The navy also repatriated Indian nationals from Kuwait during the first Gulf War.[50] Rajesh Kadian (2006) holds that: "During the Kargil War (1999), the aggressive posture adopted by the navy played a role in convincing Islamabad andWashington that a larger conflict loomed unless Pakistan withdrew from the heights.".[50] As a result of the growing strategic ties with the western world the Indian navy has conducted joint exercises with its western counterparts, including the United States Navy, and has obtained latest naval equipment from its western allies.[50] Better relations with the United States of America and Israel have led to joint patrolling of the Straits of Malacca.[50] [edit]Civil

The following table gives the detailed data about the major ports of India for the financial year 2005-06 and percentage growth over 2004-05 (Source: Indian Ports Association): Cargo % Increase Vessel Handled (06(over 05Traffic 07) '000 06) (05-06) tonnes

Name

% Increase Container % Increase (over 04- Traffic (05-06) (over 0405) '000 TEUs 05)

Kolkata (Kolkata Dock System & Haldia Dock Complex)

55,050

3.59%

2,853

07.50%

313

09.06%

Paradip

38,517

16.33%

1,330

10.01%

50.00%

Visakhapatnam

56,386

1.05%

2,109

14.43%

47

04.44%

Chennai

53,798

13.05%

1,857

11.26%

735

19.12%

Tuticorin

18,001

05.03%

1,576

06.56%

321

04.56%

Cochin

15,314

10.28%

1,225

09.38%

203

09.73%

New Mangalore Port

32,042

-06.99%

1,087

01.87%

10

11.11%

Mormugao

34,241

08.06%

642

-03.31%

-10.00%

Mumbai

52,364

18.50%

2,153

14.34%

159

-27.40%

J.N.P.T.

44,818

18.45%

2,395

03.06%

2,267

-04.39%

Ennore

10,714

16.86%

173

01.17%

Kandla

52,982

15.41%

2,124

09.48%

148

-18.23%

All Indian Ports

463,843

9.51%

19,796

08.64%

4,744

12.07%

Hindu philosophy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on

Hindu philosophy

Schools Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Purva Mimamsa Vedanta (Advaita Vishishtadvaita Dvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda) Persons Ancient Gautama Jaimini Kanada Kapila Markandeya Patajali Valmiki Vyasa Medieval Adi Shankara Basava Dnyaneshwar Chaitanya Kabir Madhusudana Madhva Namdeva Nimbarka Ramanuja Vedanta Desika Tukaram Tulsidas Vallabha Modern Aurobindo Coomaraswamy Dayananda Saraswati Gandhi Krishnananda Narayana Guru Prabhupada Ramakrishna Ramana Maharshi Radhakrishnan Sivananda Vivekananda Yogananda
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Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit stika ("orthodox") schools of thought[1], or darshanas (literally, "views"), which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, and three nstika ("heterodox") schools, which do not accept the Vedas as supreme. The stika schools are:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Sankhya, a strongly dualist theoretical exposition of mind and matter. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation closely based on Sankhya Nyaya or logics Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism

5. 6.

Mimamsa, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy Vedanta, opposing Vedic ritualism in favour of mysticism. Vedanta came to be

the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period. The nstika schools are:

1. 2. 3.

Buddhism Jainism Crvka, a skeptical materialist school, which died out in the 15th century and

whose primary texts have been lost. These nine philosophies form the nine gems of the Santana Dharma. In Hindu history, the distinction of these six schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaishshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Sankhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
Contents
[hide]

o o o o o o

1 Samkhya 2 Yoga 3 Nyaya 4 Vaisheshika 5 Purva Mimamsa 6 Vedanta 6.1 Advaita 6.2 Visishtadvaita 6.3 Dvaita 6.4 Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda) 6.5 Shuddhadvaita 6.6 Acintya Bheda Abheda 7 See also 8 Notes

9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

[edit]Samkhya Main article: Samkhya Samkhya or Sankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Samkhya postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (Sanskrit: , self, atma or soul) and prakriti(matter, creative agency or energy). There are many living souls (Jeevatmas) and they possess consciousness. Prakriti consists of three dispositions known as qualities (gunas): activity (rajas), inactivity (tamas) and steadiness (sattva) which arises when the two other gunas are held in equilibrium. Because of the intertwined relationship between the soul and these dispositions, an imbalance in disposition causes the world to evolve. Liberation of the soul happens when it realizes that it is above and beyond these three dispositions. Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy, but there are differences between Samkhya and other forms of dualism. In the West, dualism is between the mind and the body, whereas in Samkhya it is between the soul and matter.[clarification needed] The concept of the atma (soul) is different from the concept of the mind. Soul is absolute reality that is all-pervasive, eternal, indivisible, attributeless, pure consciousness. It is non-matter and is beyond intellect. Originally, Samkhya was not theistic, but in confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic variant. [edit]Yoga In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools.[2] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school.[3] The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.[4][5] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Mller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[6] The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
"These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Skhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of cooperation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (moka), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya)."[7]

