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-

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,

010200


2008

22.143
936
, . .
: : . / . . .
: . . -, 2008. 607 .
: , , , .
,
. .

:
- , . .
( )
- , . .
( - )

ISBN 978-5-7807-0688-5

. ., 2008


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4. . . . . . . .
1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7. F2 . . . . . . . . . .

15
15
15
18
19
21
24
28

2.
. .
. . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
2.2. . . .
2.3. . . .

33
33
36
38

3.
3.1. ( ) .. . . . . . .
3.2. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3. ()
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. ; ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. ... . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41
41
43
43
44

50
50
52
54
55

4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. .. . . . . .
5.2. ... .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. ... . .
5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5. . . . . . . . . . .
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. ... . . . . . . . .
6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. . . . . . . . . .
7.1. ... .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. . . .
7.3.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. Maple , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56
58
58
60
61
62
63
64
64
68
69
70
72
72
77
79
85

8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.1. ... . . . . . 88
8.2. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.1. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.2. . . . . . . . . 100
9.3. . . 105
9.4. . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111
111
115
117


11.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1. " " . . . . . .
11.2. 1 . . .
11.3. Maple- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .

122
122
133
135

2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1. . . . .
12.2. . . . . . . . .
12.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.4. ("") . . . . . .
12.5. . . . . . .

139
139
142

145
147
150

13.
. . . . . 156
13.1. 156
13.2. "" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.4. . . . . . . . 161
13.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
13.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.7. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
13.8. . . . . . . . . . . 172
13.9. . . . . . . . 174
14. , . . . . .
14.1. , . . . .
14.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1. . . . . . . . . . .
15.2. . . . . . . . . . .
15.3. -(-, -) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4. ()

177
177
178
183
186
186
187
189
190

3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
192

16. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
16.1. , . . . . . 192
16.2. . . . 194
17.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1. . .
17.2. . . . . . . . .
17.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4. . . . . . . . .
18.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1. . . . . . . . . . .
18.2. . . . . . . . .
18.3. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19. . . . . . . . . . .
19.1. , .. . . . .
19.2. . . . . . . .
19.3.

. .
. .
. .
..

196
196
200
203
205

207
207
208
209
212

.
.
.
.

218
218
219
222

20. . . .
20.1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3. .., ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

225

21. . . . . . . . .
21.1. . .
21.2. . . . .
21.3. . . . .
21.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.5. ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.6. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

237
237
239
240

225
228
229
231
233

241
242
242
247


22. . . . . . . . . . .
22.1. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3. .. . . . . . . . .

7
250
250
251
253

23. , .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1. , .. . . . .
23.2. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4. .. . . . . . .

258
260

24. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.3. . . . . . . . . .

263
263
263
266

25. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2. ..,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.5. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.6. .. .

254
254
256

268
268
269
272
274
275
276

26. . .
26.1. . . . . . . . .
26.2. . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3. . . . . .
26.4. . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5. .. . . . . . . . .
26.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

281
281
283
285
287
290

27. . . . . . . . . . .
27.1. .. .
27.2. . .
27.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27.4. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

294
294
298

292

301
304

28. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.1. .. . . .
28.2. () .. . . .
28.3. " " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.4. . . . .
28.5. ... Maple . . . . .
28.6. "-" jrd 2 . . . . . . .
29. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.1. (
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2. .. . .
29.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3. . . . .
30.4. ( )
( ) . . . . .
30.5. . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.6. ... . . . .

313
313
315
318
332
334
337

338
338
347
352
357

359
359
363
370
377
381
382

4. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
396
31. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.2. -
31.3. () .
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.4. . . . . . . . . . .

396
396
398
399
403

32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
32.1. .
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
32.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

32.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
32.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
33. .
33.1. . . . . . . .
33.2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33.4. . .

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

417
417
422
425
426

34. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.1. . . . . .
34.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.4. . .. . . . . . . . . .
34.5. .. . . . . . . . . . .
34.6. , .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

429
429
432

35. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35.1. . . . . . . .
35.2. . . . .
35.3. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

435
437
438
442

447
447
449
451

36.
() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
36.1. ... (..) . . . . . . . 453
36.2. ... (..)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
37. () . . . . . . . . . . . 465
37.1. ... (..) . . . . . . . . . . . 465
37.2. ... (..) . . . . 474
38. () . . . . 478
38.1. ... (..) R . . . . . . . . 478
38.2. ... (..) R. 481
38.3. ... (..) R 485
38.4. () ... (..) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

38.5. . . 494
39. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

10

39.1. " () " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497


39.2. Maple- 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

40. () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.1. ... ...; . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.3. .. .., ... . . . . . . . . . . .
40.4. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.6. .. . . .
40.7. ( ) ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40.8. , . . . . .

506
506
509
510
511
514
517
519
524

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
1. Maple-

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
4. [A1 ]

. . . . . . 605


- , ". " ()

[A1 ] . . . : . . - " ",
2006.
( , , . . 4, , .)
,
( ).
1. . .
2. .
3. .
4. , .
, , . ,
, " " ( ). , ,
, , , .
, .
( )
.
,
().

12

, ,
.
: "" ,
, : " ", " ".
, "" "
" . , ,
" ", ,
, ,
. ( , -, .)
.
, , [A1 ]:
.
,
, .
- , "
" .
-, , : , , , , , , ! .
; , , ""
,
"".
-,
,
. "" () ,
( ,
, ).
-, -
. ,

13

,
, .
"-", "-" "", " " (,
, , , .).
() .
,
( ).
1/3 .33333333 ,

, ,
, .
[A1 ] ( ) .
, "" , ,
, . ! (, )
, ;
, " "
(,
).
-,
, ("") . , , ( , )
.
, , , ; , ,
.
:
, , -,

14

( ) . "" , ,
.
, .
,
[A1 ]. , , , " ". , , "" ,
"".
, , ""
. ( ) ""? , . , ,
, ,
, .
[A1 ], ""
( -), " ". ( , ;
,
.)

(: ... = );
, .
,
[A1 ]: ". " , . !
,

( !) .

1
.

1. .

.
.

1.1. . (. [1 , . 2.1.]) P, , ( ), :
1 (a, b, c P ) [ (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) ];
2 (a, b P ) [ a + b = b + a ];
3 ( 0 P ) ( a P ) [ a + 0 = a ];
4 (a P ) ( b P ) [ a + b = 0 ];
5 (a, b, c P ) [ (a + b) c = a c + b c ];
6 (a, b, c P ) [ (a b) c = a (b c) ];
7 (a, b P ) [ a b = b a ];
8 ( 1 P ) ( a P ) [ a 1 = a ];
9 (a P \ {0}) ( b P ) [ a b = 1 ].
Q, R, C, Fp p.
1.2.
1.1. ()
P V (
) ():

16

. 1

1) (x, y) 7 x + y;
2) (, x) 7 x P ,
, :
(V1 ) ( x, y, z V ) [ (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) ];
(V2 ) ( x, y V ) [ x + y = y + x ];
(V3 ) ( 0 V ) ( x V ) [ x + 0 = x ];
(V4 ) ( x V ) ( y V ) [ x + y = 0 ];
(V5 ) ( x V ; , P ) [ ( + ) x = x + x ];
(V6 ) ( x, y V ; P ) [ (x + y) = x + y ];
(V7 ) ( x V ; , P ) [ ( ) x = ( x) ];
(V8 ) ( x V ) [ 1 x = x ].
(V1 ) (V8 ) , ,
(
) [1 ], . 1.1, 2.2, 36.1
. [, , (i) (viii)].

1 4 .
, ( ) [1 ] (. 14 16), , ,
() .

, .
, . ,
0, 00 (V3 ) , 0 = 00 ,
:
(V3 )

(V2 )

(V3 )

0 === 00 + 0 === 0 + 00 === 00 .


, , x, (V4 ) , . ,
, y y 0 ,
(V3 )

(V4 )

(V1 )

(V4 )

(V3 )

y === y + 0 === y + (x + y 0 ) === (y + x) + y 0 === 0 + y 0 === y 0 .


: y = x.
, ( )

17


. :
( x V ) [ (1) x = x ].
. .

1.1. P
x V ,
, . .
[ x = 0 ] [ = 0 ] [ x = 0 ].

(1.1)

. 1. : a + a = a V
a = 0. ,
b = a, (a + a) + b = a + b, , , a + (a + b) = 0 , , a + 0 = 0,
, , a = 0.
1.1. = 0
0 x = 0. , a = 0 x
a + a = a:
(V5 )

0 x + 0 x === (0 + 0) x = 0 x.
1.2. :
x = 0. ( :
?)
, 0 = 0,
, ( )
(1.1) .
2. . , x = 0, 6= 0. , 9 , P
1 , () . :
1 ( x) = 1 0.
(V7 ) (V8 )
( ) (.
1.2), x = 0.

18

. 1

(, )
, () . ,
"" (= juxtaposition).
:
() O = {0}
() ; : 0 + 0 = 0 0 = 0 P ;
0 = 0;
P ; , (, (V5 ) (V6 )
5 ).

.
1.3. . -

x1
x
P n = {x = 2 : xi P, i = 1, ..., n}
(1.2)
...
xn
[A1 ]: P = R . 1.3.
P n . . 2.3 [A1 ] (. 2.5).
: , , , .
. 2.2 - ( -):

P n = {xt = ( x1 x2 ... xn ) : xi P ; i = 1, ..., n}.

(1.3)

P n P.

19

,
. .

.
- a
( a V ) () V.
-.
-, ,
t , .
(, . .; .
) .
1.4.
1.1. .
V = Mat(m, n, P ) m n P (. [A1 ],
2.5) P ( ).

P mn .

a1
a
vec : Mat(m, n, P ) P mn ; vec(A) = 2 ,
...
an

(1.4)

""
A = (a1 | a2 | ...| an ) Mat(m, n, P )

mn

"" -, .
(1.4)
(. . 1.6).

20

. 1

, (
) .
1.2. .
P , M . (), M P :
V = F(M, P ) = {f : M P }.
, f, g F(M, P ) ,
, . .
def

[ f = g ] [ (x M ) (f (x) = g(x)) ].

:
def

def

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x); ( f )(x) = f (x); f, g F(M, P ); x M.


(V1 ) (V8 ), , , x. ( ,
, ,
.)
, P n ( -)
P - M = {1, ..., n}: f P n ( ),
i M fi P.
t
(-) f = (fi )
i=1 ,
f : N P ; i 7 fi N. , P , [A1 ], . 36.1 (.
36.2) , ,
t
f = (fi )
i=0
f (x) =

X
k=0

fk xk = f0 + f1 x + f2 x2 + ... + fk xk + ...

(1.5)

21

P [[x]]
(1.5). ;

.
1.3. .
(. [A1 , . 36.1])
(1.5). P [x] P P [[x]].
f (x) P [x] ( ) n = deg(f (x)) ;
(1.5); ()
f (x) =

n
X

fk xk = f0 + f1 x + f2 x2 + ... + fn xn .

(1.6)

k=0


P. ( , ; .
.)
1.4. .
, P ( ) L. ( , L P ). L
P. , x ( P ; x L) ,
L, P , . .
L.
, R
Q
Q.
, C R. , C [A1 ] (.
. 31.3).
1.5. . V P.

22

. 1

1.2. W V
V, , . .
1) , W, W
2) W
W.
W 6 V.
1.2 :
x, y W , P
x + y W.
, W 6 V P, , V
W ( ).
,

.
(
, ) (. [A1 , .
3.2, 8.2 ]).
1 2 1.2 ( ) , W 6 V ( ,
x W
W ).
- a1 , ... , ak , W, 1 a1 + ... + k ak
(i P ; i = 1, ..., k) W. (
. , . 2.1.)
V : W = O = {0}
, : W = V.
.
1.5. [A1 ], . 13.1.
.

23

(m n)- A P :
1) - () A:
L0A = { x Rn : A x = 0 } 6 P n ;

(1.7)

2) ( ) A:
RA = h a1 , a2 , ... , an i 6 P m .

(1.8)

1.6. 1.3 P [x]


P [[x]].
n, Pn [x] P,
n. .
, Pn [x] 6 P [x].
1.7. P , (. [A1 , .
39.1, 39.4])
P [x] F(P, P ).
R C , , ,
. .
.
C(R, R) ( )
, .
, () . , C(R, R)

F(R, R). (: 1-) C 1 (R, R) ( R) .
,

24

. 1

. ( ) C (R, R).
,
R, :
R[x] 6 C (R, R) 6 C 1 (R, R) 6 C(R, R) 6 F(R, R).

(, , , , , . .)
1.2.
V V.
. (W )I (
) W 6 V, I I.

\
W =
W = { x V : ( I) [ x W ] }
I

V, .
x, y W, x y W 6 V.
x + y (, P ) W , , W. , W 6 V.
1.6. . V W P, : V W
V W.
1.3. ( , ), (, , ),
. . :

25

( x, y V ) [ (x + y) = (x) + (y) ];

(1.9)

( x V, P ) [ ( x) = (x) ].

(1.10)

[A1 ] ( ) . 15.1. ( )
, , .
. , (0) = 0 :
0 + 0 = 0 (1.9) a + a = a
a = (0) W, ,
1.1, a = 0.

:
(1 a1 + ... + k ak ) = 1 (a1 ) + ... + k (ak ),

(1.11)

ai V ; i P (i = 1, ... , k).

o : V W ; o(x) = 0; x V,

: V V ; (x) = x; x V.
, ,
: V .
(
)

,
. . (. [A1 , . 15.1, 15.4]).
, .

26

. 1

: V W .
, : W V ,
= V ; = W .
u, v W
(u) = x, (v) = y, x, y
V , , (x) = u (y) = v.
(1.9) :
(u + v) = ((x) + (y)) = ((x + y)) = x + y = (u) + (v).
(1.10) , .
, () , .

[A1 ], . 15.6.

V W

;
:
(- -)

: V V

27

1.8. [A1 ], . 15.3, : P n P m (m n)- A:


(x) = A x ; x P n .

(1.12)

. 15.6 (-, -, -) (1.12).


1.9. 1.1 (1.4) (mn)- P mn .
1.10. .
P R.
C 1 (R, R) (. 1.7) 0 , f f 0 [ (
) , . .
C(R, R) ].
:
; -
. ,
0
: C 1 (R, R) C(R, R); f 7 f 0 ; f C 1 (R, R)
(1.13)
.
C (R, R), ,
. . . , R[x], ,
, :
0

: R[x] R[x]; f (x) 7 f 0 (x); f (x) R[x].

(1.14)

(1.14) (-, -). (? , ,


, .)
(1.14),
Rn [x] n.

28

. 1

() ,

: Rn [x] Rn1 [x]; f (x) 7 f 0 (x); f (x) Rn [x],

(1.14a)

(-, -).
1.11. , f, [a, b] R, . .
C([a, b], R)
, [a, b], R, :
Z
int[a,b] : C([a, b], R) R; f 7

f (x) dx; f C([a, b], R).

(1.15)

, (1.15) . :
c R , [a, b]
c; f (x) = c/(b a).
1.7. F2 . .
. ,

,
.
I 2I
( I):
2I = { A : A I }.

(1.16)

1.1. . Y X

29

X Y. , A I ( )

0, x 6 A;
(1.17)
A : I {0, 1}; A (x) =
1, x A.
, (1.16) 2.
. ,
2? , ,
0 1. 0 :
0 = = {}; 1 1 = {0}; 2 2 = {0, 1}; . .
(1.16) . ,
I , , n , 2I
2n . ( , k,
n, Cnk k- n . Cn0 + Cn1 + Cn2 + ... + Cnn = 2n ,
.)

V = 2I
(1.18)
:
. ( )
,
"":
A + B = A B; A B = A B; A = I \ A (A, B V ).

(1.19)

, : O = ; I
.
19 , (1.19) (1.18). A, B, C I.
( ) ,

30

. 1

(b.1) (b.19). . " ". ( ).


: ,
, . , (b.7),
, (b.16), ( "" ). (b.19) . , (b.9) (b.18),
(
), .

(b.1)
(b.2)
(b.3)
(b.4)
(b.5)
(b.6)
(b.7)
(b.8)
(b.9)

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (b.10)
A+B =B+A
(b.11)
A+O =A
(b.12)
A+I =I
(b.13)
A+A=A
(b.14)
A (A + B) = A
(b.15)
A (B + C) = A B + A C (b.16)
A+A=I
(b.17)
A+B =AB
(b.18)
(b.19) A = A

(A B) C = A (B C)
AB =BA
AI =A
AO =O
AA=A
A+AB =A
A + B C = (A + B) (A + C)
AA=O
AB =A+B

() . (b.1) (b.3) ( ) (V1 ) (V3 ) . (V4 )


. ( , A + B = O
: A = B = O, . . .) ,
V (
).
,
.

31

1.2. () () , .
, , ( ). : "
".
() (), . , , .
, . ( )
, .
"" ,
. . A B
,
. (
: " , !" "
" .)
, . :
A B = A B + A B = (A + B) (A B).

(1.20)

, A B
(. . A B = O), :
A B = A + B.
, ,
A B = (A B) \ (A B).
(1.20a)
A B . . 1.1 . 2.
,
V = 2I , . .
.
(V2 ) (V3 ) . ( ) : , A V,

32

. 1

: A A = O.
.
:
(A B) C = A (B C); A, B, C V.

(1.21)

(1.21).
[: ,
(b.1) (b.19).]
(A B) C = (A B + A B) C =
= (A B + A B) C + (A B + A B) C =

=ABC +ABC + ABAB C =


= A B C + A B C + (A + B) (A + B) C =
=ABC +ABC +AAC +ABC +BAC +BBC =
= A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C.
(1.21) ( A, B, C)
, , ,
. (1.21) .
( ), .

A B . (. 1.2 . 2).
:
A B = A B C A B C A B C A B C.

(1.22)

, , V
.
V . .
1, , (V5 ) ,
(1 + 1) A = 1 A 1 A,

33

, (V8 ):
(1 + 1) A = A A = O.

(1.23)

(1.23) , 1 + 1 = 0. ,
F2 = {0, 1}. (, " ". : 2 = 1 + 1,
, 2 = 0.) :
def

def

0 A = O; 1 A = A

(1.24)

(V5 ) (V7 ) .
: (1.24).
.
, (V5 ) :
( + ) A = A A; , F2 ; A V.

(1.25)

:
1) = = 0; 2) = = 1; 3) = 0; = 1; 4) = 1; = 0.
, ;
(1.24) . , [. (1.22)].
, :
V = 2I I F2 ( F2 ).

2.


.
.


2.1. . V P.

34

. 1

""
() (. . 8.1, 8.2
[A1 ]).
2.1. (..) V (, )
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak ],

(2.1)

ai V (i = 1, ... , k), k N. (
= [ ].)
(, ).
2.2. () .. (2.1)
Pk
i=1 i ai , i P (i = 1, ..., k).
( ),
a=

k
X

i ai ,

(2.2)

i=1

.
, a ,
A.
(V1 ) (V8 ) ,
.
2.3. () ..
(2.1) hAi V, :
(
hAi =
(
=

k
X

)
i ai : i P ; i = 1, ..., k

i=1

a V : [ i P (i = 1, ..., k) ] [ a =

k
X
i=1

(2.3)

)
i a i ]

35

, A =
6 [ ] hAi
a V, .. A. , ..
. .. . ,
..
( ).
.. () :
hi = O = {0}.

(2.3a)

2.1. 1. .. (2.1) V hAi V, . .


hAi 6 V.
(2.4)
2. V, , A, . .
- W 6 V
ai W (i = 1, ..., k), hAi W.
. () 8.1 [A1 ].
. (
, , . , .. .)
2.1. , .. . ,
: .. A .. B,
hAi
hBi.
2.4. W V A , W. , A W (
W ),
hAi = W.
(2.5)
.., W, , V.

36

. 1

W , ..,
W, W. (
, a W ..,
.)
.. , , .
.. "" [A1 ].
. ;
, ,
.
2.1. V = Pn [x] (. 1.6) ..
Bn = [ 1, x, x2 , ... , xn ].
(2.6)
n , (2.6), P. B V.
2.2. . ()
,
. - , . .
( , ) ( 8.5
[A1 ]). ,
- .
( )
A = {a1 , a2 , ... , ak }

(2.1a)

[. (2.1)] - () , ( ) .
(2.1a), hAi .

37

, ( ) .
2.3. A
V. hAi A.
hAi
x = 1 a1 + ... + k ak ; i P ; ai A (i = 1, ... , k),

(2.7)

k .
2.1. (, ,
.)
2.1a. A
V hAi
V, .
.
W0 =

{W 6 V : A W }

, A,
(. 1.2) , A. , W0
, A.
, ,
A, W0 . , hAi 6 W0 .
, hAi V. , x + y
, (2.7)
y = 1 b1 + ... + l bl ; j P ; bj A (j = 1, ... , l),

(2.8)

(
,
).

38

. 1

A hAi ( , a A a = 1 a.)
, W0 ,
A, : W0 6 hAi.
, W0 = hAi
.
2.2.
:
1)
,
;
2) A B
hAi 6 hBi;
3) A V
hhAii = hAi.

(2.9)

2.2. V = P [x]
()
B = { 1, x , x2 , ... }

(2.10)

. 2.3 ,
hBi = V. , (2.10)
.
2.3.
2.5. , ..,
.
, , " ", . . ( ), , .
?

39

V ,
.. V, . .
.. A hAi V.
.
2.3. P n . (. [A1 ,
8.2]) :
En = [ e1 , e2 , ... , en ].

(2.11)

2.4. Pn [x] n (. 2.1) . ,


P n+1 :
f (x) = f0 + f1 x + f2 x2 + ... + fn xn ; fk P (k = 1, ... , n),

(2.12)

, fn 6= 0, -
t

f = (f0 , f1 , ... , fn ).

(2.12a)

2.5. P [x] P
(. 1.3) . , .. :
A = [g1 (x), g2 (x), ..., gk (x)]; gi (x) P [x]; deg(gi (x)) = ni (i = 1, ..., k).
, ()
g(x) = 1 g1 (x) + 2 g2 (x) + ... + k gk (x) hAi
, n = max(n1 , n2 , ... , nk ).
, hAi 6= P [x].

40

. 1

2.6. C, R (. 1.4), , [1, i] (


z = a 1 + b i;
a, b R).
R Q .
,
" ".
A = [x1 , x2 , ... , xk ] (= R Q).
x hAi x = r1 x1 + r2 x2 + ... + rk xk
ri Q (i = 1, ..., k) , , k
r1 , r2 , ..., rk . (
: .)
Q . Qk k
. x, hAi, , Qk .
hAi . ( ,
, .)
, R, , (, , ). hAi 6= R, . . .. R R, , ,
.
( , , ,
. , - . .
, .)
2.7. , , ,
" ".
1.2
V = F(M, P ) M P
,
, M .
. M, , ,
n , , V, -

()

41

P n . M 5 () (. 5.2).
2.3.
. : ...
, , .
.
. (). ,
, ( "" ).
,
"" ()
. ()
.

3.

3.1. ( )
.. - 9 [A1 ] (
). , , .
3.1. .. A V
P, (2.1), , A
:
k
X
i ai = 0,
(3.1)
i=1

i P (i = 1, ..., k) .

42

. 1

, . . (3.1) ,
:
i = 0 (i = 1, ..., k),

(3.2)

.. (2.1) .
.. .
( ), () ..
(2.1). .., , .
, () .., . 9.1, 9.3 [A1 ]
,
. ,
9.2, , , .
,
".. A .. B" (.
2.1 ). , (2.1) ( )

B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bl ]; bj V (j = 1, ..., l),


(3.3)
. .
a1 = bj1 ; a2 = bj2 ; ... ; ak = bjk

(3.4)


[ j1 , j2 , ... , jk ] (1 6 j1 < j2 < ... < jk 6 l).
3.1. 1. B .. V , A . A B,
B A.
2. .. A ,
, A,
.
3. .. A , .. B A ( )
b V. .. B
, b hAi .
.
[A1 ], .

()

43

3.2. .. 2, .. (2.1)

W = hAi. x W
ai (i = 1, ..., k), , , .. A
x=

k
X

i ai .

(3.5)

i=1

, i P, ,
, . ,
.. .
3.2. .. A , x hAi (3.5) .
: , (3.5),
x=

k
X

i ai ,

(3.5a)

i=1

, ,
0=

k
X

(i i )ai ,

i=1

, A, : i = i (i = 1, ..., k).
3.3. ()
. , . 2.2,
.., , ()
, A
(2.1) () A (2.1).
, ()
. ,
A ( V
P ).

44

. 1

3.1a. A V ,
A0 A, ( 3.1).
, . :

, .
3.1. En
[. (2.11)] P n .
, Pn [x], P n+1 , Bn [. (2.6)] . :
(2.12) , .
P [x] B [. (2.10)]. 3.1, .
, A B
Bn (
, Bn ). Bn
( 3.1) A.
3.4. .
V = C (D, R) ( ) D R. (, 1.7,
1-, . . , .
;
.)
- ..
An = [ f1 (x), f2 (x), ... , fn (x) ]

(3.6)

V.
()
.

()

45

n 1 n-

f1 (x)
f2 (x)
0
f20 (x)
f1 (x)

MAn (x) = f100 (x)


f200 (x)

(n1)
(n1)
(x) f2
(x)
f1

fn (x)
fn0 (x)

fn00 (x) .

(n1)
fn
(x)

(3.7)

3.2. (3.7) ,
WAn (x) = det(MAn (x))

(3.8)

( )
(3.6).
() . (3.8),
, x D.
An .
3.3. - (3.6) , (3.8) D.
. An , . . k (k = 1, ..., n),
, x
1 f1 (x) + 2 f2 (x) + ... + n fn (x) = 0.

(3.9)

(3.9) n 1 .
, , :

1 f1 (x)
+ 2 f2 (x)
+ ... + n fn (x)
= 0;

+ 2 f20 (x)
+ ... + n fn0 (x)
= 0;

1 f1 (x)
(3.10)
= 0;
+ 2 f200 (x)
+ ... + n fn00 (x)
1 f100 (x)

..................................................................

(n1)
(n1)
1 f 1
(x) + 2 f2
(x) + ... + n fn(n1) (x) = 0.

46

. 1

(3.10) n n
k .
(3.7); x .
... (3.10)
MAn (x) = 0,

(3.10a)

- , Rn .
, k (
), (3.10) x D. , ... ( x). , (
) , ,
, (. [A1 , .
6.2, 28.2]).
3.3 -: WAn (x)
, ( ) An .
3.1. V = C (D, R),
W = C (D, C), . w = f (x)
x D R
f (x) = g(x) + ih(x), u = g(x) v = h(x) (g, h V ). W
C. , , . .,
- , , . ( .)
3.3 , , .
3.2.
[ V = C (R, R) ]:
An = [ e1 x , e2 x , ... , en x ],

(3.11)

()

47

k (k = 1, ..., n) .
, .. .
(
n1 ) (3.11)
, .
( ) (. [A1 , . 30.5])
:

e2 x

en x

2 e2 x

n en x

22 e2 x

2n en x =

n1 2 x
n1 n x
2 e
n e

1
1

n
1

22

2n =
= e1 x e2 x ... en x 21

n1
1
n1
n1
n
2

e1 x

1 e1 x

WAn (x) = 21 e1 x


n1 1 x
1 e

= e1 x e2 x ... en x n (1 , 2 , ... , n ) =
Y
1 x 2 x
n x
(l k ) .
= e e ... e
16k<l6n

,

( , k ).
3.3, (3.11) .
3.2. 3.2
k = k +ik (k = 1, ..., n);
(. [A1 , . 34.2])

fk (x) = ek x = ek x (cos k x + i sin k x)

(3.12)

[ fk W = C (R, C) ].
, ,

48

. 1

, C [
; . (34.6)].
3.2, 3.2,
,
, (, , , ).
3.3. 2n + 1 () :
T = [ 1, cos x, sin x, cos 2x, sin 2x, ... , cos nx, sin nx ].

(3.13)

, (3.13) . .. T , :
0 1 + 1 cos x + 1 sin x + 2 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x +
+ ... + n cos nx + n sin nx = 0.

(3.14)

k l (k = 0, ..., n; l = 1, ..., n) (3.14)


. ,
.
()
1 = e0x . (.
[A1 , . 34.3]):
cos kx =

1 ikx
1
(e + eikx ); sin kx = (eikx eikx ).
2
2i

(3.15)

(3.15) (3.14), () , :
0 e0x + 1 eix + 2 e2ix + ... + n enix +
+ 1 eix + 2 e2ix + ... + n enix = 0,

(3.16)

0 = 0 : k =

k ik
k + ik
; k =
(k = 1, ..., n).
2
2

(3.17)

()

49


T 0 = [ enix , ... , e2ix , eix , e0x , eix , e2ix , ... , enix ]

(3.130 )

( 3.2, 3.2). (3.16)


() k (n 6 k 6 n). (3.17)
k ,
() , (3.14).
.
3.4.
An = [ x1 , x2 , ... , xn ],

(3.18)

k (k = 1, ..., n) ,
D = (0, ).
, .. (3.18)

C (D, R).
. xk = ek ln x y = ln x.
3.3. 3.3 ,
[(3.6), (3.11), (3.13) (3.18)]
-.
, 3.3 ( )
A = { f1 (x), f2 (x), ... , fk (x), ... }.
(3.6a)
( 3.1)
(3.6) () , (3.6). A
An , n
[ An (3.6)]. ,
, An , (
).
WAn (x) , (3.6) .

50

. 1

,

A = { e1 x , e2 x , ... , ek x , ... },

(3.11a)

( ) k ;

A = { x1 , x2 , ... , xk , ... },

(3.18a)

k .

T = { 1, cos x, sin x, cos 2x, sin 2x, ... , cos kx, sin kx, ... }.

(3.13a)

. ( .)

4. ;

4.1. .
10 [A1 ],

.
. V P.
4.1. ..
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]
V () V,
1) V, . . hBi = V ;
2) .

(4.1)

51

. , , ,
(. 2.5). , . 4.3
() ...
4.1, 3.2,
, x V
(4.1), . . i P
(i = 1, ..., n), ,
n
X
x=
i bi .
(4.2)
i=1

.. ..
" () " . ()
.
4.1. , ( ). , , .
, () ( , ) .
. ( ) () (. . 2.2, 3.3).
, . 4.4. (, , . " ", .)
(
, ) (. 2.3).
4.1. P n En [. (2.11)].
, .
, (m n)- Mat(m, n; P ) (. 1.1) Eij (i = 1, ..., m;
j = 1, ..., n). ( Eij , -

52

. 1

, ,
.)
Pn [x] (. 1.3)
xk (k = 0, , , , , n) [. (2.6)].
C R (. 1.4)
: .
..., , ( , ).
4.2. . , , " ".
4.1. V P,
B .. (4.1) V.
.
(1) .. B () V (. . B V ).
(2) .. B (. . V B).
(3) .. B (. . B
.., B,
).
(4) .. B (. . B V .., B, ).
:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (1) .
, .. ,
() " V ".
1. (1) (2) (.
4.1).
2. (2) (3).

53

.. B V
. , x V B, . . (4.2),
. , .. B .
2.1. B ,
0 V B. , :
0 = 0 b1 + ... + 0 bn . -
n
X

i bi = 0

(4.2h)

i=1

: i = 0 (i = 1, ..., n).
2.2. .. B.
.. B 0 B, . . B B0 b, B 0 , B.
.. [B, b], B b.
(, . , , b , B 0 .) B ..
, b B. ,
3.1, [B, b].
.. B0 , , , B 0 .
3. (3) (4).
.. B . , .
3.1. , B V . x V. B,
hBi. x B,
.. [B, x], B. B
, .. . 3.1 ,
x hBi. , , hBi = V.
3.2. B ..
.. B 0 B. b,
B, B0 . B 0 .., b

54

. 1

B0 . 3.1., B, . , B,
B, .
4. (4) (1).
.. B V. , B . B. . , 3.1, b, B B 0 ,
B . , .. B0 . ( , x V
B. , b,
B0 , x B0 .) B . ,
.
4.3. ... , () . ,
.
4.2. V ... P.
1) V () ;
2) () .., V, , .
. , 2.5, ... ..,
.
.. A V.
A , ,
4.1, ;
A A0 ( , A), .
A0
. , .. ,
( ) .

55

4.2. ( ,
V
P n )
[A1 ] (. 10.1). "" .
.. ( , ) V
, . ( n)
.. ..
"",
.
.., : . 4.1, ..

.. ( ...), .
4.4.
( ). ( , ) V P
( , ) B V.
(. . 2.2), hBi
B. B V , hBi = V, . . x V
B.
(. . 3.3), B ,
.
4.1a. B ( ) V,
V .
4.2. P0 , P (. [A1 , 36]) , -
ek t = ( 0, ... , 0, 1, 0, ... ),

56

. 1

k- (k = 0, 1, 2, ...).
()
P [x] (. 1.3 2.2).
" "
k
x (k = 0, 1, 2, ...).
,
.
() .
() ( ) . (
.)
, , :
, () , .
[2].
, , - : . . . .:
, 1982.
4.5. . , () .
, ,
V ( P = R C),
- .

.
,
B = { b1 , b2 , ... , bk , ... }; bk V (k = 1, 2, ...)

(4.3)

( k

57

P ) () :
a=

k bk = lim

i=1

n
X

k bk ,

(4.4)

i=1

, .
(4.4) , , a V
. a
() (4.3).
(4.3) V, a V
, ( ) k .
4.3. (. 3.2 3.3) V = L2 [, ]
f (x), [, ]
(. . ,
R
2
f (x)dx ).
V

fn (x) f (x)
:
R 2 (fn (x)f (x)) dx. (, , , , . , ,
.)
T [. (3.13)] V, . .
:

X
f (x) = a0 +
ak cos kx + bk sin kx,
(4.5)
k=1

a0 ak , bk (k = 1, 2, ...)

Z
Z
1
1
a0 =
f (x)dx; ak =
f (x) cos kx dx;

2
Z
1
f (x) sin kx dx. (4.6)
bk =

58

. 1

fn (x),
f (x), (4.5):
n
X
ak cos kx + bk sin kx.
(4.7)
fn (x) = a0 +
k=1

, (4.5)
(4.7), ,
.

5. .

.

5.1.
.. 11 ( 10)
[A1 ]. , .
, .
. , 5.1 11.1 [A1 ]. (
) . -
( ).
5.1. ... V P B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ] .. A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , as ], s > n.
.. A .
. , A
s
X
j aj = 0,
(5.1)
j=1

j P .
(5.1)
n
X
aj =
aij bi ; j = 1, ..., s
(5.2)
i=1

59

A B :
;
;
-
();
.
:
n
!
n
!
k
s
s
X
X
X
X
X
j aj =
j
aij bi =
j aij bi =
j=1

j=1

i=1

n
X
i=1

j=1
s
X

j=1

i=1

i=1

j=1

s
s
n
n
X X
X X

=
j aij bi =
j aij bi =
i=1

aij j bi =

j=1

n
X

[A ]i bi ,

i=1

A (ns)-,
aij (5.2)
- s 1, j , .
(5.1) :
n
X
[A ]i bi = 0.
(5.3)
i=1

(5.3) (
.. B) [A ]i = 0
(i = 1, ..., n), , ,
A = 0 .
(5.4)
ns

s1

n1

... (5.4) ,
(s > n). (. [A1 , 6.1]) 6= 0. , j ,
, (5.1).
5.1 , ..: ...

60

. 1

() .. () . (

..)
5.2. ... .. ...
,
, ..
() , , ...
5.2. 1) ,
.., 2) ,

..
. , 4.1. , , ,
.., . .
.
.. ( ). , ( , .. ),
, .
, .. ( ).
()
5.3. ... ...
. V ..., W V. , W .
.. ,
V, .

61

5.3. ... 5.1 11.1 [A1 ].


5.1. ... ().
( [A1 ]). .. A 5.1, B,
. , ,
: s 6 n n 6 s. : s = n.
.
5.1. ... V (, , )
. : dim(V ).
" ". ( "" , , ,
, . , . . .)
, ... . () .

.
5.1. , 4.1, :
dim(P n ) = n; dim(Mat(m, n; P )) = mn; dim(Pn [x]) = n + 1.
5.1
5.4. V n P. ()
.. V ( ) n .
n , .

62

. 1

.
( ?); , ,
.
5.1. ( ; . . 4.4)
.
( ), ,
. ( ; ., , . . . .:
- , 1988.)
5.4. . ..
.
, .. ( ), , . (
[A1 ] . 10.4.)
5.5. V n P,
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(5.5)

.
1. ..
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , as ]

(5.6)

V
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ]

(5.50 )

.
2. W1 V W2 , , W1 6 W2 6 V.
. 1. ( 5.4),
.. (5.6) (5.5): s 6 n.
, , , A B.

63

(5.50 ), A
.
, [A1 ]
11.1.
s = n, : A . s < n, A , , ,
.. , A0 ,
, , s0 , s < s0 6 n.
, s0 = n, , ,
( .. V n).
B0 V, .. A.
2.
. , W1
.. ( ) W2 , , , ,
W2 .
5.5. . 5.6
11.3 [A1 ].
5.6. V ... P.
1. W V ( V, ), dim(W )
( , ) dim(V ).
2. W 6 V dim(W ) = dim(V ), W = V.
. 5.5, A W B V.
[ W 6 V ] [ dim(W ) 6 dim(V ) ],

(5.7)

.
W V , V,
A B, B. (
, A = B : W = V, .)

64

. 1

, (5.7)
:
[ W < V ] [ dim(W ) < dim(V ) ].

(5.7a)

. ( )

6. .

6.1. ...
,
() . , ( ) .
... , . ,
: V W

(6.1)

... V ( P ) W
( )
V.
.. (6.1).

A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak ]
(6.2)
.. V ,
( )
(A) = [ (a1 ), (a2 ), ... , (ak ) ]

(6.3)

W. ( ) . 1.6.

65

6.1 (
). V W
P, V
dim(V ) = n.
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]
(6.4)
V
C = [ c1 , c2 , ... , cn ]

(6.5)

.. W.

1) (6.1), ,

(B) = C;
(6.6)
2) C , ;
3) W .. C
W , (6.1) ;
4) W C W , (6.1)
.
. 1.1. , (6.6), , .
(6.6) :
(bi ) = ci ; i = 1, ..., n.

(6.6a)

V. x V B :
x=

n
X

xi bi ; xi P (i = 1, ..., n).

(6.7)

i=1

, [. (1.11)]. (6.7)
(x) =

n
X
i=1

(6.6a)

xi (bi ) =====

n
X
i=1

xi ci ,

66

. 1

, :
(x) =

n
X

xi ci .

(6.8)

i=1

(6.8) (6.1) x V .
1.2. (6.1), (6.6), (6.8), .
.
, , ,
. , .
x y V ;
(6.7), :
y=

n
X

yi bi ; yi P (i = 1, ..., n).

(6.9)

i=1

(6.7) (6.9) (V1 ) (V8 ) ,


:
n
X
x+y =
(xi + yi )bi .
(6.10)
i=1

(6.10) (6.8)
, :
(x + y) =
=

n
X
i=1
n
X
j=i

(xi + yi )ci =

n
X

(xi ci + yi ci ) =

i=1

xi ci +

n
X

yi ci = (x) + (y).

i=1

:
(x) = (x) P.
, ,
(6.8), (6.6).

67

: x bj ,
(6.7) xi ,
, xj = 1. (6.8) , ci . : (bj ) = cj .
2. , , , .. C . , , (6.8), ,
. . .
x, y V
: (x) = (y), , (6.8),
n
X

xi ci =

i=1

n
X

yi ci .

(6.11)

i=1

(6.11)
:
n
X
(xi yi )ci = 0,
(6.12)
i=1

, C,
. , xi = yi i = 1, ..., n. , x = y, .
3. W
: .. .
, C W,
(. . ) . w W
.. C:
w=

n
X

i ci ; i P (i = 1, ..., n).

i=1

x V, (x) = w. ,

n
X
x=
i bi .
i=1

.
4. .

68

. 1

6.2. .
...
,
. , .
() .
6.1. 1. ..
2. ..
3. .. .
4. .., .. .
. 1. (. . 1.6).
2. (6.1), , , .. (6.2),
. , , .. (6.3), .
:
k
X
i (ai ) = 0.
(6.13)
i=1

, (6.13)
k
X
(
i ai ) = 0.

(6.14)

i=1

(0) = 0 , (6.14)

k
X
i ai = 0,
i=1

, , A,
i (i = 1, ..., k).
(A) .

69

3. (6.1) , (6.2)
V. , (6.3) W. w W. ,
x V, , (x) = w. .. (6.2) V , x
A:
k
X
x=
i ai .
(6.15)
i=1

(6.15) (6.1) ,
k
X
w = (x) =
i (ai ).
i=1

, W (A), .
4. ,
, ,
, . (, ,
6.1, .)
6.3. ... ... ,
, V W , P, ( V
= W ),
.
6.2. ... V W P
, :
[V
= W ] [ dim(V ) = dim(W ) ].

(6.16)

. 1. V
= W,
: V W . 6.1, V
W . , (), . .
.

70

. 1

2. , dim(V ) = dim(W ), B C V W . , , 6.1,


V W , B C.
6.4. ... . 6.2, ...
. ... V () n , , P n , , (.
5.1), n. , V
= P n.
, ( ) V P n , V.
6.2. V n P -
(6.4). P n ,
En = [ e1 , e2 , ... , en ].

(6.17)


: V P n ,

(6.18)

x V

x1
x
(x) = x = 2 P n ,
(6.19)

xn
x (6.4), . . (6.7).
(6.18) ... V
P n , (6.4) (6.17).
. 6.1, V P n ,
B En .
(6.19).

71

, (B) = En , . .
(bi ) = ei ; i = 1, ..., n.
,

(6.20)

x1
x
(x) = (
x i bi ) =
xi (bi ) =
xi ei = 2 = x,

i=1
i=1
i=1
xn
n
X

n
X

n
X

(6.19).