The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[8] The Sutras of the Yoga philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have been, as Max Mller explains, "the author or representative of the Yogaphilosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[9] [edit]Nyaya The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were written by Aksapada Gautama, probably in the second century B.C.E. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools. This is comparable to the relationship between Western science and philosophy, which was derived largely from Aristotelian logic. Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by its followers as more than logical in its own right. They believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to gain release from suffering, and they took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid. Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later Naiyanikas gave logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of Ishvara in response to Buddhism, which, at that time, was fundamentally nontheistic. An important later development in Nyaya was the system of Navya-Ny ya. [edit]Vaisheshika The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism. All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms. Although the Vaisheshika school developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only twoperception and inference. [edit]Purva

Mimamsa

The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajas, or fire-sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the

mantras and yajas to sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they place great emphasis on dharma, which consists of the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt they did not sufficiently emphasize attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought that aimed for release (moksha) are not allowed for complete freedom from desire and selfishness, because the very striving for liberation stemmed from a simple desire to be free. According to Mimamsa thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas may one attain salvation. The Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Although Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced by this school. [edit]Vedanta The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishadsrather than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. While the traditional Vedic rituals continued to be practised as meditative and propitiatory rites, a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These were mystical aspects of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline, and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. The more abstruse Vedanta is the essence of the Vedas, as encapsulated in the Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is believed to have appeared as far back as 3,000 years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most significant contribution of Vedantic thought is the idea that self-consciousness is continuous with and indistinguishable from consciousness of Brahman. The aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which allows for a variety of interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. Four of them are given here. [edit]Advaita Advaita literally means "non duality." Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788820), who continued the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his

teacher's teacher Gaudapada. By analysing the three states of experiencewaking, dreaming, and deep sleephe established the singular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same. He saw this form as that of Vishnu. He wrote a thesis on the Vishnu Sahasranama (1008 names of Vishnu), and also composed poems like the Bhaja Govindham instructing people to think about Govinda (Vishnu) all the time. Ishvara is the manifestation of Brahman to human minds under the influence of an illusionary power called Avidya. [edit]Visishtadvaita Main article: Visishtadvaita Ramanujacharya (1040-1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of the Supreme Being having a definite form, name, and attributes. He saw this form as that of Vishnu, and taught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and matter (prakrti). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on Vishnu for their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. [edit]Dvaita Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified Brahman with Vishnu, but his view of reality was pluralistic. According to Dvaita, there are three ultimate realities: Vishnu, soul, and matter. Five distinctions are made: (1) Vishnu is distinct from souls; (2) Vishnu is distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from matter; (4) A soul is distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is distinct from other matter. Souls are eternal and are dependent upon the will of Vishnu. This theology attempts to address the problem of evil with the idea that souls are not created. [edit]Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda) Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis, or cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in self-surrender. [edit]Shuddhadvaita Shuddhadvaita was proposed by Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531), who came from the Andhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat. [edit]Acintya Bheda Abheda Main article: Achintya Bheda Abheda

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534), was stating that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti).He followed the Dvaita concept of Sri Madhva.[10] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference" is followed by a number of modernGaudiya Vaishnava movements, including ISKCON. ISKCON has recently participated in bringing the academic study of Krishna-related philosophies into Western academia through the theological discourse on Krishnology.

Timeline of Indian history

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of South Asia History of India Stone Age - Mehrgarh Culture Indus Valley Civilization - Late Harappan Culture [show]Iron Age before 3300 BCE 70003300 BCE 33001700 BCE 17001300 BCE 1200180 BCE 1CE1279 CE 12061707 CE 12061526 CE 14901596 CE 13361646 CE 15261707 CE 16741818 CE 17471823 CE 17991849 CE

[show]Middle Kingdoms Islamic Rulers - Delhi Sultanate - Deccan Sultanates Vijayanagara Empire Mughal Empire Maratha Empire Durrani Empire Sikh Empire

[show]Regional Kingdoms 12001800 CE Company rule in India 17571858 CE

British India Partition of India

18581947 CE 1947 CE

Nation histories Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka [show]Regional histories Specialised histories Coinage Dynasties Economy Indology Language Literature Maritime Military Science and Technology Timeline
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This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia (Indian subcontinent), especially the history of the regions now known India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Me gusta pito
Contents
[hide]

o o o o o o o o

1 Stone age 1.1 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (9000-7000 BC) 1.2 Mehrgarh Culture (7000-3300 BC) 2 Bronze age 2.1 Indus Valley Civilization (2800-1900 BC) 2.2 Vedic Era (1500-500 BC) 3 Iron age 4 Ancient India (500 BC - 550 AD) 5 Medieval India (550-1526 AD) 6 Post-Medieval Era (1526-1818) 7 Colonial Era (1818-1947) 8 Post-Partition (1947 - Present) 8.1 India - Republic of 8.2 Newly independent 8.3 Regional tensions 8.4 Democratic strains

o o o o o

8.5 Population: 1 billion 8.6 Kashmir tensions rise 8.7 Dominion of Pakistan 8.8 State of Pakistan 8.9 Islamic Republic of Pakistan 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

[edit]Stone

age
of Bhimbetka (9000-7000 BC)

Main article: Stone age [edit]Rock Shelters

Main article: Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period. The site is a U.N. world heritage site.[1] [edit]Mehrgarh

Culture (7000-3300 BC)

Main article: Mehrgarh 7000 BC: Mehrgarh Culture (Period I) begins, which was one of the world's

earliest Neolithic cultures 5500 BC: Period II of Mehrgarh begins 4800 BC: Period III of Mehrgarh begins 3500 BC: Period IV of Mehrgarh begins 3300 BC: Period IV of Mehrgarh ends

[edit]Bronze

age
(2800-1900 BC)

Main article: Bronze Age [edit]Indus Valley Civilization Main article: Indus Valley Civilization

3300 BC: antecedents of the Indus Valley Civilization begin with the Ravi phase,

eventually becoming one of the world's three earliest urban civilizations, contemporary to Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. 2800 BC: Kot Diji phase of the Indus Valley Civilization begins. The civilization used an

early form of the Indus signs, the so-called Indus script. 2600 BC: Mature Harappan phase of the Indus Valley Civilization begins. The cities

of Harappa,Lothal, Kalibangan and Mohenjo-daro become large metropolises and the civilization expands to over 2,500 cities and settlements across what is now Pakistan, much of northwestern and western India, and parts of Afghanistan and Iran. It covered a region of around one million square miles, which was larger than the land area of its contemporaries Egypt and Mesopotamia combined; it also had superior urban planning and sewage systems. The civilization began using the mature Indus script. 1900 BC: Late Harappan Phase of the Indus Valley Civilization begins. 1700 BC: Indus Valley Civilization comes to an end but is continued by the Cemetery H

culture and other cultures. [edit]Vedic

Era (1500-500 BC)

2200-1600 BCE: Rigveda 1500-1000 BC: early Vedic period 1300 BC: Cemetery H culture comes to an end

[edit]Iron

age

Main article: Iron age Main article: Vedic period 1000 BC: Iron Age India 600 BC: Sixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") emerge. A

number of these Maha Janapadas are semi-democratic "republics", rather than oligarchies. 600 BC: Vedic Civilization comes to an end after the Historical Vedic religion evolves into

early classical Hinduism. 599 BC: Mahavira, 24th Tirthankar of Jainism is born. 563 BC: Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya

tribe, which ruled parts of what is now Northern Bihar and Southern Nepal in Ancient India. 538 BC: Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquers

northwestern parts of the Indian Subcontinent.

350 BC: Panini describes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the

text Ashtadhyayi. Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit. [edit]Ancient

India (500 BC - 550 AD)

This animation shows pre-colonial states that covered more than a quarter of the Indian subcontinent

Main article: History of India 333 BC: Persian rule in the northwest ends after Darius III is defeated by Alexander the

Great, who establishes the Macedonian Empire after inheriting the Persian Achaemenid Empire. 326 BC: Ambhi king of Taxila surrenders to Alexander. Porus who ruled parts of the Punjab, fought Alexander at the Battle of the

Hydaspes River. 321 BC: Mauryan Empire is founded byChandragupta Maurya in Magadha after he

defeats the Nanda dynasty and MacedonianSeleucid Empire. Mauryan capital city isPatliputra (Modern Patna in Bihar) 305 BC: Chandragupta Maurya defeatsSeleucus Nicator of the Seleucid Empire. 304 BC: Seleucus gives up his territories in the subcontinent (Afghanistan/Baluchistan) to

Chandragupta in exchange for 500 elephants. Seleucus offers his daughter in marriage to Chandragupta to seal their friendship. 273 BC: Ashoka the Great regarded as the greatest ancient Indian emperor, grandson of

Chandragupta Maurya, ascends as emperor of the Mauryan Empire.

266 BC: Ashoka conquers and unifies most of South Asia, along with Afghanistan and

eastern Iran. 265 BC: Kalinga War takes place between Ashoka and the kingdom of Kalinga. Empire. 260s: Ashoka begins displaying religious tolerance, grants animal rights, builds hospitals After conquering Kalinga, Ashoka reportedly regrets what he had done, leading

him to adoptBuddhism, which then became the quasi-official state religion of the Mauryan

for people and animals, treats his subjects as equals regardless of caste or creed, and promotes non-violenceand republicanism. Ashoka inscribes the Edicts of Ashoka, written down using Brahmi script.