: P V ;

(x) = x =

n
X

xi bi ; x P n ,

(6.21)

i=1

(6.20).
6.1. ... "" (. 4.1); .
(6.18),
, .
B B0
0 . (
. , . 7.3.)
.
,
( ).
,

..., , , .
( ) . (
, . . 7.4.)

72

. 1

7.

.


7.1. ... . .
, ... . ,
, , . ... .
.
V ... P.
, B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ] B 0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ].
"", "". (
.)
7.1. B B0
, , B0
B.
. b0j (j = 1, ..., n) :
b0j

= t1j b1 + t2j b2 + ... + tnj bn =

n
X

tij bi .

(7.1)

i=1

tij P (i = 1, ..., n) (7.1)


-

t1j
t
b0j = 2j P n .
(7.2)

tnj
: j ,
i .
tij = [b0j ]i (i, j = 1, ... , n)

t11 t12 t1n


t21 t22 t2n
0 0
0
T = b1 b2 ... bn =
(7.3)

,

nn

tn1 tn2 tnn

73

B B0
.
7.1. 1. B
En .
2. B, B0 B 00 n- V. T B
B0 , S B0 B 00 ,
T S B B00 .
3. , T
B B 0 , T 1 , B0 B.
. 1. .
, b1 B
, : b1 = 1 b1 + 0 b2 + ... + 0 bn , . . b1
e1 . .
2.
n

T = (tij )i,j=1
(7.1). ,

n
S = (sjk )j,k=1
:
b00k

s1k b01

s2k b02

+ ... +

snk b0n

n
X

sjk b0j ; k = 1, ..., n.

(7.1a)

j=1

(
; . [A1 , . 2.2].)

n

R = (rik )i,k=1 ,
() .
, :
b00k

= r1k b1 + r2k b2 + ... + rnk bn =

n
X
i=1

rik bi ; k = 1, ..., n.

(7.1b)

74

. 1

(7.1) (7.1)
, 5.1:

b00k =

n
X
j=1

n
X
i=1

n
X
i=1

sjk

n
X

!
tij bi

i=1
n
X

sjk tij bi =

j=1
n
X

n
n
X
X
j=1
n
X
i=1

!
sjk tij bi

i=1

n
X

sjk tij bi =

j=1

n
X
tij sjk bi =
[T S]ik bi ,

j=1

i=1


.
(7.2b).
b00k B. (. . 4.2),
:
rik = [T S]ik ; i, k = 1, ..., n,
:
R = T S.
3. ( )
: B B 0 ( T ), , B0 B ( S), T S = En ,
( ) : S = T 1 .
7.1
n- ... V ( P ). , V
(nn)-
P. ,

75

7.2.
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , an ]

(7.4)

n- V ( P )
..
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ],
(7.5)
n . ,
(7.5), (7.4):
bj =

n
X

tij ai ; j = 1, ... , n.

(7.6)

i=1

(7.6)
T = (tij )ni,j=1 Mat(n, n; P ).

(7.7)

1) .. (7.5) V ,
(7.7) ;
2) V () GL(n, P ).
. 1. (7.5) , (7.7) , A B (.
7.1), 7.1.
, , T , .. (7.5) . 5.4,
B.
:
n
X

j bj = 0.

(7.8)

j=1

i P
(i = 1, ..., n). (7.6) (7.8) :

n
!
n
n
n
n
n
X
X
X
X
X
X

0=
j b j =
j
tij ai =
tij j ai =
[T ]i ai
j=1

j=1

i=1

i=1

j=1

i=1

76

. 1

( 5.1, :
).
, A,
[T ]i (i = 1, ..., n), . .
T = 0 ( , 0 P n ),
T 1 , = 0, .
2. , T , (7.6) (7.5), T
(7.4) (7.5).

{ (n n)- }
{ V }

.
7.1. 7.2 ( ): n- ... , (n n)-
.
n = 1 , ( )
, . ( , , P = F2 .)
: , (n n)- P = Fq ,
q. (
, , . . q q = pk ,
p , k .)
,
.
7.2.
V = P n () : A = En .

B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(7.5a)

, -, (7.5):

B = b1 b2 ... bn .
(7.7a)

77

, (7.5),
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ],



0
B = b01 b02 ... b0n ,

(7.5b)

(7.7b)

, 7.1, (7.5) (7.5b) :


T = B 1 B 0 ; S = T 1 = (B 0 )1 B.

(7.9)

7.2. . . 6.4, ...


,
( ). ,
. .
n- V ( P )
: B, (7.5),
,
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ].
[ (6.19)]:

x1
x
: V P n ; (x) = x = 2 ;

xn
0
x1
x0
0 : V P n ; 0 (x) = x0 = 2 ,

x0n

(7.50 )

(7.10)

(7.100 )

x V - x, x0 P n
n
n
X
X
x=
xi bi =
x0j b0j .
(7.11)
i=1

j=1

78

. 1

7.3 ( ). x0
, x.
, , .
, x, . ( x0 , ,
, x0 .)
(7.2), (7.1).
7.3. n- V B B0 , T , x V
x, x0 P n
x = T x0 ; x0 = S x,

(7.12)

S = T 1 .
. (7.11) (7.1) b0j ( !)
:

x=

n
X
j=1

x0j b0j =

n
X
j=1

x0j

n
X
i=1

!
tij bi

n
X
i=1

n
n
X
X
0

[T x0 ]i bi .
tij xj bi =
j=1

i=1

(7.11).
x B. ,
:
xi = [T x0 ]i ; i = 1, ..., n,
, : x = T x0 .
(7.12), , . .
7.4. 7.3 ,

, 0 : V P n ,

(7.13)

79

(7.10) (7.100 ).

: P n P n ; (x0 ) = T x0 ; x0 P n

(7.14)

: P n P n ; (x) = S x; x P n ,

(7.15)

T S .
, (7.14) (7.15) (. . ) P n ,
T S (. [A1 , . 14.5]).
: = 1 . ,
(7.13), .

Pn

Pn

% 0

. 7.1

V
, 7.1, :
= 0 ; 0 = .
(7.16)
( x V ) (7.12). :
(x) = T 0 (x) = ( 0 (x)) ( x V ).
(7.16). .
7.3.
. n V P.
V (.
6.1).

80

. 1

, A . ,
7.2, V A . ,
,

=
: V P n V P n . ,
, , ().
; ,
. ( 6.1
6.2.)
"" ... "" .
" " ( )


V


P n

En

- x

V :
B = [ b1 , ..., bn ];
B0 = [ b01 , ..., b0n ]

P n :
Be = [ b1 , ..., bn ];
Be0 = [ b01 , ..., b0n ];
B, B 0

T
B B0

T ( )
Be Be0 :
T = B 1 B 0

, T , ,
: Be0 Be
B0 B.

81

T 7.2 [. (7.9)]; : .
( )
:
x V A x;
B ( B 0 ) xB ( xB0 ).
(7.12) :
xB = T xB0 ; xB0 = S xB ,

(7.12a)

T S = T 1 (7.9).
, , , (, ) .
.
7.1. .
. R4 ..:
B = [ b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ]; C = [ c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 ],
( ) :

1 1 1 1
1 2 2 2
1 2 1 3
0 3 2 3
B=
; C =
.
1 1 2 2
3 5 5 4
1 1 1 3
3 4 4 4
:
1) , .. ;
2) B C .
a R4 , B

1
1
aB =
,
1
1

82

. 1


3) aC
C.
. , , .. B C,
E4 . a
.
1. B C,
, .
:
(. [A1 , . 14.6]). , B 1 C 1 ,
.
-:

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 2 1 3 0 1 0 0
(B | E) =


1 1 2 2 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1
1 1 1 3

1 0 0 0 2
1 1
1

1
0
1
0 1 0 0 0

.
0 0 1 0 1/2 0
1 1/2

0 0 0 1
1/2 0
0
1/2
, B ,

B 1

2
0
=
1/2
1/2

1
1
0
0

1
1
0
1
1 1/2
0
1/2

C 1

2
9/2
=
9/2
3/2

0
1
1
0

0
1
1 1/2
0 3/2
1 1/2

, ..
R4 . , B C E4 B C .

83

2. T B C (7.9):

2
0
1 1
3 1 2 1
T = B 1 C =
.
1 2 2 1
1 1 1 1
S, ,
(7.9),
T :

1 1 1 1
1
1 2
2
S=
.
2
1
2 3
1 1 0 1
3. aC
(7.12):

2
4
aC = S aB =
.
6
1
" " , . .
a = aE E = E4 , (7.12a), B
:

0
3
a = aE = B aB =
.
0
2
7.2. (n + 1)- Pn [x]
n (. 4.1)
:
B = [ 1, x, x2 , ... , xn ].
(7.17)
, a P
"" :
Ba = [ 1, x a, (x a)2 , ... , (x a)n ].

(7.18)

, .. (7.18) (7.17)
y = x a ( ).

84

. 1

f (x) = f0 + f1 x + f2 x2 + ... + fn xn
B = B0 -

f0
f1

f B = f2 P n+1 .

fn

(7.19)

(7.20)

(, - f B .)
(. [A1 , . 47.3]),
(7.19) Ba :
f (x) = h0 + h1 (x a) + h2 (x a)2 + ... + hn (x a)n ,

(7.21)

f (x)
a:
f (k) (a)
hk =
; k = 0, ... , n.
(7.22)
k!
, (7.19) (7.18)

f (a)
f 0 (a)

f Ba = f 00 (a)/2! .
(7.23)

(n)
f (a)/n!
B Ba ,
() (xa)k B.
:
k

(x a) =

k
X

(1)kj Ckj akj xj .

j=0

1 a a2 a3
(1)n an
0 1 2a 3a2 (1)n1 nan1

1
3a (1)n2 Cn2 an2
0 0

T = 0 0
0
1
(1)n3 Cn3 an3 .

..................................................

0 0
0
0

na
0 0
0
0

(7.24)

85

. ,
xk Ba :
k

x = ((x a) + a) =

k
X

Ckj akj (x a)j ,

j=0

1 a a 2 a3
an
0 1 2a 3a2 nan1

0 0 1 3a Cn2 an2

1 Cn3 an3 .
S = 0 0 0

...................................

0 0 0
0
na
0 0 0
0
1

(7.25)

- f Ba , , [. (7.23)], .
f Ba = S f B

(7.26)


. (
.)
7.4. Maple , . [A1 ] , Maple.
. , ,
Maple-. , linalg, ,
LinearAlgebra,
, . Maple (, )
.
linalg "":
,
LinearAlgebra.

86

. 1

, . LinearAlgebra . : , ,
.
, .
: , , , ""
.
, , . , " " .
7.3. 7.1 Maple. :
> with ( LinearAlgebra ) :
( ,
, .)
, .
linalg:
> B := Matrix( [ [ 1, 1, 1, 1 ], [ 1, 2, 1, 3 ], [ 1, 1, 2, 2 ], [ 1, 1, 1, 3 ] ] ) :
Matrix,
linalg matrix. ( , Maple,
. . , matrix Matrix. , ,
.)
(-: shortcuts)
:
> C:=<<1, 0, 3, 3>|<2,3,5,4>|<2, 2, 5, 4>|<2,3,4,4>>:

87

( , .
: ,
| .)
linalg, LinearAlgebra A + B, A B
A . B . , () .
linalg evalm ( ). , , ,
evalm(A&B).
LinearAlgebra
:
> E := IdentityMatrix ( 4 ) :
shortcuts :
> BE := << B | E >> ;

1
1
BE :=
1
1

1
2
1
1

1
1
2
1

1
3
2
3

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0

0
1

gaussjord linalg,
, LinearAlgebra
(
;
):
> BG := ReducedRowEchelonForm ( BE ) ;

1
0
BG :=
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

2
0
21
21

1
1
0
0

1
0
1
0

1
1

1
2
1
2

"" BG ( SubMatrix) "" B 1 , , :

88

> T := MatrixInverse ( B ) . C ;

2
0
1
3 1 2
T :=
1 2 2
1 1 1

. 1

1
1

1
1

:
> aB := Vector ( [ 1, -1, 1, -1 ] ) ; aC := Inverse( T ) . aB ;

1
1
aB :=

1
1

2
4
aC :=

6
1

8.

.

8.1. ...
. W 6 V V ( P ) ,
. 1.5.
( ) , ,
1.2, .
, ,
, . (
, .)
, , , .
.

89

8.1. {Wi }si=1 V.


W1 + W2 + ... + Ws = { y1 + y2 + ... + ys : yi Wi (i = 1, ..., s) } (8.1)
V.
Ps
(8.1) i=1 Wi .
Ps
8.1. W =
i=1 Wi Wi 6 V (i = 1, ..., s) : W 6 V,
V, -.
. , W :
x = y1 + y2 + ... + ys , x0 = y10 + y20 + ... + ys0
W (yi , yi0 Wi ; i = 1, ..., s)
P, ,
x+x0 = (y1 +y10 )+(y2 +y20 )+...+(ys +ys0 ), x = (y1 )+(y2 )+...+(ys )
W.
Wi W. , W
, Wi , . .
, W W 0 ,
Wi (i = 1, ..., s).
, W 0 yi Wi ,
y1 + y2 + ... + ys . , W 0
W.
8.1.
, , ()
, , . ,
, . ,

90

. 1

. , : W1 6 W2 , : W1 + W2 = W2 . ,
x W1 + W2 , , x = y1 + y2 ,
y2 W2 y1 ( ) W2 , x W2 . , : W1 + W2 = W2
W1 6 W2 .
, :
[ W1 6 W2 ] [ W1 + W2 = W2 ],
, , ,
:
[ W1 6 W2 ] [ W1 W2 = W1 ].
8.2.
,
V :
O V ;
W1 W2 ;
W3 = W1 + W2 W0 = W1 W2 .
8.1
6%

W1

&6

W0

W3
6

&

W2
8.1 () , , , .
, - " "
( ),
. ( 8.1.)
8.3.

P
I Wi ( , ) W = {W }I .

91

W ,
- . , W , W .
, 2.1, :
, , ;
.
8.2. . . V , , 5.3, V, ,
(. 5.6), .
( , ) ( ) . , W0 = W1 W2
W1 , W2 6 V (
).
W3 = W1 + W2 . ,
.. () . ,
.
.
8.1 ( ). V P , W1 W2
V. W1 + W2 V
:
dim(W1 + W2 ) = dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) dim(W1 W2 ).

(8.2)

92

. 1

. di = dim(Wi ) ( i = 0, 1, 2, 3) (8.2) (, W3 , W0 W1
W2 ). ,
: d0 6 d1 , d2 6 d3 .
d3 = d1 + d2 d0 .

(8.2a)

(,
). , , , : d0 = m; d1 = k;
d2 = l; d3 = s.

B0 = [ b1 , ... , bm ]

(8.3)

W0 , 5.5,
:

B1 = [ b1 , ... , bm , g1 , ... , gkm ]
(8.4)
W1 ;

B2 = [ b1 , ... , bm , h1 , ... , hlm ]

(8.5)

W2 .
m + (k m) + (l m) =
k + l m :
B3 = [ b1 , ... , bm , g1 , ... , gkm , h1 , ... , hlm ].

(8.6)

, B3 W3 , , , (8.2).
, .. (8.6) W3 .
, x W3 , ,
x = y + z, y W1 , z W2 . y
(8.4), z
(8.5);
( B0 ), x .. (8.6).

93

.. :
1 b1 +...+m bm +1 g1 +...+km glm +1 h1 +...+lm hlm = 0. (8.7)
,
1 , ... , m , 1 , ... , km , 1 , ... , lm P.
(8.7)
:
1 b1 +...+m bm +1 g1 +...+km gkm = 1 h1 ...lm hlm . (8.8)
u ,
(8.8). , ""
, W1 , , "", W2 . ,
W0 (8.4):
u = 1 b1 + ... + m bm (1 , ..., m P ).

(8.9)

(8.9) (8.8)
. :
1 b1 + ... + m bm + 1 h1 + ... + lm hlm = 0.

(8.10)

(8.10)
B2 . ,
:
1 = ... = m = 1 = ... = lm = 0.
, u,
(8.8):
1 b1 + ... + m bm + 1 g1 + ... + km gkm = 0.

(8.11)

,
B1 . , :
1 = ... = m = 1 = ... = km = 0.

94

. 1

.
8.4. :
.
:
dim(

n
X
i=1

Wi ) 6

n
X

dim(Wi ).

(8.12)

i=1

, Bi , , , ni . ..
B = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ]

(8.13)

W , , 4.2, W, , . .
W , n.

s
X
n6
ni ,
i=1

(8.12).
8.5. (8.2)
,
.
A1 A2 , d1 d2 .
A0 = A1 A2 A3 = A1 A2 d0 d3
. d1 d2 , . , :
d3 = d1 + d2 d0 . "" ( ; . 16.4 [A1 ]) ,
:
|A1 A2 | = |A1 | + |A2 | |A1 A2 |.
|A1 ... An |.

95

. , , "" : . .
. .: , 1969.
[4] (. 103).
()
P
n
, . . dim( i=1 Wi )
.
. , , A1
A2 , :
S(A1 A2 ) = S(A1 ) + S(A2 ) S(A1 A2 ).
(
) (, . .).

9.
9.1. .
. 8.1,
W =

s
X

Wi

(9.1)

i=1

Wi 6 V (i = 1, ..., s)
x V ,
s
X
x=
yi ,
(9.2)
i=1

yi Wi .
.
9.1. (9.1)
, x W

96

. 1

(9.2) , . .
() yi .
:
W =

s
M

Wi = W1 W2 ... Ws .

(9.3)

i=1

9.1. 9.1 .
, (9.1) , ( . 9.4)
, ( ).
( ).
,
. , , .
.
, (9.1).

9.2. 1. W1 W2
V , :
W1 W2 = O.

(9.4)

2. {Wi }si=1 Wi 6 V , , . .
j = 1, ..., s :
cj = O,
Wj W

cj =
W

n
X
i=1
i6=j

Wi

(9.5)

(9.6)

97

, j-.
9.2. s > 2 , . ,

P 2 .
9.1. (9.1)
, .
. 1. (9.1) . (9.5).
cj .
x Wj W
, :
yj =

n
X

yi ; yi Wi (i = 1, ..., s).

(9.7)

i=1
i6=j

x , , , j-,
. , , j- . x c (9.1),
, [ (9.2)] . , , , (9.7), , , , x = 0.
2. , Wi . x W
(9.2).
x, (9.2) :
x=

s
X

yi0 ,

(9.20 )

i=1

, ,
j- , , :
n
X
0
(9.8)
yj yj =
(yi0 yi ).
i=1
i6=j

(9.8) Wj ,
cj . , z W,
W

98

. 1

(9.8),
cj , , , . Wj W
, yj = yj0 . j , (9.2) (9.20 ) , .
.
, W
{Wi }si=1 .
.
9.2. W V dim(W ) = n.
1. , B
B = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ]
(9.9)
,
Bi ni ,
s
X

ni = n.

(9.10)

i=1


Wi = hBi i 6 W ; dim(Wi ) = ni ; i = 1, ..., s.

W =

s
M

Wi .

(9.11)

(9.12)

i=1

2. , , W (9.12). W (9.9), Bi
Wi .
. 1. P (9.9) s
W. , W = i=1 Wi . (,
x W B
x = y1 + ... + ys , yi
Wi .)

99

, W . 9.1, ,
cj . , j = 1, ..., s Wj W
Wj x W ,
B ,
, Bj , cj W
.
2. (9.12). Wi () Bi .. (9.9). 8.4, .. W.
.
, .. B,
.
(9.9), :
, Bi , yi .

y1 + y2 + ... + ys = 0; yi Wi (i = 1, ..., s).

(9.13)

W , (9.13)
yi .
yi , , Bi , , yi = 0,
.
i = 1, ..., s. , ( )
.. B. B .
9.3. ,
(9.9), ()
- Wi ,

(9.12) [ ].
.
9.3. , (9.1) -

100

. 1

V .
dim(W ) =

s
X

dim(Wi ).

(9.14)

i=1

. 1. (9.1) . 9.2, W , ,
, . . (9.14).
2. , , (9.14). , (9.1) .
Wi Bi .. (9.9), (.
8.4) W. , (9.14),
.. , . , W (. 5.4). , [ (9.9)]
( Wi ).
9.2, (9.1) .
9.2. .
V P
W 6 V.
9.3. W 0 6 V W ,
W W 0 = V.

(9.15)

9.4. . , W 0 W, W W 0 . ,
( ). V V O. V
W , 9.4.
V O = V ,
. (

101

9.4; .)
V = R2 ( P 2 , P ): V W ,
( ). W
W 0 , W .
9.4. V n P , W
( k) V.
1) W 0 W,
:
dim(W 0 ) = codim(W ) = n k;

(9.16)

,
2) U 6 V, W , . .
,
W U = O,
(9.17)
W , U.
. 1.
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bk ]

(9.18)

W ( 5.5)
D = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bk , c1 , c2 , ... , cnk ]

(9.19)

V.
W 0 = hCi

C = [ c1 , c2 , ... , cnk ].