261 BC: Conquest of Kalinga 232 BC: Ashoka dies and is succeeded by Kunala. 230 BC:Simuka declares independence from Mauryan rule and establishes

the Satavahana Empire. 200 BC: Kuninda Kingdom established. 200-100 BC: Tholkappiyam describes the grammar and morphology of Tamil; it is the

oldest existing Tamil grammar (dates vary between 200 BCE and 100 CE). 184 BC: The Mauryan Empire, which shrunk considerably, collapsed after its

emperor Brihadrata was assassinated by his Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga who then established the Sunga dynasty. 180 BC: Establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom. 80 BC: Establishment of the Indo-Scythian kingdom. 65 BC: The Pandyan king sends ambassadors to the Greek and Roman lands. 58 BC: Beginning of Vikrami Era 10: Establishment of the Indo-Parthian kingdom. 68: Establishment of the Kushan empire by Kujula Kadphises. 78: Gautamiputra Satkarni becomes Satavahana emperor and starts Shalivahana

era calendar after defeating Scythian king Vikramaditya. 35: Western Satraps formed. 240: Sri-Gupta starts the Gupta Empire in Magadha, with its capital in Patliputra 320: Chandragupta I ascends to the Gupta throne. 335: Samudragupta ascends the Gupta throne and expands the empire. 380: Chandragupta II, Samudragupta's son becomes the Gupta Emperor. 450: Invasions by the Huna.

[edit]Medieval

India (550-1526 AD)

Main article: History of India 606: Harshavardhana crowned king. 637: Badami Chalukya power at its peak. Pulakesi II pushes north up to the Narmada

and defeats the invading Harshavardhana of Kanauj 761: First Muslim, Md. Bin Qasim defeats King Dahir 788: Adi Shankara born in Kalady, in central Kerala 814: Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I becomes Rashtrakuta king. Kannada

literature flourishes. era. 1134-1196: Life of Basaveshwara, Philosopher and social reformer. 1157: The Kalachuris under Bijjala II capture Kalyani 1191: "Victory of Prithviraj Chauhan". First battle of Tarain between Mohammed 1000: Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni 1021: Mahmud Ghazni defeats Tarnochalpal and annexes Punjab 1030: Alberuni arrivies in India; blah of Ghazni 1058: Sumra Dynasty ends the Arab domination and establishes its own rule over Sindh. 1120: Kalyani Chalukya power at its peak. Vikramaditya VI ushers in Vikrama Chalukya

Ghori and Prithviraj IIIand Ghauri is defeated by Prithivi Raj Chauhan III. 1192: "Victory of Mohammed Ghauri". Second battle of Tarain fought between Ghauri

and Prithivi Raj Chauhan III and Ghauri. Prithvi Raj Chauhan III is defeated by Mhammed Ghori. 1194: Battle of Chandawar fought between Ghauri and Jayachandra and Ghauri defeated

Jayachandra and killed him. 1206: Gakhars kill Muhammad Ghori during a raid on his camp on the Jhelum River 1221: Genghis Khan invades Punjab 1310: Ala-ud-din Khalji's army under Malik Kafur occupies Devagiri ending

the Seuna Yadava Kingdom 1323: Ulugh Khan defeats Prataparudra ending the Kakatiya dynasty 1336: Vijayanagara Empire established by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I 1343: Veera Ballala III killed at the Battle of Madurai. 1347: Governor Hasan Gangu revolts against Muhammad bin Tughluq founding

the Bahmani Sultanate

1351: Samma Dynasty assumes rule over Sindh 1370: Bukka, the Vijayanagara ruler and his son Kumara Kamapna capture the entire

Tamil speaking parts. 1398: Timur plunders Lahore 1401: Dilawar Khan establishes the Malwa Sultanate in present-day northern India 1407: Zafar Khan: governor of Gujarat, declares himself as Sultan Muzaffar Shah

founding the Gujarat Sultanate/Muzaffarid dynasty 1414: Khizr Khan, deputized by Timur to be the governor of Multan takes over Delhi

founding theSayyid dynasty 1424: Deva Raya II succeeded his father Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya as monarch of

the Vijayanagara Empire 1443: Abdur Razzaq visits India 1446: Mallikarjuna Raya succeeds his father Deva Raya II 1451: Bahlul Khan Lodhi ascends the throne of the Delhi sultanate starting the Lodhi

dynasty 1469: Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism is born 1483: Birth of Babur in Andijan,Fergana Valley in Central Asia 1485: Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya drives out Praudha Raya ending the Sangama

Dynasty 1486: Sher Shah Suri (original name Farid Khan) born in Sasaram 1490, Ahmadnagar declares independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same

year thus breaking up the Bahmani Sultanate. 14971499: Vasco de Gama's first voyage from Europe to India and back 1503: Kingdom of Kochi is taken over by the Portuguese creating the first European

settlement in India.. 1508: The Christian-Islamic power struggle, in Europe and the Middle East,spills over into

the Indian Ocean as Battle of Chaul during the Portuguese-Mamluk War 1509: Battle of Diu marks the beginning of the dominance of the Europeans in the Asian

naval theater. 1522: Portuguese land on the Coromandel Coast

[edit]Post-Medieval Main article: Mughal Era

[2]

Era (1526-1818)

1526: Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, of the Delhi Sultanate, angers local nobles, who respond by

inviting Babur, the Mughal ruler of Kabul, to invade Delhi and Agra. The local population, plus the possession of artillery, assists Babur in killing the Sultan (whose soldiers desert him) at the Battle of Panipat. 1527 Babur bribes Mewar general Silhadi promising Silhadi a kingdom, if Silhadi betrays

Mewar KingRana Sanga in Battle of Khanwa, thus leading to the annexation of Mewar. 1530 Babur completes his Baburnama, reflecting on society, politics, economics, history,

geography, nature, flora and fauna, which to this day is a standard textbook in 25 countries. Babur dies, and is succeeded by his son Humayun. 1539 Battle of Chausa fought between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri in which Humayun

defeated. 1540 Battle of Kannauj fought between Humayun and Sher Shah Suri and Humayun was

completely defeated. Humayun lost the Mughal empire to Afghans (Suri Dynasty), and passed 12 years in exile. 1545 Death of Sher Shah Suri and succeeded by Islam Shah. 1554 Death of Islam Shah. 1555 Humayun regained the throne of Delhi from the hands of weak successors of Sher

Shah. 1556 Humayun converts from Sunni Islam to Shia Islam, to gain the alliance of the Shah

of Persia. Humayun dies, and is succeeded by his son Akbar. 1556 Second Battle of Panipath fought between Hemu (Prime Minister of Military Chief of

Adil Shah Suri) and Akbar. 1565 Battle of Talikota results in the rout of Vijayanagara empire. 1572 Akbar annexes Gujarat. 1574 Akbar annexes Bengal. 1586 Akbar annexes Kashmir. 1600 East India company is formed in England. Gets exclusive trading rights with India. 1605 Akbar dies, and is succeeded by his son Jehangir. 1628 Jehangir announces "Chain of Justice" outside his palace that anyone can ring the

bell and get a personal hearing with the emperor. Jehangir dies, and is succeeded by his son Shah Jahan. 1630 Birth of Shivaji. 1644 Shivaji takes oath of Independence at Raireshwar.

1658 Shah Jahan completes Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, and Red Fort. Imperial treasuries

drained by architectural and military overexpenditures. Shah Jahan dies, and is succeeded by his sonAurangzeb. 1659 Shivaji's ill-equipped and small Maratha army defeat mighty Adilshahi troops at

the Battle of Pratapgarh in a major upset in Indian history. Shivaji personally kills Adilshahi commander Afzal Khan (general). 1674 Forces led by Shivaji defeat Aurangzeb's troops, and establishes Maratha Empire. 1675 Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs is executed in Delhi by the order of

Aurangzeb for his support for the Kashmiri Hindus to practice their religion. 1680 Shivaji dies of fever at Raigad. 1681 Aurangzeb invades the Deccan 1699 Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru of Sikhs creates KHALSA, the saint-soldier at

Anandpur Sahib, Punjab. 1705 Mughal army besiege Sikhs at Anandpur Sahib fort, Guru's family is separated, two

sons die in battle, two younger sons buried alive in a wall by the order of Mughal ruler of Sirhind 1707 Aurangzeb dies, and is succeeded by son Bahadur Shah I. 1707 Civil war breaks in Maharashtra between Maharani Tarabai and Shahu, Maratha

Empire breaks into two divisions. 1708 Guru Gobind Singh survives an assassination attempt by Mughal assassins at

Nanded, Maharashtra. Guru instruct Banda Singh to take charge of Khalsa army and liberate people. Guru Gobind Singh appoints Adi Granth as the eternal Guru of Sikhs before his death. 1710 Banda Singh Bahadur emerges in Punjab and sacks the Mughal establishments of

Sirhind, Samana, Sadhaura, Kaithal, Sonepat, and Haryana 1715 Mughal army captures Banda Singh Bahadur. The Sikhs are brought to Delhi and

executed after public torture. 1717 Pamheiba decrees Vaishnavism as the state religion of Manipur 1719 Bajirao I is appointed the Peshwa by Maratha Emperor Shahu. 1734 Pamheiba invades Tripura 1735 Annexation of Rajputana by Peshwa Bajirao 1737 Bajirao I conquers Delhi, Mughal Emperor is spared and kept as titular head. 1740 Bajirao I annexes Bengal and Orissa.