(9.20)

.. (9.20) W 0 , ,
, , n k.

102

. 1

(
) [A1 ] (. 11.3) . (9.16) .
(9.19) V , ,
B C, W W 0
. 9.2, V (9.15), . . W 0
W.
2. . U 6 V , W ,
, l, W + U , k + l. [B, G], G = [ g1 , ... , gl ] U,
, n (k + l) ,
.
(, U ;
G .)
9.1. V = P n : (n 1)- W1 , x1 + x2 + ... + xn = 0,
W2 ,

1
1
a=
.

1
, , : a, W2 , W1 , = 0. , W1 + W2 , n,
V. , . (
13.1 [A1 ].)
9.2. n2 -
V = L(n, P ) :
Ls (n, P ) = { A L(n, P ) : At = A };

(9.21)

La (n, P ) = { A L(n, P ) : At = A }.

103

(9.22)

( ): , (9.21)
(9.22) L(n, P ).
: ,
P , 2 (. [A1 , . 47.1]).
, P
2 1 = 1 + 1 6= 0.

(9.23)

( , , P def

2 == 2 1 = 1 + 1. 9 , , P 21 = 21 .
. . 1.7 F2 ,
: "2 = 0" , , "1 = 1".)
(9.23) (9.21) (9.22). , A ,
A = A, A + A = O, ,

A + A = 1 A + 1 A = (1 + 1) A = 2 A,
2 A = O. 12 P [ (9.23)]
A = O. , .
(9.23) ,
(9.21) (9.22) . , A L(n, P ) ,
B=

1
(A + At ) Ls (n, P ),
2

(9.24)

,
C=

1
(A At ) La (n, P ).
2

(9.25)

104

. 1

(B t = B) B
(C t = C) C , . 12 (9.24) (9.25) ()
.
A = B + C,

(9.26)

,
L(n, P ) = Ls (n, P ) La (n, P ).

(9.27)

, , .
,
(9.27). 4.1, E L(n, P ) n2 Eij (i, j = 1, ..., n). n
(, , )
Eii ; i = 1, ..., n.

(9.28)

i 6= j, Eij , . , i < j
Cn2 (9.24) (9.25). Cn2
1
(Eij + Eji ); 1 6 i < j 6 n
2

Fij =

Gij =

1
(Eij Eji ); 1 6 i < j 6 n.
2

(9.29)

(9.30)

, , (9.28) (9.29) Es
( n + Cn2 = n(n+1)
) Ls (n, P ), 2
(9.30) Ea ( Cn2 = n(n1)
)
2
La (n, P ). -
(9.27) :
dim(Ls (n, P )) =

n(n + 1)
n(n 1)
; dim(La (n, P )) =
.
2
2

(9.31)

105

Es Ea
(9.27).
9.5. , , 9.3.
W1 W V W1 W (
W2 6 W, W1 W2 = W ).
, W V . ,
( ), .
9.3. . . , ( )
(9.15) .
9.4. {Wi }si=1 Wi 6 V ,
V :
s
X
V =
Wi .
(9.32)
i=1

:
V =

s
M

Wi .

(9.33)

i=1

(9.33) V :
V = W1 W2 .
(9.34)
(9.33) [, ,
(9.34)] (, ) . (. . 1.6.)

106

. 1

, W 6 V
W,V : W V ; W,V (x) = x; x W,

(9.35)

x W x, V. , , .
W Wi
(9.33),
i = Wi ,V : Wi V ; i (yi ) = yi ; yi Wi (i = 1, ..., s).

(9.36)


i : V Wi ; i (x) = yi ; x V (i = 1, ..., s),

(9.37)

x i- yi
Ps[ ; . (9.2)] x = i=1 yi . ( i .)
i i , . .
i i = Wi ; i = 1, ..., s.

(9.38)

, -
,
; .
( , , ,
15 [A1 ].)
i i (, ,
s > 1).
i = i i : V V ; i (x) = yi ; x V

(9.39)

V , x i- , [ (9.37)] V.

107

i .
i , .
i , i i .
i 6= j,
i j = o,

(9.40)

. . Wj V , Wi
(i 6= j), .
(. [A1 , . 15.1]) ( ; . , . 12.1),
, (9.39)
V :
s
X

i = V .

(9.41)

i=1

, () x,
.
, :
2i = i ; i = 1, ..., s.

(9.42)

, Wi i . x V , Wi ,
, .
:
i j = o; i, j = 1, ..., s; i 6= j.

(9.43)

, (9.40).
9.3. V = W1 W2 V ,
. , 9.2, 1 , 2 : L(n, P ) L(n, P )
, :
1 (A) =

1
1
(A + At ); 2 (A) = (A At ); A L(n, P ).
2
2

108

. 1

:
1 + 2 = ; 1 2 = 2 1 = o; 21 = 1 ; 22 = 2 .

9.4. . - , {Vi }si=1


( P ).
" "
( ) .
,
. ( , .)
9.5.
V =

s
Y

Vi = V1 V2 ... Vs =

i=1

= { x = (x1 , x2 , ... , xs ) : xi Vi (i = 1, ..., s) }

(9.44)

, ,
:
(x1 , x2 , ... , xs ) + (y1 , y2 , ... , ys ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ... , xs + ys ); (9.45)
(x1 , x2 , ... , xs ) = (x1 , x2 , ... , xs ),

(9.46)

xi , yi Vi (i = 1, ..., s); P,
V =

s
M

Vi = V1 V2 ... Vs .

(9.47)

i=1

V (V1 ) (V8 ),

109

(9.47) (
P ).
, - Vi
(9.47),
.
9.6 ( ).
( ).

( ,
). [ (9.44)] .
, Vi , V
( ). :
V " ", ,
[. (9.47)].
( )
.
V V V ... V
|
{z
}
s

, V s , , ,
V.
,

Rn , , , ,
, () R.
;
"", (
).
. 9.2
.
, Vi V. , () .

110

. 1

,
(. . 9.3).
i : Vi V ; i (xi ) = (0, ..., 0, xi , 0, ..., 0); i = 1, ..., s,

(9.48)

xi Vi ( i); ( ).
(9.48) ,
. . i = 1, ..., s
(9.47)
Wi = i (Vi ) = { (0, ..., 0, xi , 0, ..., 0) : xi Vi }

(9.49)

V , V,
Vi .
9.5. (9.47)
{Vi }si=1
V =

s
M

Wi

(9.50)

i=1

Wi 6 V ,
(9.49) Vi .
. (9.49) , V . ( , 9.2. .)
, 9.1, V () (9.49).

10

111

10.



10.1.
. ..., ,
"" ()
(.
. 7.3). ,
, . . V = P n .
,
(. 1.5, 13 [A1 ]).
( )
( ) , , . ( ) ( ,
).
.
,
, ,
""
.
10. 1.
,
: W = L0A 6 P n
(mn)- A P

W = L0A = { x P n : A x = 0 },

(10.1)

...
A x = 0 .

mn

n1

m1

(10.2)

112

. 1

1. , , A A0 ,
rn

r = rank(A). W ,
:
W = L0A0 ,
(10.10 )
( ). , ... (10.2) ...
A0 x = 0 .

rn

n1

r1

(10.20 )

2. ... (10.20 ) (. [A1 , . 13.2]) F , n d, d = n r,


:
W = RF ,

(10.3)

- F. W .
, , ( ).
3. :
dim(W ) = d = n r = n rank(A) = rank(F ).

(10.4)

10. 2.
,
: W = RG 6 P n
(nk)- G P
, G :
W = RG = hg1 , g2 , ... , gk i 6 P n .
(10.5)
1. G ( ,
, , ).

10

113

( ) B,
n r, r = rank(G).
2. (10.5) :
W = RB ,
(10.6)
, ; B
W.
3. :
dim(W ) = r = rank(G) = rank(B).

(10.7)

10. 3.

(W = RG )
(W = L0A )
W r, , (10.5).
10.2
(10.6). , , . . W = RB , (nr) B :
r = rank(B) = rank(G).
( : G,
.)
1. ((n r) n)- A, ,
W.
at A ...
at
1n

B = 0t ,
nr

1r

(10.8)

. . at bj (j = 1, ..., r) . n r , (10.8).

114

. 1

A, m n, m = n r, () L0A , , -, W, , , : n (n r) = r.
W = L0A .
2. (10.8), ..., :
Bt a = 0 ,

rn

n1

r1

(10.8t )

1

a= 2

" " A.
3. ... (10.8t ),
F , n (n r).
; A,
, F :
A = F t.

(10.9)

4. , :

A G = O ,
(nr)n

nk

(nr)k

B,
G.
10.1. . , ,
10.6.
. 13.4 [A1 ].
,
() , , , .

10

115


.
() : W = O W = V.
; ()
, ( n0). [
, !]
O ( )
...
x1 = x2 = ... = xn = 0,
(10.2), En
A.
W = V = P n ( )
En .
(), . (, ,
..., ,
0 x1 + 0 x2 + ... + 0 xn = 0,
.)
10.2. . ( ) . W1 6 V ,
W2 (W1 6 W2 6 V ); . . 5.4 . , W1
W2 , (.
. 9.2 , , 9.5)
.
10. 4.
W1 6 V
W2 6 V.

116

. 1


W1 W2

W1 6 W2 6 V = P n ,

(10.10)

:
W1 = RB1 ; W2 = RB2 ,

(10.11)

B1 B2 n r1 n r2 , r1 = dim(W1 ) r2 = dim(W2 ),
. . (10.11) . (, , , ,
.)
B2 W2 :
W2 = RB20 ,

(10.12)

, (n r2 )- B20
, , , B1 ( )
. B20
W2 , W1 , B1 , c1 , c2 , ... , cp ( p = r2 r1 ),
W1 W2 ,
U W1 W2 . C, n p, ,
( ) U.
.
1. -

M
= B1 B2
(10.13)
n(r1 +r2 )

nr1 nr2

() .. W2 .
.., W2 B1 .
2. (10.13), , M 0 .

10

117

[ 10.2, (
) , ; "" ,
. , , -
, .]
, ( B1 ) ( r1 );
p = r2 r1 ( ).
3. , M 0 , ( , M )

B20 = B1 C ,
(10.14)
nr2

nr1 np

B1
- C, W1 , B1 , W2 .
4. C
U = RC = hc1 , c2 , ... , cp i

(10.15)

W2 , W1 , . .

W2 = W1 U.
(10.16)
10.2. 10.4 , W2 V. ,
, , : B2 = En ;
e1 , ... , en .
10.3. . () , W1 W2 , V = P n , W0 = W1 W2
W3 = W1 + W2 (. 8.1). 8.2 :
di = dim(Wi ) (i = 0, 1, 2, 3).

118

. 1

, ( . . 8.1).
10. 5.
W3 = W1 + W2
W1 , W2 6 V
W1 W2
, ( )
(10.11), B1 B2 ,
. (
, 10.1.) B1 B2
W1 W2 .
:
di = ri = rank(Bi ); i = 1, 2.
1. , , M [. (10.13)], (,
) .. W3 .
2. ( ) M M 0 . ( ,
.) r1 . p .
W3
d3 = dim(W3 ) = rank(B1 |B2 ) = r1 + p.

(10.17)

3. B2 (
M 0 )

C = (c1 |c2 | ... |cp ) .


(10.18)
np

B3 , W3 ,

B3 = B1 C
.
(10.19)
nd3

nd1

np

10

119

, W3 , W1 .
W3 = RB3

(10.20)


W3 = W1 + W2 .
4.
d0 W0 = W1 W2 . (8.2):
d0 = d1 + d2 d3 .

(10.21)

10.3. 10.5 W1 W2 (10.13) ,


B2 . , ,
W3 , W2 .
, .

10. 6.
W0 = W1 W2
W1 , W2 6 V
, W1 W2
. ( ) :
W1 = L0A1 ; W2 = L0A2 ,
(10.22)
A1 A2
r1 n r2 n .
( , 10.3.)
x V Wi (i = 1, 2)
, ...
Ai
ri n

x = 0 ; i = 1, 2.
n1

ri 1

(10.23)

120

. 1

W0 ,
(10.23), , , () ...
e0
A

x =

(r1 +r2 )n

n1

(r1 +r2 )1

(10.24)

e0 ( )
A

e0 =
A

A1
A2

(10.25)

.
1. (10.25). - W0
:
W0 = L0Ae ,
0

(10.26)

. . ... (10.24).
(10.26), , , d0 :
d0 = n r0 ,

(10.27)

e0 ).
r0 = rank(A
2. (10.26) 10.1, , ,
W0 = L0A0 ,

(10.260 )

(r0 n)- A0
e0 .
A
3. ...
(10.28)
A0 x = 0 ,
r0 n

n1

r0 1

F0 , n (n r0 ), W0 . (

: F0 = B0 .) W0
:
W0 = RB0 .
(10.29)

10

121

4.
( ) d3 W3
:
d3 = d1 + d2 d0 .

(10.30)

10.4. , 10.1 10.6 ,


.
1. 10.1 , A, ( ) W = L0A 6 V = P n , :
rank(A) = n. W ,
.
2. , 10.2 ,
( n) G,
( ) W = RG 6 V = P n .
W V ,
- P n . En .
3. , 10.3,
10.1.
4. 10.4 . W1 W2 (W1 6 W2 )
( ): Wi = RGi
(i = 1, 2). , rank(G1 ) 6 rank(G2 ) = rank(G1 |G2 ).
,
rank(G1 ) = rank(G1 |G2 ).
: W1 = W2 ; ; W1 W2 : W2 = W1 O.
( ). " " G1 , G2 W1 , W2 , ,
( ) ( )
. , "" ,
, , 10.4 W1 6 W2 . :
10.4 10.5
W1 W3 = W1 + W2 . ( W1 6 W2 W3 = W2 ; . 8.1 8.2.)

122

. 1

5. 10.5 10.6.
di = dim(Wi ); i = 0, 1, 2, 3. ( , - , .
di , , 8.2.) Bi (i = 0, 1, 2, 3) , ,
Bi
.
5.1. d0 = 0 , W0 B0
( B0 ); W3 ;
B3 B1 B2 ; B3 = (B1 |B2 ).
5.2. d3 = n , : W3 = V ;
- V = P n , "
" B3 = En .
5.3.
W1 6 W2 W3 = W2 , , ,
( ; . 5.6) d3 = d2 . 8.2 (
), , d0 = d1 .
.

:
B3 = B2 ; B0 = B1 .
5.4. , W1 W2
, d3 = d1
d0 = d2 . d3 = d0 ,

.
11.



11.1. " ". (1 -

11

123

1) 10.1 10.6
.
,
V ( n, P ) , V P n . ,
, . . V = P n ( En ).
W 6 V
: V (
-) G (
n), (-)
A ( n).

P = Q (, R,
, ).

" "

V = Rn
W1 W2 .
:
W1 = R G ,
:
W2 = L0H .

W3 = W1 + W2

124

. 1


W0 = W1 W2
,
W4 W0 W3 :
W0 W4 = W3 .
Wi (i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
, Bi ;

Wi :
Wi = RBi ;
di = dim(Wi );
Ai , Wi :
Wi = L0Ai ;
ci = n di Wi ;
( ) ...
Ai x = 0.

, ,
O, W0 , W1 , W2 , W3 , W4 , V
. (
... .)

:
n = 6;

11

1
1

1
G=
1

1
1

2
3

H= 1

1
1

1
1
1
1
3
1
4
7
6
2
3

2
3
2
3
4
2
5
8
4
1
3

1
1
1
0
1
1
2
1
2
0
1

1
0
1
0
1
1
1
2
2
1
1

125

0
1

0
;
1

2
0

2
3

1 .

1
1


. ,
( ), , . ., .
(
[A1 ].)
1. 10.2, (
) G ( ):

1 1 2 1 1 0
G ... G0 = 0 2 1 2 1 1 .
36
66
0 0 0 1 0 0
G0 , W1
, G.
W1 : W1 = RB1 ,

1
1

1
B1 =
1
63

1
1

1
1
1
1
3
1

d1 = 3.

1
1

1
;
0

1
1

126

. 1

() W1 . ,
10.3, B1t :

1 0
t
B1 ... 0 1
36
0 0

1 0
0 0
0 1

1 1
0
0 .
2
0

...

+3
5 6 = 0;
1
2
= 0;

4 +25
= 0.
[ j (j = 1, ..., 6)
A1 ],

1 1 1
0 0
0

0 0
1
F1 =
,
0 2 0
63

0
1 0
0
0 1

1 0 1 0 0 0
A1 = F1t = 1 0 0 2 1 0 .
36
1 0 0 0 0 1
W1 (-)
A1 ( ). : W1 = LA1 .
, W1 ...
A1 x = 0,
c1 = codim(W1 ) = n d1 = 3.
, , :

+x3
= 0;
x1
x
2x4 +x5
= 0;
1
x1
+x6 = 0.

11

127

2. W2 .
10.1, H ( A2 ,
W2 , ):

1
0
H ...
0
56
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

2 1
0 0
= A2 .
1 0
46
0 0

... A2 x = 0, , B2 ,
W2 :

2
0

1
B2 =
0
62

1
0

1
0

0
.
0

0
1

d2 = dim(W2 ) = 2,
c2 = codim(W2 ) = 4 .
3. W3 , . 10.5,
G3 B1 B2 ,
( ), (
B3 ) W3 ,
W1 ( B1 ):

1
1

1
G3 = (B1 |B2 ) =
1
65

1
1

1
1 2

1
1 0

1
1 1

1 0 0

3 1 1

1 1 0

1
0

0
1

1
0
...
0
0

1 1 2

2 2 2

0 1 0

0 0 1

1
1
;
0
1

128

1
1

1
B3 =
1
64

1
1

1
1
1
1
3
1

1
1
1
0
1
1

. 1

2
0

1
.
0

1
0

:
d3 = dim(W3 ) = 4; c3 = codim(W3 ) = 2.
W3 . ,
W1 , ( 10.3) , , W3 .
:

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 3 1
B3t =

1 1 1
0 1 1
2 0 1 0
1
0

1 0 0 0 0
1
0
0 1 0 0 0
...
;
0 0 1 0 1 2
0 0 0 1 2
0

+6 = 0;

1
2
= 0;
3
5 26 = 0;

4 +25
= 0;

0 1
0
0

2
1
F3 =
;
2 0
62

1
0
0
1

0 0 1 2 1 0
t
A3 = F3 =
;
1 2 0 0 0 1
26

x3 2x4 +x5
= 0;
x1 +2x2
+x6 = 0.

11

129

, W0 : d0 = d1 + d2 d3 = 1.
4. ... W0 . 10.6,
e0 A1 A2 ; A
( ),
A0 , ( )
W0 :
1 0 1 0 0 0

e0 =
A

56

A1
A2

1
=
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
1
2

2 1
0 0
2 1
0 0

1
0

... 0

0
0

1
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
1

1
0

1 = A0 .
56
0
1

e0
, A
, . . W0 .
, e0
, c0 = codim(W0 ) = 5, A
5 . ,
... A0 x = 0, ( ) W0 .
( W0 ) , , "
":

1
0

1
B0 =
.
0
61

1
1
5. W4 .
, W3 W0 W1 W2 .
, ( ) . , W4 ( W0 W3 )

130

. 1

( ), , ,
( ) W0 W3 . (
, , ,
.)
10.4 , B0 B3 , ( ) ,
, B3 , W4 ;
B4 :

1
0

1
(B0 |B3 ) =
0

1
1

1
1
1
1
3
1

1 2
1
0

1 1

0
0

1 1
1 0

1
0
...
0
0

1
1

1
B4 =
1
63

1
1

1
1
1
0
1
1

1 1

1 1

0 0

0 0

1 2
1 0
;
1 0
0 1

2
0

1
.
0

1
0

, , :
d4 = d3 d0 = 3;

c4 = codim(W4 ) = n d4 = 3.
A4 , W4
... (
. 1 3 ) 10.3.

11

131

B4t , ... (, "", ; j ); F4 , A4 , (


xj ), W4 :

1
1
0

1 0
... 0 1
0 0

1 1 1 1
t
0
B4 = 1 1 1
2 0 1 0

1
1
1

12 4
12 4
+4

2
3

1
2
1
2

1
1
1
0
1
0

1
F4 =
1
63

0
0

1
2

A4 = F4t = 1
36
1
1
2 x1
x1

x1

+ 12 x2
+x2

x3
x3
+2x3

5
5
+5

1
2

1
0

0 12
0 12
1 1

+6
26

1
1
1

1
0 ;
2

= 0;
= 0;
= 0;

1
0

2
;
0

0
1

1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 ;
2 0 0 1

+x4
+x5
+x6

= 0;
= 0;
= 0.

.
, Maple.
( Maple-
. , . 11.3.)

132

1
W1 , B1 =

1
1

1
W2 , B2 =

1
0

1
W3 , B3 =

1
1

1
W0 , B0 =

1
1

1
, d1 =3, A1 = 1

1
1
1

. 1

0
, c1 =3,

[ x1 +x3 =0, x1 2x4 +x5 =0, x1 +x6 =0 ]

0
1

0
0
, d2 =2, A2 =

0
0

0
0

0
, c2 =4,

[ x1 +2x5 x6 =0, x3 +x5 =0, x4 =0 ]

"

0
1
, d3 =4, A3 =

1
0

#
, c3 =2,

[ x3 2x4 +x5 =0, x1 +2x2 +x6 =0, ]

, d0 =1, A0 =
0

1 , c0 =5,

0
1

[ x1 +x6 =0, x2 =0, x3 +x6 =0, x4 =0, x5 x6 =0 ]

1
W4 , B4 =

1
1

1
1
1
0
1
1

2
1
, d4 =3, A4 = 1

1
2

0
, c4 =3,

[ 12 x1 + 12 x2 x3 +x4 =0, x1 +x2 x3 +x5 =0, x1 +2x3 +x6 =0 ]

11

133

, ,
1,
( ). , : i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
Ai Bi = O, Ai Bi
n = dim(V ).
11.2. 1. , 10.1 10.6, 10.4. , .
11.1.

1 1
1 1
n = 4; G =
; H = (1 1 1 1).
1 1
1 1
G , , ;
B1 = G d1 = 2. H
: x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0. G , . ,
,
.
: W3 = V ; A3 . W0 ,

1
1
B0 =
.
1
1
"", , , ,
W2 ,

1 1 1
0
0
1
B2 =
.
0
1
0
0
0
1

134

. 1

, B1 B2 10.5,

1 1 1 1
0
1 1 1
B3 =
,
1 1 0
1
1 1 0
0
W3 = V, W1 .
B3 () B0 . , B4 ( W0 W3 )
B3 .
,
A4 = ( 31 13 31 1 ) .
, , . , W3 V,
, . . B3 : B30 = E4 .
,
. W40 W0
. 10.4
B0 B30 , :

1
0
B40 =
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
0
; A4 = ( 0
1
0

0 1),

. . W40 x4 = 0.
11.2. V = R5 W1 = RG W2 = L0H ,

1
1

G= 0

0
0

1
1

0; H = 0

0
1
0

1 0
1 0
0 0

0
0
0

0
1.
1

, B1 = G.

11

135

10.1, . . ... H x = 0, :

0
0

B2 = 1

0
0

0
0

0.

1
0

B1 B2 , W0
(d0 = 0; B0 ). W3 (. . 9.1):
W0 = O; W3 = W1 W3 .
B3 B1 B2 .
() W0 W3 W3 ; B4 B3 .
11.3.

1
1
n = 4; G =
1
0

0
1
; H = (0
1
1

0).

W1 , W3 ( x2 x3 = 0).
W1 . , W1 W2 . , W3
, W2 , W0 , W1 . , B3 = B2 B0 = B1 . ,
W0 = W1 W3 = W2


1
0
B4 = .
0
0
11.3. Maple- 1. LinearAlgebra
. , NullSpace (-) , . . , 10.1; ColumnSpace

136

. 1

( ) ; SumBasis IntersectionBasis
. . :
. , 1.
BiS ("Bases in Subspaces"); (GaussElimination) (ReducedRowEchelonForm), :
, , , . .
( ), . 1.
Maple- " " BiS,
.
. :
[ ].

(Execution Group;
>); Enter,
Shift+Enter.
, Enter : (
) .
:
BiS.m, MaplePackages; ,
, ;
: BiS.mws.
"" with ( LinearAlgebra):
> restart; with(LinearAlgebra):
> read "F:/MaplePackages/BiS.m"; with(BiS);
[ algorithm 1, algorithm 2, algorithm 3, algorithm 4, algorithm 5, algorithm 6 ]

11

137

, ,
. LinearAlgebra 7.3. , G H
.
G algorithm 2; w1:
> w1 := algorithm 2( G );
:
B1 , W1 , d1 ,
( ):
G .

. B1 d1 :
> B[1], d[1] := w1[1], w1[2];
. 11.1,
.
W1 , B1 algorithm 3
:
> u1 := algorithm 3( B[1] ); A[1], sys[1] := u1[1], u1[2];
( , . 11.1) A1 ;
... sys1 , :
sys1 := [ x1 + x3 = 0, x1 2x4 + x5 = 0, x1 + x6 = 0 ]
( . 11.1
.)
algorithm 1 ,
W2 :
> w2 := algorithm 1( H );
> B[2], d[2], A[2], sys[2] := w2[1], w2[2], w2[3], w2[4];
, . 11.1.
, B1 B2 algorithm 5,
, algorithm 3 ,
W3 :

138

. 1

> w3 := algorithm 5( B[1], B[2] ); B[3], d[3] := w3[1], w3[2];


> u3 := algorithm 3( B[3] ); A[3], sys[3] := u3[1], u3[2];
W0 :
> w0 := algorithm 6( A[1], A[2] );
> B[0], d[0], A[0], sys[0] := w0[1], w0[2], w0[3], w0[4];
W4 ,
B0 B3 algorithm 4;
(
);
: B4 ,
W4 W0
W3 , d4 W4 :
> w4 := algorithm 4( B[0], B[3] ); B[4], d[4] := w4[1], w4[2];

algorithm 3:
> u4 := algorithm 3( B[4] ); A[4], sys[4] := u4[1], u4[2];
1 Maple- BiS.
Maple
: , .


12.

.

12.1. . () , . 1.6.
( )
[A1 , 15]. ,
. ( )
, .
L(V, W ) V ( P )
W ( ).
12.1. 1. () , L(V, W )
+ : V W ; ( + )(x) = (x) + (x); x V.

(12.1)

2. L(V, W ) P
: V W ; ( )(x) = ((x)); x V.

(12.2)

140

. 2

(, , ), . .
( ) x V.
, (12.1) (12.2), , .
( )
L(V, W ) L(W, U )
L(V, U ), .
12.1.
() :
,,

(i ) ( V

W ) [ ( + ) + = + ( + ) ];
,

(ii ) ( V W ) [ + = + ];

o
(iii ) ( V W ) ( V W ) [ + o = o + = ];

(iv ) ( V W ) ( V W ) [ + = + = o ];

(v ) ( , P ; V W ) [ ( + ) = + ];
,

(vi ) ( P ; V W ) [ ( + ) = + ];

(vii ) ( , P ; V W ) [ ( ) = ( ) ];

(viii ) ( V W ) [ 1 = ];
,

(ix ) ( U V W ) [ ( + ) = + ];
,

(x ) ( U V W ) [ ( + ) = + ];

(xi ) ( P ; U V W ) [ ( ) = ( ) = ( ) ];

(xii ) ( Y U V W ) [ ( ) = ( ) ];

(xiii ) ( V V ) ( U V W ) [ ( = ) ( = ) ].
. , ( )
x V.
,
, ( )
.

12

141

(ix ) ( ) , :
(( + ) )(u) = (( + )((u)) = ((u)) + ((u)) =
= ( )(u) + ( )(u) = ( + )(u)
u U.
, (x ) :
(1.9)

( ( + ))(u) = (( + )(u)) = ((u) + (u)) ===


= ((u)) + ((u)) = ( )(u) + ( )(u) = ( + )(u).
( . 15.3 [A1 ]),
(xii )
. (xi ) (xiii )
.
12.1. (i ) (viii ),
L(V, W )
(
, V W ).
W = V L(V ) = L(V, V ) V
.
12.2. (i ) (xiii ) (i) (xiii)
(. . 2.2 [A1 ]). , ,
.
,
.
, , , ,
17 (
). (xiv) (xvii) ?
, . ( .)

142

. 2

12.2. .

. V W ( n m ) P
: V W.

(12.3)

V W
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(12.4)

C = [ c1 , c2 , ... , cm ]

(12.5)

.
bj (j = 1, ..., n)
aj = (bj ) W C:
aj =

m
X

aij ci .

(12.6)

i=1

j = 1, ... , n
aij = [(bj )]i ; i = 1, ... , m

(12.7)

(12.6) C;

a1j
a
aj = 2j ; j = 1, ..., n.
...
amj

(12.8)

- (12.8)

a11


A = (b1 ) (b2 ) ... (bn ) = 21
...
mn
am1

a12

a22

...

am2

...

...

...

...

a1n

a2n

. (12.9)
...

amn

12

143

12.2. (12.9) (12.3) (12.4) (12.5).


( , A
B C.)
12.3. 12.2, , ,
. , ()
,
: P n P m En
Em (. [A1 , . 15.2]).
, , ""
,
. ,
, ()
" " . "" () .
"" ( ), "" . ,
() .
12.2. V W
( n m ) P ,
B C .
L(V, W ) A Mat(m, n; P ), B C,
: L(V, W ) Mat(m, n; P ); () = A.

(12.10)

, L(V, W ) mn.
ij : V W (i = 1, ..., m; j = 1, ..., n),

(12.11)

( B C)
ij (bk ) = jk ci (k = 1, ..., n),
jk .

(12.12)

144

. 2

. B ..
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , an ].

(12.13)

(12.9)
(12.13) C. ,
(12.13)
(12.14)
A = (a1 |a2 | ... |an ) .
mn

, 6.1 (),
, . . A = (B), , , A. , (12.10) :
.
(12.10):
(12.14) .. (12.13) W, (12.3) , (B) = A.
.
, 0 L(V, W ),
A, A0 Mat(m, n; P ). + 0
, -
( + 0 )(bj ) = (bj ) + 0 (bj ) = (bj ) + 0 (bj ) = aj + a0j ,
. . A + A0 . , ( P ) A.
, (12.4) (12.5) (12.10)
L(V, W ) Mat(m, n; P ).
(. 4.1) , mn Eij (i = 1, ..., m; j = 1, ..., n).
L(V, W ), mn ij ,
, (ij ) = Eij .
. Eij , j-, , , ,
bk (k = 1, ..., n; k 6= j)
ij (bk ) = 0.

(12.15a)

12

145

, j- Eij ei P m , , ""
i- ci . ,

ci = 0 c1 + ... + 1 ci + ... + 0 cm

0
...

7 1 = ei .

...
0

,
ij (bj ) = ci .

(12.15b)

(12.15a) (12.15b) (12.12),


(. [A1 , (2.8)]):

0, j 6= k;
jk =
(12.16)
1, j = k.
, ij , :
=

m X
n
X

aij ij ,

(12.17)

i=1 j=1

aij (12.14), B C.
.
12.3. .
. 12.2,
, ,

.
12.3.

V W U,

(12.18)

146

. 2

V, W U P ,
n, m p .
- B, C D ,
(12.4) (12.5),
D = [ d1 , d2 , ... , dp ].

(12.19)

( B C) (m n) A, ( C D) (p m)- H.
( B D) (p n) H A.
. G (p n)-, B D.
- gj ,
gj = ( )(bj ) U (j = 1, ..., n),

(12.20)

gj , "" D.
[. (12.6)]
(bj ) =

m
X

aij ci (j = 1, ..., n),

(12.21)

hki dk (i = 1, ..., m),

(12.22)

i=1

, ,
(ci ) =

p
X
k=1

, ,
gj =

p
X

gkj dk (j = 1, ..., n).

(12.23)

k=1

gj , (12.21) (12.22)
(12.20):
m
m
X
X
gj = ((bj )) = (
aij ci ) =
aij (ci ) =

m
X
i=1

aij

i=1
p
X
k=1

hki dk

m
X

i=1
p
X

aij hki dk

i=1

k=1
m
p
X X

k=1

i=1

=
!

hki aij

m
p
X
X
k=1

dk =

!
aij hki dk

i=1

p
X
k=1

([H A]kj ) dk ,

12

147

, , ,
" " : () - ( ) ; ;
.
(12.23)
, :
gkj = [H A]kj (j = 1, ..., n; k = 1, ..., p),
G = H A, .
12.1 12.2, ( P ) ( P ),
" " 15.1 [A1 ],
.
12.1. B C V W , m n (
P ) L(V, W ) Mat(m, n; P ).
( ) ( ), : V, W U, B, C D,

V W U , ( -
, ).
12.4. ("") .
L(V, W ) 3

A Mat(m, n; P ),
,
:
1) B C V W
( . 6.4) "" ()

148

. 2

, , :
P n P m ,
;
2)
(m n)- A.
. 15.3 [A1 ];
. [. (6.18)
(6.19)]:
: V P n ; (x) = xB ; x V
(12.24)

: W P m ; (y) = y C ; y W,

(12.25)

(
).
, ,

= 1 : P n P m

(12.26)

.
. 12.1

P n P m
1
1

V W
(12.26);
. x P n x = (x), x V.
(x) = (x).

(12.27)

, , : x = xB x V y = y C
y = (x) W. , y = (x)

y = (x)
(12.28)
, , , .

12

149

(. . 6.4), (12.24)
(12.25) B C ( V W ) En Em ( P n P m ):
(B) = En ; (C) = Em .

(12.29)

.
, , ,
aj = (ej ); j = 1, ..., n
(12.30)

A = (a1 | a2 | ... | an ) .

mn

(12.31)


P n (12.31):
(x) = A x; x P n .

(12.32)

(12.30) (12.27) ,
[ ej = (bj ), . (12.29)]:
aj = (bj ),

(12.33)

, (12.31), En Em , (12.9),
B C.
12.4. V W
n m , B C, (12.4) (12.5).

L(V, W )

=&

L(P n , P m )
.
=

Mat(m, n; P )
, L(V, W ) L(P n , P m ), (12.26), , , A,

150

. 2

B C , , En Em P n P m .
.
. , . 12.1 15.1 [A1 ],

,
. ,

, : (12.26) , (
D U ).
. 12.2

P n P m P l
1
1
1

V W U
, ""
, ""
( ) 1 = ( 1 ) ( 1 ) = .
12.5.
12.1. V = Rn [x]
W = Rn1 [x] = 0 , , , V W . B = Bn = [1, x, ..., xn ] C = Bn1 = [1, x, ..., xn1 ] (.
2.4 3.1)

0 1
0 0

0 0

A
=0 0

n(n+1)
... ...

0 0
0 0

0 0
2 0
0 3
0 0
... ...
0 0
0 0

...
0
...
0
...
0
...
0
...
...
... n 1
...
0

0
0

0 .

...

0
n

(12.34)

12

151

, (1)0 = 0 (xk )0 = 01+0x+...+k xk1 +...+0xn1


k = 1, ..., n.
(
: V ) (. 13.4).
12.2. ( :
V = Rn [x]) (. 1.11):
Z b
f (x)dx; f (x) V.
(12.35)
int[a,b] : Rn [x] R; f (x) 7
a

R, C = E1 = [ 1 ],
() 1; V ,
, Bn .
(12.35) :

b2 a2
bn+1 an+1 .
A = ba
...
1
2
n+1
1(n+1)

, k = 0, ..., n :

Z b
k+1 b
k+1
x
ak+1
=b
int[a,b] (xk ) =
.
xk dx =

k
+
1
k
+
1
a
a
12.4. (12.34) ,
, .
.
. , ,
, E1 = [ 1 ]. ( 12.2.)
-.
12.3.
(. 1.1): V1 = Mat(3, 2; P ) V2 = Mat(2, 2; P );

a11 a12 a13


A =
.
a21 a22 a23
23

152

. 2

(, ) V1 A (
V2 ):
A : V1 V2 ; X 7 A X; X V1 .
(12.36)
V1 V2 E (1)
E (2) , Eij (. 4.1), , . . .
(12.36) , , .
:
(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

E (1) = [ E11 , E21 , E31 , E12 , E22 , E32 ].

(12.37)

( , ( , ), . E11 3 2
2 2 .)

( 1.9) vec,

x11 x12
X = x21 x22 V1
32
x31 x32
"" -

x11
x21

x31

x=
P 6,

x12

x22
x32

X.
V2 :
(1)

(2)

(2)

(2)

E (2) = [ E11 , E21 , E12 , E22 ].

(12.38)

12

153

(12.37) (12.38) (12.36) (


):

a11 a12 a13 0 0 0

A O
a21 a22 a23 0 0 0
23 23

A =
.
(12.39)
=
46
0 0 0 a11 a12 a13
O A
23 23
0 0 0 a21 a22 a23
, , A.
A (12.37):

0 1
a11 a12 a13
(1)
(1)
A (E12 ) = A E12 =
0 0 =
a21 a22 a23
0 0

0 0
0 1
0 a11
=
+ a12
=
= a11
0 0
0 1
0 a12
(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

= 0 E11 + 0 E21 + a11 E12 + a12 E22 .


(1)

(12.38) A (E12 ) -
(: ):

0
0
(1)
A (E12 ) =
.
a11
a12
12.4. V2 ,
, , (12.38), ,
V3 = Mat(4, 2; P )
(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

E (3) = [ E11 , E21 , E12 , E22 , E13 , E23 , E14 , E24 ].

(12.40)

B =

24

b11
b21

b12
b22

b13
b23

b14
b24

V2
B ( V3 ):
B : V2 V3 ; Y 7 Y B; Y V2 .

(12.41)

154

. 2

, , (12.41):

b11 0 b21 0
0 b11 0 b21

b12 0 b22 0

0 b12 0 b22
B =
(12.42)
.
84
b12 0 b22 0

0 b12 0 b22

b14 0 b24 0
0 b14 0 b24
, (12.42)
(12.39) .
, B. 8 , E 2 2:

b11 E

22

b21 E

22

b E b E
12 22 22 22

B=
.
b13 E b23 E
22
22

b14 E b24 E
22

(12.43)

22

(. 12.5), - A B.
12.5.
A,B = B A : V1 V3 ; X 7 A X B; X V.

(12.44)

12.3, (12.44) (12.37) (12.40) :

b11 a11 b11 a12 b11 a13 b21 a11 b21 a12 b21 a13
b11 a21 b11 a22 b11 a23 b21 a21 b21 a22 b21 a23

b12 a11 b12 a12 b12 a13 b22 a11 b22 a12 b22 a13

b12 a21 b12 a22 b12 a23 b22 a21 b22 a22 b22 a23

C = B A =
b13 a11 b13 a12 b13 a13 b23 a11 b23 a12 b23 a13 ,
86
84 46

b13 a21 b13 a22 b13 a23 b23 a21 b23 a22 b23 a23

b14 a11 b14 a12 b14 a13 b24 a11 b24 a12 b24 a13
b14 a21 b14 a22 b14 a23 b24 a21 b24 a22 b24 a23

12

155

b11 A

23

b21 A

23

b A b A
12 23 22 23

C=
.
b13 A b23 A
23
23

b14 A b24 A
23

(12.45)

23

:
, A B t , B.
12.5. , .
,
.
A B, m n p q ,
mp nq:

a11 B a12 B a1n B

a21 B a22 B a2n B


.
C = A B =
(12.46)

mpnq
mn
pq

am1 B am2 B amn B


(12.46) : aij
aij B, .
A B (, , ) A B.
, (12.45) ,

C = B t A.

(12.47)

(12.39) (12.43) :
A = E A; B = B t E.

(12.48)

156

. 2

, 12.5 X 7 AXB (12.47) A B


( X ,
).
, , [10].
,
(
, , ,
[A1 , 7]).

13.

.
.
13.1. . 7


.
() : V W V W ( P )
.
13.1. n- V B B 0 , T
. , m- W
C C 0 Q.
: V W,

(13.1)

B C A, B0
C 0 A0 .
A0 = Q1 A T ;

(13.2a)

A = Q A0 T 1 .

(13.2b)

13

157

. x V
y = (x) W (13.1). (12.32),
:
y = A x;
(13.3a)
y 0 = A0 x0 ,

(13.3b)

- x x0 (y y 0 ) (7.12):
x = T x0 ; x0 = T 1 x;

(13.4a)

y = Q y 0 ; y 0 = Q1 y.

(13.4b)

, ( 7)
(13.3b), (13.4a) (13.4b) x y,
; x x0
x V , B B0 .
(13.4b) y
(13.3a), x (13.4a),
( ):
y 0 = (Q1 A T ) x0 .

(13.5)

(13.3b) (13.5),
A0 x0 = (Q1 A T ) x0 ,
(13.6)
x V , ,
, - x0 P n . (
x x0 , x V
x0 P n .)
""
(13.6) x0 . , , " " !

A x = B x
(13.7)
mn

n1

mn

n1

A = B. , (13.7) x P n . ,
x ej (j = 1, ..., n), : aj = bj
(j = 1, ..., n). , : A = B.

158

. 2

(13.6) : x0
P n . (13.6)
(13.2a).
(13.2b) (13.2a) ( Q, T 1 ).
13.2. ""
. . 12.4 ( "") (13.1)
: P n P m ,

(13.8)

(12.26). (13.8). "" ,


12.1 7.1.
. 13.1
Pn
-

V
. 0
n
P

P m

%
W

0
0&
P m

, () 13.1:
y = (x);
x = (x); y = (y);
x0 = 0 (x); y 0 = 0 (y);
x = (x0 ) = T x0 ; y = (y 0 ) = Q y 0 ;
y = (x) = A x; y 0 = 0 (x0 ) = A0 x0 ;
= 0 ; 0 = 1 ;
A0 = Q1 A T.
13.3. .
() [. (13.2a)]: ( ). ,
( ).