1740 Bajirao I dies, with the distinction of winning every battle he fought. He is

succeeded by Balaji Bajirao act. 1760 Marathas comprehensively defeat the Nizam, Maratha Empire reaches its zenith. 1761 The Marathas are defeated in the Third battle of Panipat bringing an end to their 1746 First massacre of Sikhs by Mughal army led by Diwan Lakhpat Rai of Lahore 1757 The British East India Company's private army under Robert Clive annexes Bengal

for the company in the Battle of Plassey. Edmund Burke has Robert Clive arrested for the

expansion. 1761 Sikhs attack Afghan army of Ahmad Shah Abdali carrying exploits of Panipat and

rescue 20,000 Indian women, mostly Maratha. 1762 Second massacre of Sikhs by Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. 1766 Sikhs defeat Afghans army of Ahmad Shah Abdali and establish Sikh rule in

Punjab. 1766 First Anglo-Mysore War begins. 1768 Ching-Thang Khomba and Suramphaa invade Manipur. 1769 First Anglo-Mysore War ends. 1772 Young Madhavrao Peshwa dies of tuberculosis. 1773 Narayanrao Peshwa is murdered by his uncle Raghunathrao's wife in front of

Raghunathrao. 1774 Chief Justice of the Maratha Empire, Ram Shastri passes death sentence against

the rulingPeshwa Raghunathrao for murdering his nephew. 1777 First Anglo-Maratha War begins. 1779 Maratha sardar Mahadji Shinde routs the East India Company army at the Battle of

Wadgaon. 1782 First Anglo-Maratha War ends with the restoration of status quo as per Treaty of

Salbai. 1780 Second Anglo-Mysore War begins. 1784 Second Anglo-Mysore War ends with the Treaty of Mangalore. 1789 Third Anglo-Mysore War begins. 1790 The Marathas under Holkar and General de Boigne defeat

the Rajputs of Jaipur and Mughals at the Battle of Patan, where 3000+ Rajput cavalry is killed and the entire Mughal unit vanquished. The defeat crushes Rajput hope of independence from external influence

1792 Third Anglo-Mysore War ends. 1796 Ching-Thang Khomba moves Manipur's capital to Kangla 1798 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War begins. 1799 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War ends with the death of Tipu Sultan and the restoration of

the Wodeyardynasty. 1801 Maharaja Ranjit Singh establishes Khalsa rule of Punjab from Lahore. Khalsa army

liberates Kashmiri Pundits and invades Afghanistan through Khyber Pass. 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War begins 1805 Second Anglo-Maratha War ends 1807 East India Company signs treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh 1817 Third Anglo-Maratha War begins 1818 Third Anglo-Maratha War ends with the defeat of Bajirao II and the end of

the Maratha Empireleaving the East India Company with control of almost the whole of India [edit]Colonial

Era (1818-1947)

Main article: British India 1818 - 1822 1853 1857 First Indian Rebellion, also known as the Indian Mutiny to the British, and the First

War of Indian Independence to Indians. 1861 - 1869 - 1870 - 1874 - 1875 - 1877 - 1885 - 1887 - 1889 - 1905 - 1906 - 1907 - 191

1 - 1919 1921 Rajaji appointed Congress Party president 1922 - 1923 - 1924 - 1925 - 1925 - 1927 - 1928 - 1930 - 1931 - 1932 - 1934 - 1935 - 193

6 - 1937 -1938 - 1939 - 1940 - 1941 - 1942 - 1943 - 1944 - 1945 - 1946 [edit]Post-Partition

(1947 - Present)

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article. (Discuss) [edit]India

- Republic of [edit]Newly independent

1947: - Freedom from British Raj.

1947-48: - Hundreds of thousands die in widespread communal bloodshed after partition. 1948: - Mahatma Gandhi assassinated by Hindu extremist. 1948: - War with Pakistan over disputed territory of Kashmir. 1951-52: - Congress Party wins first general elections under leadership of Jawaharlal

Nehru. [edit]Regional

tensions

1962: - India loses brief border war with China. 1964: - Death of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. 1965: - Second war with Pakistan over Kashmir. 1966: - Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi becomes prime minister. 1971: - Third war with Pakistan over creation of Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan. 1971: - Twenty-year treaty of friendship signed with Soviet Union. 1974: - India explodes first nuclear device in underground test.

[edit]Democratic

strains

1975: - Indira Gandhi declares state of emergency after being found guilty of electoral

malpractice. 1975-1977: - Nearly 1,000 political opponents imprisoned and programme of compulsory

birth control introduced. 1977: - Indira Gandhi's Congress Party loses general elections. 1980: - Indira Gandhi returns to power heading Congress party splinter group, Congress

(Indira). 1984: - Troops storm Golden Temple - Sikhs' most holy shrine - to flush out Sikh militants

pressing for self-rule.