13

159

13.1. A, B Mat(m, n; P ) ( A B), , L ( m m) R


( n n), ,
B = L A R.

(13.9)

A B , . .
, . ,
AA
, (13.9) L R ;

[ A B ] = [ B A ]
, (13.9)
A = L1 B R1 ,

(13.90 )


[ A B ] [ B C ] = [ A C ]
:
[ B = L A R ] [ C = L1 B R1 ] = [ C = (L1 L) A (RR1 ) ],
L1 L RR1 .
13.1.
. , . 36.5 [A1 ]
, . , (
"" ). , , .
, ,
, ,
( ; ).
[A1 , . 44.3] " ":
"" ,
.
.

160

. 2

13.1. A, B Mat(m, n; P ) :
1) A B (A B);
2) I III
;
3) A B :
rank(A) = rank(B);

(13.10)

4) A B .
.
, ,
. ,
, [A1 ] ( 12.1):
,
b A . (, A
r = rank(A) ,
.)
, . 14.4 [A1 ], , , , ,
. 14.4 ,
( I III, )
, . ,

.
13.2. 13.1, , (m n) . ,
Mat(m, n; P ) 1 + min(m, n). (?)
, . .
. (?)

13

161

, 7.1, , n-
GL(n, P ). , , ,
.
13.2. (13.1),
V W , ,
.
. V W B C . b
A. A

b = L A R,
A

(13.11)

L R. V B0 ,
, B T = R. W C 0 ,
C Q = L1 .
(13.11) [. (13.2a)] :
b = Q1 A T.
A

(13.110 )

, B 0 C 0 b
A.
13.3. , 15 (. 15.4), , 13.2, ,
.
13.4.
13.1. .
. : V W V
W ( R). B = [b1 , b2 , b3 ]

162

. 2

C = [c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 ]

1 0 0
0 1 0
A=
.
0 0 1
1 1 1
B0 C 0 ,

0
b1 = b1 + b2 + b3 ;
b02 = b1 + b2
;
0
b3 = b1
;

10
c2
0

c30
c4

= 21
=
=
= c1

2
2c2
+c2

+c3
2c3
+c3

;
;
+c4 ;
.

1 1

T = 1 1
1 0

1
0
0

2 0 0 1
1 2 0 1
Q=
.
0 1 2 1
0 0 1 0

, :
B0 C 0 ?
, T Q.
( , )
( , ).
Q " ", . .
Q1 .
(13.2)

13

: B0 C 0

12
18
A0 = Q1 A T =
3
23

163

10
5
15
7
.
2
1
19 9

13.4. " ".


[A1 , . 14.6] A1 : (A|E) ( ) .. (E|B),
A1 = B ( A).
, , E A, (A|E) A1 ( ).
, , (Q|A)
Q (E|C), :
Q1 A = C. , ( " ") Q1 ( ).
13.2.
. : R3 R2 B C,
-

1 1 0
B = 0 1 1
1 0 1

1 1
C=
1 1
,
13

6 56 83
.
A=
31
16 52
6
3
, B0 C 0 ,

1 1 1
B 0 = 1 0 1
1 1 0

164

C =

3
1

1
1

. 2

. , B, C, B 0 C 0 . 7.2
. (7.9), :
T = B 1 B 0 Q = C 1 C 0 .
"" 12.4. ( ,
B C, , , B 0
C 0 .) , , (12.3).
:

1 2 3
0
A =
.
3 2 1
(, , " ":
A0 () ; A,
. .)
13.5. .
(: ..)
:
: V V.

(13.12)

..:
C (. 12.2) B. ,


A = (b1 ) (b2 ) ... (bn )

nn

(13.13)

.. (13.12) . .
, " ". [ , T Q; . (13.2)],
.

13

165

, , Q = T. 13.1
( )
13.10 . n- V B B 0 , T
. (13.12).
B B 0 () A A0 .
A0 = T 1 A T.
(13.14)
13.6. . , (13.2) () 13.1
, (13.14) ..
13.2. (n n)- A B B), ( A
(n n)- T , ,
B = T 1 A T.

(13.15)

, .. . , A .. B,
(13.15) B0 ,
B T (. 7.1).

,
L(n, P ) = Mat(n, n; P )
, , ,
:
B ] = [ A B ].
[ A

(13.16)

166

. 2

, ""; (
TEX , , .)

"" .
, n = 1 (. . ) ,
.
, 13.2,
L(n, P ) n + 1 .
!
.
, "" () ( , ) , .

13.5.
.
, ,
. ,
:
,
.
, B = [ b1 , b2 , b2 , b4 , b5 , b6 ]
B = [ b4 , b6 , b5 , b2 , b3 , b1 ]

0
0

0
T =
1

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
1
0

0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0

1
0

0
.
0

0
0

""
( 3 [A1 ]). ,

1 2
4 6

3
5

4
2

5
3

6
1

13

167

Sn (nn)-
T , T ej = e(j) (j = 1, ... , n).

det(T ) = sgn().
,
; . [A1 , . 24.2].
7 T Sn GL(n, P ) . (
; [A1 ];
. 15.1.)
13.7. ..
13.3.
, 13.1.
.. (13.14): A0 = T 1 A T.
. B = [ b1 , b2 , b3 ] V ( R) .. : V V

A = 3
2

1 2
6 10 .
3
5

A0 B0 ,
B :
0
b1
b0
20
b3

=
= b1
= 2b1

2b2
b2
b2

+b3 ;
+b3 ;
.

(. ): A0 = J3 (1) .
13.4. (. 12.1).
.. V = Rn [x]:
= 0 : V V ; f (x) 7 f 0 (x); f (x) V.

(13.18)

168

. 2

, , A,
(13.18) Bn = [ 1, x, ..., xn ],
(12.34) () :

0 1
0 0

0 0

0 0
A
=
... ...
(n+1)(n+1)

0 0

0 0
0 0

0
2
0
0
...
0
0
0

0
0
3
0
...
0
0
0

...
0
0
...
0
0

...
0
0

...
0
0
.
...
...
...

... n 1 0

...
0
n
...
0
0

(13.19)

V = Rn [x] , ( ) Bn :
Bn0 = [ 1, x,

x2
xn
, ... ,
].
2!
n!

(13.20)

A0 (13.19) (13.20). Bn Bn0 :


, 1/k! (
k = 0, ..., n). , , (13.14) .
A0 .
, k = 1, ..., n

xk
k!

xk1
=
,
(k 1)!

(13.19)
b0k

xk
=
(k = 0, 1, ..., n)
k!

(13.21)


(b00 ) = 0; (b0k ) = b0k1 (k = 1, ..., n),

(13.22)

13

(13.18)
:

0 1 0
0 0 1

0 0 0

0 0 0
0
A
=
... ... ...
(n+1)(n+1)

0 0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0

169

0
0
1
0
...
0
0
0

... 0
... 0
... 0
... 0
... ...
... 1
... 0
... 0

0
0

0
.
...

1
0

(13.190 )

(13.190 ) .
( , ). , , "" .

(...) Jn (0); ; " ": Jn (0) . ,
, ,
. , (13.190 )
Jn+1 (0) .
(..) Jn (0 ) ; 0 P , ( ).
.. ,
. ""
( ) "" (
). , , ,
J5 (0) , , ;
.
: ,
( ,
).
, . , R4 [x]
=0 .
, (13.19) .

170

. 2

, An+1 = O, :
n+1 = o.
,
.
7.2 [ 1, x a, ..., (x a)n ].
""
Tn(a)

(x a)2
(x a)n
= [ 1, x a,
, ... ,
],
2!
n!

(13.23)

(
; . [A1 , . 47.3]).
, , V = Rn [x], (13.23). [ ,
.]
13.5. 13.4 (
.., ) :
... Jn+1 (0) "" , Rn [x] n ( ).
..
Jn+1 (0 ) ( 0 R)?
.
= 0 .
;
Rn,0 [x] = e0 x Rn [x] 6 C (R, R),
e0 x f (x) e0 x C (R, R)
f (x) Rn [x].
, ( ) .

13

171

, Rn,0 [x] Rn [x], () ( )


e0 x .
,
dim(Rn,0 [x]) = dim(Rn [x]) = n + 1

0 x

Cn,0 = [ e

0 x

, xe

x2 0 x
xn 0 x
e , ... ,
e
,
].
2!
n!

(13.20a)

( . , .
. (13.20) :
.)
()
ck =

xk 0 x
e
(k = 0, 1, ..., n)
k!

(13.21a)

= 0 .

(c0 ) = (e0 x )0 = 0 e0 x = 0 c0 ;
xk 0 x 0
xk 0 x
xk1 0 x
(ck ) = ( e ) = 0 e
+
e
=
k!
k!
(k 1)!
= 0 ck + ck1 (k = 1, ..., n),
=
Jn+1 (0 ) .

(13.22a)

(13.20) -

172

. 2

13.8. . . 1.6, . f 0 (x)


f (x) :
f (x + h) f (x)
;
h0
h

f 0 (x) = lim

(13.24)

, 0 : f (x) 7 f 0 (x) C 1 (R, R) ( ) .


.
0 ..
C (R, R) R[x]. .
0 (n + 1)- Rn [x],
,
, .
, (13.24)
, , (. . ).
h f (x) =

f (x + h) f (x)
h

(13.25)

. h
.
h f (x)
( ) . ,

h : F(R, R) F (R, R); f 7 h (f ); f F(R, R).

(13.26)

: h f h (f ),
x R
(13.25), . . h (f ) (x) = h f (x). , , : , h f , ,
, f , h (f ) x.
(13.26). , f, g F(R, R)

h (f + g) = h (f ) + h (g).
(13.27a)

13

173

(13.27) x R:
h (f + g) (x) =
=

1
((f + g) (x + h) (f + g) (x)) =
h

1
((f (x + h) + g(x + h)) (f (x) + g(x))) =
h
1
1
= ((f (x + h) f (x)) + (g(x + h) g(x)) =
h
h
= h (f ) (x) + h (g) (x) = (h (f ) + h (g)) (x).

:
h (f ) = h (f ).

(13.27b)

, , .
k > 1
k 1.
h , f (x) = xk . :
h (xk ) =
=

1
((x + h)k xk ) =
h

1 k
1
(x + Ck1 hxk1 + ... + hk xk ) = (Ck1 hxk1 + ... + hk ).
h
h

, ..
h : Rn [x] Rn [x]; f (x) 7 h f (x); f (x) Rn [x].

(13.28)

(h = 1), 1
(13.25) :
f (x) = f (x + 1) f (x).

(13.29)

(13.29) , f (x), x = 1.

174

. 2

.. (13.29), V = Rn [x]
Bn = [ 1, x, ..., xn ]. : (1) = 0 k = 1, ..., n:
(xk ) = Ck1 xk1 + Ck2 xk2 + ... + Ckk1 x + 1.

(13.30)

( h = 1
h .) ,

0 1
0 0

0 0

0 0
B
=
... ...
(n+1)(n+1)

0 0

0 0
0 0

1
2
0
0
...
0
0
0

1
3
3
0
...
0
0
0

...
1
n2
... Cn1
n3
... Cn1
n4
... Cn1
...
...
... n 1
...
0
...
0

Cnn1

Cnn2

Cnn3
.
...

2
Cn
n
0

(13.31)

(13.31),
, A, (13.19)
( ) .
( ), " ". B
, A. , B . ( , : , ,
0 , , n+1 = o.)

, ,
,
(13.190 ), . . ... (n + 1)- . ,
Jn+1 (0) .
B : B
13.9. . ( )
, .

13

175

13.3. :
B ] [ det(A) = det(B) ].
[A
(13.32)
(. . 27.2 [A1 ])
(. . 28.2):
det(B) = det(T 1 A T ) = (det(T ))1 det(A) det(T ) = det(A).

.
13.3. A = (aij )nn
. ( trace) :
tr(A) =

n
X

aii .

(13.33)

i=1

, , (. 12.4)
L(n, P ) (n n)-:
tr : L(n, P ) P ; A 7 tr(A); A L(n, P ).

(13.34)


(13.34).
13.4. 1. A, B L(n, P )
tr(A B) = tr(B A).
(13.35)
2. :
B ] [ tr(A) = tr(B) ].
[A

(13.36)

. 1. :

n
n
n
X
X X

tr(A B) =
[A B]ii =
aij bji =
i=1

i=1

j=1

n
n
X
X
j=1

i=1

bji aij

n
X
=
[B A]jj = tr(B A).
j=1

176

. 2

( ,
, , ,
, ... : , , ,
" " . ,
,
.)
2. :
(13.35)

tr(T 1 A T ) = tr((T 1 A) T ) =====


= tr(T (T 1 A)) = tr((T T 1 ) A) = tr(E A) = tr(A).
.
(13.32) (13.36) . V , ..,
.
13.4. L(V )
det() = det(A);

(13.37)

tr() = tr(A),

(13.38)

A , B V.
, A B,
[. (13.14)], ,
, .
13.6. , ( ) , . :
det( ) = det() det();

(13.39)

tr( + ) = tr() + tr();

(13.40)

tr( ) = tr( ).

(13.41)

14

177

14. ,

14.1. , . , , " ":


. ( " ";
"" " "; , .;

.)
f : X Y : A X B Y. A
f
f (A) = { f (x) : x X } Y.

(14.1)

A = X X,
f
Im(f ) = f (X).

(14.2)

, f , Im(f ) = Y.
B
1

f (B) = { x X : f (x) B } X.

(14.3)


( -, ).
, 1 .
,
, .
.
, f 1 , : B f B f 1 :
1

f (B) = f 1 (B).

(14.4)

178

. 2

, f ,
1

y Im(f ) f (y) [. . B = {y} ] .


14.1. [ ; .
(1.16)]:
f Y

(14.5)
2X

2 .
1
f
"" (14.5) . :
1

f (f (A)) A; A X;
1

f ( f (B)) B; B Y.

(14.6)
(14.7)

,
"!" 14.1 14.2 . 2. ,
(14.6) (14.7) ,
: (14.6) , f , (14.7)
f.
14.2.
. , V W (
P ) ()
: V W.

(14.8)

V1 6 V
(V1 ) , (
, ) W. ,
Im() = (V ).
W1 6 W
1
(V1 ) ,
( ) V.
W1 = O (
V, ).
.

14

179

14.1. (14.8)
1

Ker() = (O) = { x V : (x) = 0 }.

(14.9)

14.1. :
1

[ V1 6 V ] [ (V1 ) 6 W ]; [ W1 6 W ] [ (W1 ) 6 V ].

(14.10)

,
Im() 6 W ; Ker() 6 V.

(14.11)

. , (14.10)
:
1

[ x, u (W1 ) ] [ (x), (u) W1 ]


1

[ (x + u) = (x) + (u) W1 ] [ x + u (W1 ) ].


.
14.2. :
P P m
[A1 , 15]. R , (
-) (m n)- A:
n

R = RA = ha1 , a2 , ... , an i .

(14.12)

(. 15.8) , :
L0 = L0A = { x P n : A x = 0 }.

(14.13)

, V
W , n m .
(14.8).

180

. 2

14.2.
(14.8) ; :
rank() = dim(Im()).
(14.14)
(14.9) (14.8)
; :
dfc() = dim(Ker()).

(14.15)

V W -
B = [b1 , b1 , ... , bn ]

(14.16)

C = [c1 , c1 , ... , cm ].

(14.17)

(mn)- A.
A.
,
14.2. 1. Im() (14.8)
(B) (14.16):
Im() = h(B)i .

(14.18)

2. :
rank() = rank(A);
(14.19)

dfc() = n rank(A).

(14.20)

3. :
rank() + dfc() = dim(V ).

(14.21)

. 1. y = (x),
Im(). x V B , y .. (B);

14

181

Im() h(B)i . ,
h(B)i
, (bj ) (j = 1, ... , n).
2. 12.1,
; , , .
, ()
() , , ,
:
[ x Ker() ] [ x Ker() ];
[ y Im() ] [ y Im() ],

(14.22)

"" , ,
, ( ) () x V y W.
(14.22) : x Ker(),
. . (x) = 0, , (12.27), (x) = (x) = 0, . . x Ker();
, (x) = 0, (x) = 0 , , (x) = 0.
(14.22) , .
, () , ,
. , [. (14.13)], Im() (ej ) = A ej = aj
(j = 1, ..., n), . . A.
, , . 13.1 [A1 ] (.
: . 10.1 14.2),
RA , .
, R :
RA = R = Im()
= Im().

(14.23)

:
rank() = rank() = dim(RA ) = rank(A).

(14.24)

, (14.22) (-) L0A A [. (14.14)] L0 ,


, :
L0A = L0 = Ker()
= Ker().

(14.25)

182

. 2

:
dfc() = dfc() = dim(L0A ) = n rank(A).

(14.26)

. ,
n rank(A) A dfc(A).
3. ( )
(14.22). [ (. 15.3)
, .]
14.2 ,

. .
14.3. 1. (14.8) , :
dim(Im()) 6 dim(V )
(14.27)

( V1 6 V ) [ dim((V1 )) 6 dim(V1 ) ].

(14.28)

2. V W U
rank( ) 6 min(rank(), rank())

(14.29)

dfc( ) > dfc().

(14.30)

3. ( ):
rank(B A) 6 min(rank(A), rank(B));

(14.31)

dfc(B A) > dfc(A).

(14.32)

. 1. (14.21)
rank() 6 dim(V ),

14

183

(14.27). (14.28) (14.27) V1 V1 .


2.
Im( ) = ((V )) (W ) = Im()

(14.33)

, rank( ) 6 rank(). (14.28)


W1 = (V ), , rank( ) 6 rank().
, (14.29).
(14.30)
Ker( ) Ker().

(14.34)

[ , (14.29). , , , .]
3.
[ 12.1 ( ) (14.19)]. ,
, , "".
14.3. . ,
, (). :
V W (14.14) (14.15),
, P n P m ;
A (
).
,
Ker() 10.1, L0A ,
Im() 10.2, RA .
,
, .

184

. 2

14.3. , : ,
; , . 10.1,
, , , .
, 10.3, ,
,
, .
14.1. Maple . : R6 R5 ,

1 2 1 4 0
1 1
2 1 1

1
2
5 0
1
A=
.
1
1
3 1
0

1
0
1
2 0
1 2 3 8 0
( , , .)
LinearAlgebra, , ( )
(- A).
> with(LinearAlgebra):
>A := < <1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 1> | <2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 2> |
<1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3> | <4, 1, 5, 3, 2, 8> | <0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0> >:
>N:=NullSpace(A);

2
1
3 1

N := 0 , 1

1
0
0
0
-, , , A. .
> A . N[1], A . N[2];

14

185

, . .
- A:
> M := ColumnSpace(A);

0
1
0
0

0 0 1

4 2

M := 3 , , 3

1 2

3 0 3

1
4
3
3
, M , ( A). ,
Basis, , , ,
. ""

A .
A, V A.
Im(), M 1.
> VA := [ ]:
> for j from 1 to ColumnDimension(A) do
VA := [ VA[ ], convert(
SubMatrix( A, 1 .. RowDimension(A), j .. j ), Vector ) ]:
od:
> M1 := Basis(VA);



1
2
0
2 1 1



1 1 0
M 1 :=
,
,
0 1 1



1
0
0
1
2
0
:
rank() = 3; dfc() = 2.

186

. 2

15.
15.1. . .
: , . . . :
( , "" ). ( ) ,
, ,
/ , ,
, , .
15.1 ( ).
V W P, V W, N = Ker()
.
1. x, y V
, N,
. .
[ (x) = (y) ] [ y x N ].
(15.1)
2. , , . . N = O.
. 1. (x) = (y) (y) (x) = 0 , , ,
(y x) = 0, . . u = y x N.
2. , . . . , , ,
N = Ker() .
, N = O. , , (x) = (y) x = y, () .
15.1. 15.1 . "": N , (
x + N ) (x).

15

187

[ (. [A1 , . 3.2]), - .] ,
.
15.1, ,
. 15.1 . 2.
15.2. .
, , , ( ) .
.
(
)
.
15.2 ( ).
V W P, V W, N = Ker()
, N 0 - N
V, M = Im() .
0 = N 0 N 0 .
0 N 0 M.
. , Im( 0 )
M = Im(). ,
.
y = (x) M. x V = N N 0 ,
,
x = u + v, u N v N 0 . (u) = 0, :
y = (u + v) = (v) = 0 (v) Im( 0 ),
.
, 0
0 : N 0 M ; v 7 (v); v N 0 .

(15.2)

(15.2). v N 0 Ker( 0 ), , 0 , , , v Ker() = N. N N 0 = O, v = 0.


0 . , 15.1,
0 -, , .

188

. 2

15.2. 15.2 . 15.2 . 2


15.3.
dim(V ) = n, dim(N ) = dfc() = d, dim(M ) = rank() = r,
, N 0
= M, ,
dim(N 0 ) = dim(M ) = r,

(15.3)

, V = N N 0 ,
n = d + r.

(15.4)

( ; . 14.2) .
15.4. , 13.3,
B C V W , .
:
B 0 N 0 ;
B 00 N ;
B = [ B0 , B 00 ] V ;
C 0 = (B 0 ) N 0 (15.3);
C 0 C W.
B 0 C 0 0 .
B C
( r ).
15.2 ,
15.1.
: V W
U 6 V, N = Ker()
(. . , N U = O), :

=
U : U (U ) 6 W.

(15.5)

15

189

. 9.4, U ,
N, N 0 N . 15.2, N 0
(N 0 ) = (V ) = M.

. , ,
(15.5).
15.5 ( ).
, ,
. ( ,
, .)
,
(, . .)
(
).

-, : , .
( -
.)
.
. , ,
"" .
, [1] [2] - , . ( ,
"".)
15.3. -(-, -). : V W [ dim(V ) = n dim(W ) = m]
, Im() = W.
(m n)- A r,
r = m. ( , A
.)

190

. 2

, n-
m-, n < m.
15.1, , , , . A,
d = n r, : r = n. ( A
.)
, n- m-, n > m.
,
m = n = r, . . A .
15.6.
. 15.6 [A1 ]. , ,
( ) .
15.4. ()
. "" , . (..) (. . 13.5)
: V V

(15.6)

V .
dim(V ) = n V B,
(15.6) (n n)- A,
, , , r.
d = n r.
m = n , , ,
. (, .)
.. ,
r < n (, : d > 0; A ), -, ;
r = n (, : d = 0; A ),
.

15

191

(
). ..
, (); . . 13.9. ,
.. - ( ).
.. () ,
( ).
.
,
...: () A
() A x = 0 .
() .
( )

L(V ), (n n)- A,
,

:
--------------------Ker() = O;
dfc() = 0;
Im() = V ;
rank() = n;
det() 6= 0;

,

:
-----------------------Ker() 6= O;
dfc() > 0;
Im() 6= V ;
rank() < n;
det() = 0;

dfc(A) = 0;
rank(A) = n;
det(A) 6= 0;

dfc(A) > 0;
rank(A) < n;
det(A) = 0;

... A x = 0
.

... A x = 0
.

16. ()

16.1. ,
. ,
( ) .
,
( ,
, , ).
V P ,
, V .
16.1. .. x V,
(x) = x,

(16.1)

(,
P ), .. .
, x () .
.. ().

16

193

. , ,
x V \{0} , (16.1). (
) (x) (x) = 0,
( )(x) = 0.

(16.2)

(16.2) x
() . , x (16.1) ,
x Ker( ).

(16.3)

, () ,
x, (16.1), ,
, Ker(). , ,
:
[ () ] [ Ker( ) 6= O ].
(16.4)
; .
() (. . 15.4), (16.4)
.. .
[ () ] [ ].

(16.5)

Ker( ) , , .. ,
, , , , , ,
.
16.2. (). , ,
. :
S () = Ker( ).

(16.6)

, . .

194

. 3

16.1. P .. L(V ) ,
:
(1) Ker( ) 6= O;
(2) .. .
16.2.
16.1. 0 P = 0 L(V ) [ 0 = 0
, 0 = 1 ].
x V (x) = 0 x,
x V \ {0} ,
0 . : () = {0 }; : S0 () = V.
16.2. 16.1, .. L(V ) ,
;
:
S0 () = Ker().

(16.7)

( ):
[ 0 () ] [ ].
(16.8)
16.3. V = R2 .
,
. ( ;

.) = r
, , (.
[A1 , 15.2]).
6= k (k Z), . , . ,
: () = .
: , = k?

16

195

16.4. V = R3 ,
[e1 , e2 , e3 ] x1 , x2 , x3 (
~i, ~j, ~k x, y, z). = r
" " Ox3 , ( )
W = he3 i . " " Ox1 x2
U = he1 , e2 i .
W , . . , = 1.
, 6= k,
.
, () = {1} S1 () = W.
16.5. " " . . ,
: V V U :
x V x0 U.
U ,
, S1 (). W , , (. 16.2) ,
S0 (). .
: () = {0, 1}; S0 () = W ; S1 () = U.
16.6. ""
, . = 0 .. () C (R, R):
(f ) (x) = f 0 (x); f C (R, R); x R.

(16.9)

R f , ,
f 0 (x) = f (x).
(16.10)
:
f (x) = ex .

(16.11)

196

. 3

, (16.10) aex (a R), (16.11). [ " ", , .]


,
(16.9),
, (16.11):

(16.12)
(0 ) = R; S (0 ) = ex ( R).
16.7. , ( , ) W = R[x]. ,
().
. , ,
.
, , , Rn [x] , n.

17.

17.1.
. V,
.. .
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(17.1)

V. B A.

17

197

.., ( ) 16:
() = .
(17.2)
P . , ()
.. (), . B ( )
B() = A E.

(17.3)

(. 17.2),
:
C() = B() = E A.

(17.4)

.
17.1. (17.4) A = (aij )ni,j=1 .
(17.3) (17.4) P []. ,
( ) .
:

a11
a21
C() =
...
an1

a12
a22
...
an2

...
a1n
...
a2n
.
...
...
... ann

(17.5)

"" (, , )
. [A1 ]
R, , . ,
( , ) .
, 25.1,
, 27.1
( - ) 27.2 ( )

198

. 3

. (
,
. . , . 30.1.)
, (17.5) ,
().
.
17.2. A
. :
hA () = det(C()).

(17.6)


.
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ]

(17.10 )

V T
. B0 .. ,
(13.14),
A0 = T 1 A T,

(17.7)

A.
17.1. , .
. A0
:
C 0 () = E A0 = E T 1 AT =
= T 1 (E)T T 1 A T = T 1 (E A)T = T 1 C()T.
( T 1 T E,
,
.)

C 0 () = T 1 C()T
(17.8)

17

199

P (
). P C() C 0 ()
, , 13.3,
:
det(C 0 ()) = det(C()).
, :
hA0 () = hA (),

(17.9)

. . , .

( , P ) [A1 , . 39.4]. (17.9) . P
. (17.8)
P [] ( )
. [ ,
(17.8) " ",
T 1 . T ()
P , . , , .]
, (17.9) .
17.1 17.2,
, .
17.20 .
A, ( ):
h () = hA ().
(17.10)
17.1.
(17.2) , (.
. 13.9) ,
(17.10) :
h () = det( ).

(17.100 )

200

. 3

17.1. .. = 0 (0 P ).
A = 0 E.
,

h0 () = det(( 0 )E) = ( 0 )n ,
(17.11)
n = dim(V ).
17.2. .
(17.6) (17.5) (, , ;
. [A1 , 23]).
n! ,
n sgn() n (
; , ).
=
(17.5):
(a11 )(a22 )...(ann ) = n (a11 +a22 +...+ann )n1 +... (17.12)
(17.12)
. n
( ) 2n . n . n n1 ;
, , , ;
aii (i = 1, ..., n). n 1, ,
. n 2; .

n C(),
. ( , , , , ; n 1 , , , n
= .)
,
n 2.

17

201

, (17.6), . . (n n)- A, , n. , : ,
(7.12).
, , : n1
A (. 13.3).
, ( ):
hA () = n + c1 n1 + c2 n2 + ... + cn2 2 + cn1 + cn .

(17.13)

, c1 :
c1 = tr(A).

(17.14)

,
. . , cn = hA (0).
= 0 (17.6), , cn = det(A),
:
cn = (1)n det(A).
(17.15)
.
17.2. (nn)- A n.
c1 cn
( ) (17.14) (17.15).
. , .
17.2.
C(), B() [. (17.3)],
" ": c0
(1)n , ( ).
:
(17.3), ,
, .

202

. 3

17.3. ,
:
ck = (1)k gk (A); k = 1, ..., n,

(17.16)

gk (A) k A.

k

2 ,...,ik
M ii11 ,i
,i2 ,...,ik ; 1 6 i1 < i2 < ... < ik 6 n,

. . , , A, , (
. [A1 , . 30.1]).
gk (A):
gk (A) =

,i2 ,...,ik
M ii11 ,i
.
2 ,...,ik

(17.17)

16i1 <...<ik 6n

(17.16) , , [16,
. 2.1]. ,
, :
g1 (A) = tr(A).

(17.18)

n,
; ,
gn (A) = det(A).

(17.19)

17.4. 17.1, , . .
. , . ,
ck (k = 1, ..., n) .
gk (A), :
0
0
A ] [ (k = 1, ..., n) (gk (A) = gk (A )) ].
[A

(17.20)

17

203

k = 1 k = n . 13.9.
, tr det, gk
,
:
gk () = gk (A); k = 1, ..., n,

(17.21)

A .. .
17.3. . (17.6) (n n)- A.
17.3. ( P ) hA () A. A
(A) .
( )
(. [A1 , . 39.3]). ,
(A) (n n)- A n.

, . , 17.4, .
.. (. 16.1)
.
" " .
17.3. .. V.
A. 0 P
.. ,
A. ..
:
() = (A).
(17.22)

, , ( 16)
; "", .

204

. 3

16.1, 0 P
.. , ..
0 = 0 ,

(17.23)

. , , (.
. 15.4)
B0 = A 0 E

(17.24)

,
C0 = B0 = 0 E A.

(17.25)


C0 , . .
hA (0 ) = 0,

(17.26)

, 0
A.
17.5. , .., V,
P,
n = dim(V ).
( 16.3).
" " ( ) .
P (.
[A1 , . 40.3]), P
P .
.. ( ) .
, . ( 16.6 , R.)
17.6. ,
" ". ,
,

17

205

, .
. . (.
" ?" .: , 1993.
. 38):
"... (... ),
".
. . , (.
12.3) ,
" " ,
"" ( "").
, " ":
( ) . , ,
, "",
, . . ( ).
, , .
( ) "",
"" .
17.4. .
0 P , n- V.
17.3, , 0 h (), A, B V .
, 0 . m0
( hA (); . [A1 , . 40.1]), . .
,
hA () = ( 0 )m0 g(); g(0 ) 6= 0.

(17.27)

17.4. m0 , (17.27), 0 .
, . ( ) (= ) .. :
() = (A) = {1 , 2 , ... , s }.

(17.28)

206

. 3


m1 , m2 , ... , ms
(17.29)
:
0

m =

s
X

mi .

(17.30)

i=1


(. [A1 , . 40.2, 40.3])
17.4. (17.30)
L(V )
n = dim(V ) = deg(h ()).

h () = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ...( s )ms g(),

(17.31)

g()
n m0 , P.
P m0 = n (17.31) :
h () = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ...( s )ms .

(17.32)

. : (40.6), (40.7)
(40.10). ( .)
17.7.
A (. . hA () = 0)
, XVIII , , .
( , )
.

18

207

18.

18.1. . , A (, ,
; . . 12.4) .. L(V ),
. A
: P n P n ; (x) = Ax; x P n

(18.1)

B V,
hA () i ( mi ; i = 1, ..., s) .
" "
() = : V V

(18.2)


() = : P n P n ; x 7 B()x; x P n ,

(18.3)

(17.3).

i = i : V V ; i = 1, ..., s

(18.4)


i = i : P n P n ; x 7 Bi x; x P n ,

(18.5)

[ (17.24)]:
Bi = A i E; i = 1, ..., s.

(18.6)

(18.5), . .
Wi0 = Si () = Ker(i ) = L0Bi ,

(18.7)

( ) (18.2), . .
Wi = Si () = Ker(i ).

(18.8)

208

. 3

, , ,

(); : V P n , x x, , Wi
Wi0 , . ., . .
(. . 14.3), . . , ,
10.1, Wi , , - Bi , :
Wi0 = RFi ,
(18.9)
- Fi ...
Bi x = 0.

(18.10)

18.2. .
" "
.. .
.
18.1.
i () (18.8). :
ni = dim(Si ()).

(18.11)

, ( , i ), ( i ),
, i .
:
ni = di = dfc(i ).

(18.12)

, , , , ,
ni (i = 1, ..., s)
, n = dim(V ).
, , ni Bi . ,

18

209

18.1. .. , n- V ( P ),
() = {1 , 2 , ... , s }.

(18.13)

B V
A.
Wi = Si () 6 V Wi0 = L0Bi 6 P n
( Bi = A i E) ,
ni = n ri ,

(18.14)

ri = rank(Bi ).

(18.15)

Wi0 (n ni )- Fi
... (18.10).
, ( B; . . 6.4) : V P n , di + ri = n
i [ Bi ;
. (14.21)].
18.3. ..
,
.. (. . )
(
: ).
18. 1.
() .. : V V

( n) V (
P ) B, (n n)- A.
1. B() = A E.

210

. 3

2. ..
C() [
B()]:
h () = det(E A).
3. i P (i = 1, ... , s) h ()
( ), mi . (
; . . 6 [A1 ].)

() = {1 , ... , s }.
4.
:
h () = ( 1 )m1 ... ( s )ms g(),
g() P .
5i . i () (i = 1, ..., s)

B i = A i E
...
Bi x = 0.
6i . i = 1, ..., s Fi ...;
ni i , . .
.
7i .
Wi = Si ()

Wi = hf1 , ... , fni i
ni = n rank(Bi ) fj (j = 1, ... , ni ),
( B) - fj (j = 1, ... , ni )
Fi .

18

211

8. :

1 , ... , s ;

m1 , ..., ms ;

n1 , ..., ns ;
, ,
F1 , ..., Fs .
9. :
s
X
0
m =
mi ;
(18.16)
i=1
0

n =

s
X

ni .

(18.17)

i=1

18.1. 18.1
"": ( ,
, ).
18.2. 22.2 , ( ) :
ni 6 mi ; i = 1, ... , s.
(18.18)
( ,
) (18.18).
m0 = n,
n0 = n. ( P
), , (. 27), ..
.
, .
.. ( , 21.)

212

. 3

18.4.
18.1. . ( , "" , . .
.)
.
R6 ( )

2
0

2
A :=
2

1
1

1
2
2
2
2
2

1 1
1 0
4 4
3 2
2 3
2 2

0
0
1
1
1
0

0
0

1
.
1

0
1


.
. 18.1.
1. :

2
1
2
0

2
2
B() =
2
2

1
2
1
2

1
1
0
1
0
0
4
4
1
3
2
1
2
3
1
2
2
0

0
0

1
.
1

0
1

2. [
C() = B()]:

1
+ 2

+2
0

2
2
h () =
2
2

2
1

1
2

1
1
+4
3
2
2

1
0
4
2
3
2

0
0

0
0

1
1
=
1
1

+1
0

0
+1

= 6 + 85 + 264 + 443 + 412 + 20 + 4.

18

213

( "" . ,
(), ,
" " .)
3.
. .
( ) ,
, , . 6
[A1 ].
h () , ( )
.
"" 1, 2, 4.
42 [A1 ] ( ) ( ) : 1 = 1 (
m1 = 4) 2 = 2 ( m2 = 2).
: () = {1, 2}.
4. :
h () = ( + 1)4 ( + 2)2 .
g(), , . , (. 9) m0 = m1 + m2 = 6 = n.
5.1. :

1
0

2
B 1 = A 1 E = A + E =
2

1
1

1
1
2
2
2
2

1
1
3
3
2
2

1
0
4
3
3
2

0 0
0 0

1 1
.
1 1

0 0
0 0

6.1. - () B1 , . . (.
10.1) ... B1 .

214

. 3

0
0
1 1

1 1
F1 =
.
0
0

1
0
0
1
n1 = 2 .
7.1. :

0
0
* 1 1 +

1 1
W1 = S1 () = RF1 =
.
,
0 0

0
1
1
0
5.2.

0
0

2
B2 = A 2 E = A + 2E =
2

1
1

1
0
2
2
2
2

1
1
2
3
2
2

1
0
4
4
3
2

6.2.

1
0

0
F2 =
; n2 = 1.
0

1
1
7.2.

W2 = S2 () = RF2

1
* 0 +

0
=
.
0

1
1

0 0
0 0

1 1
.
1 1

1 0
0 1

18

8 9. :

1 = 1;

m1 = 4;

S1 () = RF1 ;

2 = 2;

m2 = 2;

S2 () = RF2 ;

m0 = 6 = n;

n0 = 3 < n.

215

0
0
1 1

1 1
F1 =
; n1 = 2;
0
0

1
0
0
1

1
0

0
F2 =
; n2 = 1;
0

1
1

18.2. Maple
.
. LinearAlgebra A (.
. 7.4).
Maple:
A C() = E A = B(); Maple
B(). , : hA () = det(C()), , -, .
.

> C := CharacteristicMatrix( A, lambda );


. ( Determinant) ,
. :
> h := CharacteristicPolynomial( A, lambda );
h := 6 + 85 + 264 + 43 + 412 + 20 + 4
(. . 40.5 [A1 ]):
> factor( h );
( + 1)4 ( + 2)2

216

. 3


, () .
roots ( ).
"" Eigenvalues, ( ) -, , , :
> Eigenvalues( A );

1
1

2
2

:
> Eigenvalues( A, output = list );
[1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2]
"" : "
" ? , . " "
, : Eigenwert. " " : eigenvalue.
Maple, linalg. LinearAlgebra (
).
, Eigenvalues ,
Eigenvectors, ( ), .

:

18

217

> Eigenvectors( A );

1
1

,
1

2
2

0
1

0
1

0
1
1
0
1
0

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

1
0
0
0
1
1

0
0

0
0

, , , . (exprseq)
Maple. " " (list)
. (
.)
, ,
Eigenvalues. ,
,
, ( , , " ").
. ,
output:
> ev := Eigenvectors( A, output = list );

0
0
1

1 1

1 1
0
ev := 1, 4,
,
, 2, 2,

0
0

1
0
1



[. , . , { . }].
( ) (set), .
,
, "" ev:

218

. 3

> F1 := < ev[1][3][1] | ev[1][3][2] >; F2 := < ev[2][3][1] >;


, -, shortcuts
(, ;
. . 7.4).
-, ev[1][3][1]: ev , ,
-. .
: ,
, ""
( ).

19.
19.1. , ..
().
19.1. W 6 V V
L(V ) (: -),
(W ) W,

(19.1)

. . .
: V V ()
W 6 V .
0
( W 6= V ): = W : W V.
W -, 0 W
..
0 : W W ; 0 (x) = (x); x W.

(19.2)

W = O W = V
..
" ": : = ( P ),
.

19

219

, W -, () = P .
.
19.1. .. L(V ) N = Ker() N = Im(): (N ) = O N ;
(M ) (V ) = M. ,

: = N = o.
( ; . 23.3.)
19.2. 0 , .. V = C (R, R),
:
O < R = R0 [x] < R1 [x] < R2 [x] < ... < Rn [x] < ... < R[x] < V. (19.3)
(19.3) ,
.
, Rn1 [x]
0 , Rn [x].
19.1. -
: -.
,
W = W1 + ... + Ws
- Wi (i = 1, ..., s) : x = y1 + ... + ys W,
(x) = (y1 + ... + ys ) = (y1 ) + ... + (ys ) W1 + ... + Ws = W.
19.2. . .. , n- V , () = {1 , 2 , ... , s }
{Wi }si=1 , Wi = Si ().

220

. 3

19.1. 1.
Wi = Si () -,

0i = Wi : Wi Wi ; 0i (x) = (x); x Wi

(19.4)

:
0i = i i ,

(19.5)

i = Wi i- ; i = 1, ..., s.
2. , Wi (
j = 1, ..., s) j -,
j = j ,

(19.6)

j Wi :

j Wi = (i j )i ;

(19.7)

( j = i) i W .
i

. 1. x Wi , , ,
(x) = i x = (i )(x).
, -, (x) Wi , , x, (19.5).
2. : Wi i i , j j i .
19.2. - N = Ker() (.
19.1)
19.1. , ( ) ,
S0 ().

19

221

19.2.
.. , . .
0

W =

s
X

Wi ,

(19.8)

i=1

S().
( .., . . s = 0,
.)
19.1 19.1
19.2.
S() =

s
X

Si ()

(19.9)

i=1

- .
19.3. S() .. . , ,
.
"-" : " ,
?"
, ,

, : ", ."
, , . ( , 19.3, .)
, ""
, ,
. ,
,
, , .
: ,
.

222

. 3

19.3. .. ,
.. . (, .
, , ,
"", .)
( )
19.3.
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak ],

(19.10)

aj (j = 1, ..., k) .. , j ,
.
k
.. (19.10).
k = 1 : A = [a1 ], ( ). , .. A .
,
.., k ,
k ,

A0 = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak , ak+1 ]; aj Sj (),

(19.11)

k + 1 ,
j () (j = 1, ... , k + 1) .
, (19.11) ,
, A, k (19.10), , ,
.
, 3.1, ,
ak+1 , A0 , A,
. . j P (j = 1, ... , k) ,
ak+1 = 1 a1 + 2 a2 + ... + k ak .

(19.12)

19

223

(19.12) , , :
(aj ) = j aj ; j = 1, ... , k + 1.
(19.13)
:
k+1 ak+1 = 1 1 a1 + 2 2 a2 + ... + k k ak ,

(19.14)

, (19.14) (19.12)
ak+1 :
k+1 (1 a1 +2 a2 +...+k ak ) = 1 1 a1 +2 2 a2 +...+k k ak . (19.140 )
(19.140 ) ( ),
:
1 (k+1 1 )a1 + 2 (k+1 2 )a2 + ... + k (k+1 k )ak = 0. (19.15)
(19.15)
.. A, . A,
:
j (k+1 j ) = 0; j = 1, ..., k.