1984: - Indira Gandhi assassinated by Sikh bodyguards, following which her son, Rajiv,

takes over. 1984: December - Gas leak at Union Carbide pesticides plant in Bhopal. Thousands are

killed immediately, many more subsequently die or are left disabled. 1987: - India deploys troops for peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka's ethnic conflict. 1989: - Falling public support leads to Congress defeat in general election. 1990: - Indian troops withdrawn from Sri Lanka. 1990: - Muslim separatist groups begin campaign of violence in Kashmir. 1991: - Rajiv Gandhi assassinated by suicide bomber sympathetic to Sri Lanka's Tamil

Tigers. 1991: - Economic reform programme begun by Prime Minister PV Narasimha Rao. 1992: - Hindu extremists demolish mosque in Ayodhya, triggering widespread Hindu-

Muslim violence. 1996: - Congress suffers worst ever electoral defeat as Hindu nationalist BJP emerges

as largest single party. 1998: - BJP forms coalition government under Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee. 1998: - India carries out nuclear tests, leading to widespread international condemnation. 1999: February - Vajpayee makes historic bus trip to Pakistan to meet Premier Nawaz

Sharif and to sign bilateral Lahore peace declaration. 1999: May - Tension in Kashmir leads to brief war with Pakistan-backed forces in the icy

heights around Kargil in Indian-held Kashmir. 1999: October - Cyclone devastates eastern state of Orissa, leaving at least 10,000

dead. [edit]Population:

1 billion

2000: May - India marks the birth of its billionth citizen. 2000: - US President Bill Clinton makes a groundbreaking visit to improve ties. 2001: January - Massive earthquakes hit the western state of Gujarat, leaving at least

30,000 dead. 2001: A high-powered rocket is launched, propelling India into the club of countries able

to fire big satellites deep into space. 2001: July - Vajpayee meets Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf in the first summit

between the two neighbours in more than two years. The meeting ends without a breakthrough or even a joint statement because of differences over Kashmir. 2001: July - Vajpayee's BJP party declines his offer to resign over a number of political

scandals and the apparent failure of his talks with Pakistani President Musharraf. 2001: September - US lifts sanctions which it imposed against India and Pakistan after

they staged nuclear tests in 1998. The move is seen as a reward for their support for the USled anti-terror campaign. [edit]Kashmir

tensions rise

2001: October - India fires on Pakistani military posts in the heaviest firing along the

dividing line of control in Kashmir for almost a year. 2001: December - Suicide squad attacks parliament in New Delhi, killing several police.

The five gunmen die in the assault. 2001: December - India imposes sanctions against Pakistan, to force it to take action

against two Kashmir militant groups blamed for the suicide attack on parliament. Pakistan retaliates with similar sanctions, and bans the groups in January. 2001: December - India, Pakistan mass troops on common border amid mounting fears

of a looming war. 2002: January - India successfully test-fires a nuclear-capable ballistic missile - the Agni -

off its eastern coast.

2002: February - Inter-religious bloodshed breaks out after 59 Hindu pilgrims returning

from Ayodhya are killed in a train fire in Godhra, Gujarat. More than 1,000 people, mainly Muslims, die in subsequent riots. (Police and officials blamed the fire on a Muslim mob; a 2005 government investigation said it was an accident.) 2002: May - Pakistan test-fires three medium-range surface-to-surface Ghauri missiles,

which are capable of carrying nuclear warheads. War of words between Indian and Pakistani leaders intensifies. Actual war seems imminent. 2002: June - UK, US urge their citizens to leave India and Pakistan, while maintaining

diplomatic offensive to avert war. 2002: July - Retired scientist and architect of India's missile programme APJ Abdul

Kalam is elected president. 2003: August - At least 50 people are killed in two simultaneous bomb blasts in Bombay. 2003: November - India matches Pakistan's declaration of a Kashmir ceasefire. 2003: December - India, Pakistan agree to resume direct air links and to allow overflights. 2004: January - Groundbreaking meeting held between government and moderate

Kashmir separatists. 2004: May - Surprise victory for Congress Party in general elections. Manmohan Singh is

sworn in as prime minister. 2004: September - India, along with Brazil, Germany and Japan, launches an application

for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. 2004: November - India begins to withdraw some of its troops from Kashmir. 2004: December - Thousands are killed when tidal waves, caused by a powerful

undersea earthquake off the Indonesian coast, devastate coastal communities in the south and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

2005: July - More than 1,000 people are killed in floods and landslides caused by

monsoon rains in Mumbai (Bombay) and Maharashtra region. 2005: 8 October - An earthquake, with its epicentre in Pakistani-administered Kashmir,

kills more than 1,000 people in Indian-administered Kashmir. 2006: February - India's largest-ever rural jobs scheme is launched, aimed at lifting

around 60 million families out of poverty. 2006 March - US and India sign a nuclear agreement during a visit by US President

George W Bush. The US gives India access to civilian nuclear technology while India agrees to greater scrutiny for its nuclear programme. 2007: India budget focuses on farming 2006: May - Suspected Islamic militants kill 35 Hindus in the worst attacks in Indian-

administered Kashmir for several months. 2006: 11 July - More than 180 people are killed in bomb attacks on rush-hour trains in

Mumbai. Investigators blame Islamic militants based in Pakistan. 2006: 8 September - Explosions outside a mosque in the western town of Malegaon kill

at least 31 people. 2006: November - Hu Jintao makes the first visit to India by a Chinese president in a

decade. 2006: December - US President George W Bush approves a controversial law allowing

India to buy US nuclear reactors and fuel for the first time in 30 years. 2007: 18 February - 68 passengers, most of them Pakistanis, are killed by bomb blasts

and a blaze on a train travelling from New Delhi to the Pakistani city of Lahore. 2007: February - India and Pakistan sign an agreement aimed at reducing the risk of

accidental nuclear war. 2007: March - Maoist rebels in Chhattisgarh state kill more than 50 policemen in a dawn

attack.

2007: April - India's first commercial space rocket is launched, carrying an Italian satellite. 2007: May - At least nine people are killed in a bomb explosion at the main mosque in

Hyderabad. Several others are killed in subsequent rioting. 2007: May - Government announces its strongest economic growth figures for 20 years -

9.4% in the year to March. 2007: July - India says the number of its people with HIV or AIDS is about half of earlier

official tallies. Health ministry figures put the total at between 2 million and 3.1 million cases, compared with previous estimates of more than 5 million. 2007: July - Pratibha Patil becomes first woman to be elected president of India. 2008: July - Congress-led governing coalition survives vote of confidence brought after

left-wing parties withdraw their support over controversial nuclear cooperation deal with US. After the vote, several left-wing and regional parties form new alliance to oppose government, saying it has been tainted by corruption. 2008: July - Series of explosions kills 49 in Ahmedabad, in Gujarat state. The little-known

group Indian Mujahideen claims responsibility. 2008: October - Following approval by the US Congress, President George W

Bush signs into law a nuclear deal with India, which ends a three-decade ban on US nuclear trade with Delhi. India successfully launches its first mission to the moon, the unmanned lunar probe Chandrayaan-1. 2008: November - Nearly 200 people are killed and hundreds injured in a series of co-

ordinated attacks by gunmen on the main tourist and business area of India's financial capital Mumbai. India blames militants from Pakistan for the attacks and demands that Islamabad take strong action against those responsible. 2008: December - India announces "pause" in peace process with Pakistan. Indian

cricket team cancels planned tour of Pakistan.

2009: February - India and Russia sign deals worth $700m, according to which Moscow

will supply uranium to Delhi. 2009: April - Trial of sole surviving suspect in Mumbai attacks begins. 2009: May - Resounding general election victory gives governing Congress-led alliance

of PMManmohan Singh an enhanced position in parliament, only 11 seats short of an absolute majority. [edit]Dominion

of Pakistan

1948: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first governor general of Pakistan, dies 1951: Prime minister Khan Liaqat Ali Khan assassinated

[edit]State

of Pakistan

1956: The Constituent Assembly promulgates first indigenous constitution 1958: After a military coup Ayub Khan takes over 1960: Ayub Khan becomes first elected president 1965: Second war between Pakistan and India over Kashmir 1969: Ayub Khan resigns; Yahya Khan declares martial law and assumes presidency 1971: East Pakistan attempts to secede, leading to civil war; India intervenes in support

of East Pakistan; Pakistan fights another war with India; East Pakistan breaks away to become Bangladesh;Yahya Khan resigns. [edit]Islamic

Republic of Pakistan

1973: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto becomes prime minister 1977: General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq overthrows prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and

declares martial law 1978: General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq becomes Pakistan's sixth president 1979: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto hanged 1979: The military ruler Zia Ul-Haq enacts the controversial Hudood Ordinances 1985: General elections held; Muhammad Khan Junejo becomes prime minister 1988: Zia dismisses Junejo's government; Zia dies in a plan crash; New elections held;

MohtarmaBenazir Bhutto becomes prime minister 1988: Prominent Pashtun leadar Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan dies in Peshawar

1990: President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismisses Benazir Bhutto government; Mian Nawaz

Sharifbecomes the next prime minister 1991: Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif begins economic liberalisation programme. Islamic

Shariah law formally incorporated into legal code. 1993: President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif both resign under

pressure from military. Benazir Bhutto becomes prime minister for the second time 1996: President Farooq Leghari dismisses Bhutto government 1997: General elections held; Nawaz Sharif becomes prime minister for the second time 1998: Pakistan conducts nuclear tests 1999: Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif overthrown in military coup led by General Pervez

Musharraf 2001: General Pervez Musharraf dismissed the president and named himself to the post. 2002: General Pervez Musharraf wins a referendum thus ensures 5 more years in office 2002: First general elections since the 1999 military coup held; Mir Zafarullah Khan

Jamali becomes the next prime minister 2004: Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali resigns from office. 2004: Shaukat Aziz is sworn in as prime minister. 2005: A 7.5 magnitude earthquake kills an estimated 80,000 people in northern Pakistan.

(see:2005 Pakistan earthquake) 2006: Pakistan army kills the prominent Baloch leader Nawab Akbar khan Bugti. 2007: Chief Justice of Pakistan removed from office and reinstated. 2007 Karachi

Riots. Lal Masjid Operation 2007: President Pervez Musharraf declares a 2007 Pakistani state of emergency and

later removes it after domestic and international pressure. 2008: Pakistani former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated. 2008: On August 19 President Pervez Musharraf resigns and leaves the country.