(19.16)

k+1 j (j = 1, ..., k) (19.16) , . ., ,


. ,
j (j = 1, ..., k).
(19.12), , ak+1 = 0.
: .
.. A0 . , ;
; .
"" (19.9).

224

. 3

19.1. 1. Wi = Si ()
(i = 1, ..., s) , V, .
2. :
S() =

s
M

Si ().

(19.17)

i=1

3. W 0 = S()
B0 = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ],

(19.18)

Bi (i = 1, ..., s) Wi .
4. (19.17) n0 :
0

dim(W ) = n =

s
X

ni .

(19.19)

i=1

. 1.
Wi = Si () (. 9.2), . .
:
cj = O; j = 1, ..., s,
Wj W

cj =
W

s
X

Wi .

(19.20)

(19.21)

i=1
i6=j

, x, cj .
Wj W
x=

s
X

yi ,

i=1
i6=j

x Wj ; yi Wi (i = 1, ... , s; i 6= j).

(19.22)

20

225

- (19.22) ( x).
( )
:
s
X
0
x=
yi .
(19.220 )
i=1
i6=j


, x yi , . , ..
.
.. ,
. . , -
(19.20) , .
2.
" " (. 9.1).
3. (. 9.3) : ,
.
. 9.2.
4. (, , n0 6 n).

20.

20.1.
.
.
( "") , ,
, () . , ..
() ,
( ) .

226

. 3

( ) ,
5 [A1 ]; . . 27.1 , , . ,
12.3 . ,
.
, ,
.
. 9.3,
. , ( ,
).
, n- V ( P )

V =

s
M

Wi

(20.1)

i=1

Ps
Wi 6 V [ dim(Wi ) = ni ; i=1 ni = n ].
(20.1) [. (9.36)]
i : Wi V ; i (yi ) = yi ; yi Wi (i = 1, ... , s),

(20.2)

[. (9.37)]
i : V Wi ; i (x) = yi ; x =

s
X

yi V (i = 1, ... , s).

(20.3)

i=1

[.
(9.38) (9.40)]:
i i = i ;
(20.4)
i j = o (i 6= j),

(20.5)

i, j = 1, ... , s; o , i
( ).
[,
, ; .(9.39)]
i = i i : V V ; i = 1, ... s,

(20.6)

20

227

[. (9.41) (9.43)] :
2i

= i ; i j = o (i 6= j);

s
X

i = .

(20.7)

i=1

Wi Bi . , [ (20.1)]
V :
B = [B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ] = [b1 , ..., bn1 , bn1 +1 , ..., bn1 +n2 , ..., bn ].

(20.8)

, k- Bi (1 6 k 6 ni )

k 0 = n1 + ... + ni1 + k

(20.9)

(20.8).
(20.2) Bi Wi B V . k- Bi
i ,
V . B, ,
( ), " " k 0 , (20.9).
ek0 P n . , i

O
n n
1 i

E .
Ei =
(20.10)
ni ni
nni

O
ns ni

, i ( B Bi ), ni n; Bi i
; B k 0
Bi k, ek k 0 , i ; , B, .
, i

228

i
ni n

ni n1

...

ni ni

...

. 3

ni ns

(20.11)

Pi i ,
:

O
...
O ...
O
n1 ni
n1 ns
n1 n1

... ... ... ... ...

O
...
O
Pi = Ei i = ni n1 . . . niE
.
(20.12)
n
n
ns
i
i

nn
nni ni n

... ... ... ... ...

O
...
O ...
O
ns n1

ns ni

ns ns

, (20.4), (20.5), (20.7) (20.2), (20.3),


(20.6) . [,
(20.7) , Pi (n n)-.]
20.2. . (20.1) " ",

W0q = O; Wqi = W1 W2 Wi ; i = 1, ..., s.

(20.13)

(20.13) (,
, )
O = W0q < W1q < W2q < ... < Wsq = V,
(20.14)
.
,
O = Y0 < Y1 < Y2 < ... < Ys1 < Ys = V,

(20.15)

( ) (20.1)
, Wqi = Yi (i = 1, ... , s), W1 = Y1
i (1 < i 6 s) Wi ()
Yi1 Yi .
(20.14) Wqi
()
nqi = n1 + n2 + ... + ni ; i = 1, ... , s.

(20.16)

20

229

:

qi = 1 + 2 + ... + i
Wqi .
20.3. .., , . ..
: V V

(20.17)

(20.1) .
Wj (j = 1, ... , s).
()

j = W = j : Wj V ; j (x) = (x); x Wj .
(20.18)
j

( , .)
, i = 1, ... , s
(20.18) ( ) i ;

ij = i j = i j : Wj Wi ,
(20.19)
:
ij (x) = i ((x)); x Wj .

(20.20)

i = j ii Wi .
Bi - (20.8) , .. .
20.1. ij ( Bj Bi ) Aij (i, j = 1, ..., s). j
( Bj B)

A1j
n1 nj
A2j

n2 nj ,
Aj =
(20.21)

nnj

Asj
ns nj

230

.. ( B)

A12 . . . A1s
A11
n1 ns
n1 n1 n1 n2

A22 . . . A2s
A21

n2 ns
A = n2 n1 n2 n2
.
nn
...
... ... ...

As1
As2 . . . Ass
ns n1

ns n2

. 3

(20.22)

ns ns

. , -
(, k-) Bj . (, , j )
B,
Wi . n1 ;
B1 (n1 1), ( )
k- (n1 nj )- A1j . , n2 - k-
(n2 nj )- A2j ; . .
, k- , j , , ,
(20.21). , k- Aj
k 0 = n1 + ... + nj1 + k [. (20.9)]. , (20.22).
20.1. , " "
( " . .")
( "freshmen") .
, ( ), .
: V V ; V = V1 V2 V3 ; n = 6; n1 = 3, n2 = 1, n3 = 2;
B = [B1 , B2 , B3 ]; B1 = [b1 , b2 , b3 ]; B2 = [b4 ]; B3 = [b5 , b6 ];

(b1 )=1 (b1 )=11 (b1 )+21 (b1 )+31 (b1 )=(a11 b1 +a21 b2 +a31 b3 )+a41 b4 +(a51 b5 +a61 b6 );
(b2 )=1 (b2 )=11 (b2 )+21 (b2 )+31 (b2 )=(a12 b1 +a22 b2 +a32 b3 )+a42 b4 +(a52 b5 +a62 b6 );
(b3 )=1 (b3 )=11 (b3 )+21 (b3 )+31 (b3 )=(a13 b1 +a23 b2 +a33 b3 )+a43 b4 +(a53 b5 +a63 b6 );

20

231

(b4 )=2 (b4 )=12 (b4 )+22 (b4 )+32 (b4 )=(a14 b1 +a24 b2 +a34 b3 )+a44 b4 +(a54 b5 +a64 b6 );
(b5 )=3 (b5 )=13 (b5 )+23 (b5 )+33 (b5 )=(a15 b1 +a25 b2 +a35 b3 )+a45 b4 +(a55 b5 +a65 b6 );
(b6 )=3 (b6 )=13 (b6 )+23 (b6 )+33 (b6 )=(a16 b1 +a26 b2 +a36 b3 )+a46 b4 +(a56 b5 +a66 b6 );

A = (b1 ) (b2 ) (b3 ) (b4 ) (b5 ) (b6 ) =

66

a11
a21

a31

=
a41

a
51
a61

a12 a13 a14 a15 a16

A
A
A
11
12
13

a22 a23 a24 a25 a26


33 31 32


a32 a33 a34 a35 a36

A21 A22 A23 .


= A1 A2 A3 =
13 11 12
63 61 62
a42 a43 a44 a45 a46

A31 A32 A33


a52 a53 a54 a55 a56
23 21 22
a62 a63 a64 a65 a66

20.4. . (n n) : A (20.22)

B11

n1 n1

B21

B = n2 n1
nn
...

Bs1
ns n1

B12

n1 n2

B22
n2 n2
...
Bs2
ns n2

...

B1s

n1 ns

. . . B2s
n2 ns
.
... ...

. . . Bss

(22.23)

ns ns

20.2. C = AB , , -:

C11

n1 n1

C21

C = n2 n1
nn
...

Cs1
ns n1

C12

n1 n2

C22
n2 n2
...
Cs2
ns n2

...

C1s

n1 ns

. . . C2s
n2 ns
.
... ...

. . . Css
ns ns

(20.24)

232

. 3

(20.24) :
Cil
ni nl

s
X

Aij Bjl .

j=1 ni nj

(20.25)

nj nl

. A s2 :
s
X
A=
Aij ,
(20.26)
i,j=1

,
A, , , Aij , .
B:
B=

s
X

Bkl .

(20.27)

k,l=1

s4 :
s
X

C =AB =

Aij Bkl .

(20.28)

i,j,k,l=1

, j 6= k Aij Bkl = O.
( A, Aij , ""
B, Bkl .) , (20.28) s3 ,
:

C =AB =

s
X
i,l=1

s
X

Aij Bjl .

(20.29)

j=1

, Aij Bjl (j = 1, ..., s)


(ni nl )- ( i-
l- ),

20

(j)

Cil = Aij Bjl .

233

(20.30)

:
(j)

Aij Bjl = Cil .

(20.31)

, C ,
(20.26) (20.27):
C=

s
X

Cil ,

(20.32)

i,l=1


Cil =

s
X
j=1

(j)
Cil

s
X

Aij Bjl ,

(20.33)

j=1

.
20.1. () ( ). : , (20.25) Aij Bjk .
20.2. 20.2 .
, . " " (m n)- A, st mi nj ( i = 1, ... , s; j = 1, ... , t;
m1 + ... + ms = m; n1 + ... + nt = n), (n p)- B,
tu nj lk (j = 1, ... , t; k = 1, ... , u; l1 + ... + lu = p);
(n p)- C = AB, su
mi lk .
20.5. .. . .. , n- V (. . V ) W1 n1 (0 < n1 < n). W2

234

. 3

W1 ; n2 = n n1
( -). ,
.. V = W1 W2 .
(20.20) 11 , 12 , 21 , 22 ,
(21 = o). W1 ,
2 W1 , ,
2 1 .
11 : W1 W1
, W1 ,
W1 V, , W1 . :

01 = W : W1 W1 ; 01 (x) = (x); x W1 .
1

(20.34)

, .. 22 , , . W2 , W1 , -,
12 = o 22
W2 : 22 = 02 .
V = W1 W2
B = [B1 , B2 ].
A, Aij (i, j = 1, 2) ij . ,
(n2 n1 )- A21 , (n1
n1 )- A11 0
1 = W L(W1 ),
1
: A11 = A01 .
- :

A01

n1 n1
A =
nn
O
n2 n1

A12

n1 n2

A22

(20.35)

n2 n2

, W2 -, (20.35) -:

20

A01

n1 n1
A =
nn
O
n2 n1

n1 n2

A02

235

(20.36)

n2 n2


20.3. .. L(V )
W1 . V
, A, , (20.35), A01
01 = W .
1
W1 - W2 , V , .. - (20.36);

0
0
A2 2 = W .
2

.. ,
,
, ,
.
, , (. . 20.3) .
20.1. .. ,
(20.1). (20.14), , -,
Wqi (i = 0, ... , s) - .
. W0q = O Wsq = V . ,
W1q = W1 .
W2 , W2q = W1 W2 ;
. . Wi , .
20.4. .. L(V )
(20.1), , (20.14) -. V ,
A, , -
:

236

A01

n1 n1

O
n2 n1

A = O
nn
n3 n1

...

O
ns n1

A12

n1 n2

A13

n1 n3

...

A22

A23

...

n2 n2

n2 n3

n3 n2

A33
n3 n3

...

...

ns n2

ns n3

A1s

. 3

n1 ns

A2s
n2 ns

. . . A2s ,
n3 ns

... ...

. . . Ass

(20.37)

ns ns

A01 , - , .
- , , ..
- :

A01

n1 n1

O
n2 n1

A =
n3O
nn
n1

...

O
ns n1

n1 n2

n1 n3

...

A02

...

n2 n2

n2 n3

A03

n3 n2

n3 n3

...

...

ns n2

ns n3

n1 ns

O
n2 ns

...
O
,
n3 ns

... ...

0
. . . As

(20.38)

ns ns

A0i (i = 1, ..., s)
0i = W i
.
20.3:
(W1 ... Ws1 ) Ws , -
(20.35); ""
. .
20.3. , 20.2, , : - (-) ( )

21

237

- (-) (
).
20.4.
- (20.38):
A = diag(A01 , A02 , ... , A0s ).

(20.380 )

- ( ) "".
[ (20.380 )]
:
diag(A01 , A02 , ... , A0s ) diag(B10 , B20 , ... , Bs0 ) =
= diag(A01 B10 , A02 B20 , ... , A0s Bs0 ). (20.39)

21.


21.1. . (. 17.6):
, ,
. (),
, , " ".
21.1. ,
n- V , , V B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ],
. .. .
""? , (. 17.3)
.. ( ),

A=

1
2

..

.
n

(21.1)

238

. 3

"":
, . , (21.1), ,
hA () = det(E A) =

0
=
...

0
...
0

2 ...
0
=
...
...
...

0
0 n
= ( 1 )( 2 )... ( n ).

(21.2)

, i (i = 1, ... , n) (= ) . ,
bi (
) :
(bi ) = i bi ; i = 1, ... , n.
(21.3)
. ,
1 , 2 , ... , s
A ()
m1 , m2 , ... , ms
. , .
(21.2) :
E
1 m1

A=

2 Em2

..

(21.4)

s Ems
i Emi (mi mi ), () .
(21.4)

hA () = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ... ( s )ms ,


(21.5)

21

239

, mi (i = 1, ... , s) , .
,
V :
0

m =

s
X

mi = n.

(21.6)

i=1

ni i
(i = 1, ... , s). (18.14), Bi = A i E:
ni = n rank(Bi ).

(21.7)

, , B1
O

m1

B1 = A1 E =

(2 1 )Em2

..

, (21.8)

.
(s 1 )Ems

(m1 m1 )- Om1 .
, rank(Bi ) = n m1 ,
, n1 = n (n m1 ) = m1 .
i. , i = 1, ..., s :
ni = m i .

(21.9)

(21.6),
:
0

n =

s
X

ni = n.

(21.10)

i=1

21.2. . V,
- W 6 V ((W ) W ).

240

. 3

21.10 . L(V ), - W 6 V ( k), W B 0 = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bk ],


0 = W L(W ) .
"" .. , . , , .. () .
21.1. ..
S().
. - (. .
W 0 = S() ) (.
19.2) - .
-,
( -) Wi = Si () (i = 1, ... , s),
i .. Wi (. 19.1)

0i = = i i ,
(21.11)
Wi

i = Wi .
, W 0 ,
, 20.4,
0
= W 0 - (
)
E

=
D

n0 n0

m1

2 Em2

..

(21.12)

s Ems
21.3. . . 21.1 .. ,
. :
. ,
,
.

21

241

21.1. .. n- V
() = {1 , 2 , ... , s },

(21.13)

() n1 , n2 , ... , ns n0 .
:
(1) .. ;
(2) V , ;
(3)
: n0 = n.
. 21.1 , (1) (2) (3). , (2) (1).
( bi , B V, , i = 1, ... , n
(bi ) = i bi , i P. , B i .)
" ", , (3) (1).
n0 = n, W 0 = S() V , , , 21.1, W 0 , .
21.4. .
, L(V )
L(n, P ), () - V. B A,
B0 ( B
T )
A0 = T 1 AT.

(21.14)

A ,
.

242

. 3

21.2.
, .
21.5. ( )

21.2. , , n- V , ,
n .
" ": ..
, ( - , , ) n
.
21.3. .. .
. .. , n-
V, :
() = {1 , 2 , ... , n }.

(21.15)

mi = 1. ,
, n0 n.
, n0 = n, , , 21.1, .
21.1. (
, ) "" . , ,
. , - , , " "
.
, ,
. . [20].
21.6. .. ,

21

243

, . , , , .
, , .
21.1. .. , n- (
n > 1) V ( P )
:

0 1
0
0 ... 0
0
0 ... 0
0
0 0 1

0 0 1 ... 0
0
0

(21.16)
0
0 0 ... 0
0 ,
A = Jn (0 ) = 0
nn

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0
0
0
0 ... 0 1
0
0
0
0 ... 0 0
0 P.

13.4 13.5;
(..) "" (
).
(21.16) , , :
hA () = ( 0 )n .

(21.17)

( m0 = n) 0 .
n0 0 .

0 1 0 0 ... 0 0
0 0 1 0 ... 0 0

0 0 0 1 ... 0 0
B 0 = A 0 E =
= Jn (0) . (21.18)
... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0 0 0 0 ... 0 1
0 0 0 0 ... 0 0
, , n 1. ,
n0 = n rank(B0 ) = n (n 1) = 1.

244

. 3

, n0
n0 = 1 < n. 21.1, .. .
21.2.
, , ,
. ,
.., - ,
. (,
.)
21.3. , .. " ",
m0 < m (. 17.4). . (, , 16.3.)
.. , :
, , .
P
P (. [A1 , 40.4]).
21.2 ( 16.3). = r : R2 R2
6= k (k Z). E2

A=

cos
sin

sin
cos

, ,
hA () = 2 2 cos + 1
,
D = 4 sin2 < 0. , () = ,
.

: C = R. . , ,

21

245

(x) = A x x R2 , : C2 C2 ,
(z) = A z z C2 . A
R2 ;
C2 ( E2 , ).

.
; . . 27.4.
C hA () (
) : 1,2 = cos i sin .
-
. "";
() , ():
f1 = cos i sin .
1 = cos + i sin ; 2 =
: 1 = ei , 2 = ei .
1,2 .
, :
() = { ei , ei }.
21.3, ,
:
i

e
0
D=
.
0 ei
() , k
(k = 1, 2).
1 :

i sin sin
B1 = A 1 E =

sin
i sin

i 1

( 1 i ) ,
1 i

246

. 3

, ( i).
... B1 z = 0 z1 iz2 = 0,


i
f1 =
.
1
, 2

i
f2 =
.
1
, -
: f = ff .
2

, ()
C2

i i
F =
.
1 1
( ,
D = F 1 AF.)
21.3. Maple , .., (.
21.2). , , ..

4 5 7
A = 1 4 9 .
4 0 5
(. 18.3) Eigenvectors :
> Eigenvectors( A );
3

3
I

4 4
2 + 3I

2 3I , 5 3
I
4 4
1
1

3 3
+ I
4 4
5 3
+ I
4 4
1

21

247

, C (
) , ,
. .
R , . , , .
, , P (. 21.1), ,
""
.
P .
21.7.
. 18.1.
.
21. 1 ( 18.1).
.. : V V .
()
10. n0 = n, , .
(n n)-
F = (F1 |F2 |... | Fs ) .

(21.19)

D=F

n1

2 En2

AF =

..

(21.20)

s Ens
( F D = AF det(F ) 6= 0
.)
11. n0 < n,
F

nn0

= (F1 |F2 |... | Fs )

(21.190 )

248

. 3

W 0 = S(). 10.4 W 0
. n00 = n n0 ,
W 00 W 0 .
(n n00 )- K
(21.19). (n n)-
T = (F 0 |K)

(21.21)

V, (- - )

1 En1

0
1
A = T AT = . . .

O
O

...

2 En2 . . .

C10

...

...

. . . s Ens

C20

,
...

Cs0

...

C 00

...
O

(21.22)

" " (ni n00 )-


Ci0 (i = 1, ... , s) (n00 n00 )- C 00 .
21.4 ( 18.1). ,
18.1.
n0 = 3 < 6 = n,

0
1

1
0
F = (F1 |F2 ) =
0

1
0

0
1
1
0
0
1

1
0

1
1

,
. -
, -
(F 0 |E) :

22

0
1

1
0

0
1
1
0
0
1

1
0
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
0
0
0

0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0

1
0

0
0

0 0
0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0
0 1

1
1 0 0

1
1 1 0

0
0 1 1

0 0 2 1

1
0 0 0

0
0
0 0

0
0
0
0
1
0

249

0 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 0
.
0 1 1

0 0 0
1 0 0

, , F 0
e1 , e2 e4 .

0
0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 1

1 1 0 0 0 0
T =
,
0
0 0 0 1
0

1
0 1 0 0 0
0
1
1 0 0 0
.
.. , :

1 0 0 1 1 5/2
0 1 0 1 1 3/2

0 0 2 0 1 1/2

D = T 1 AT =
.
0 0 0 2 0 1/2

0 0 0 2 4 4
0 0 0 2 2 2
- (3 3)- "
" , . . .

250

. 3

22.
22.1. ..
. , 20.5,
.. , n- V
W1 6 V [dim(W1 ) = n1 ]. W2 W1 B = [B1 , B2 ],
V = W1 W2 . 20.3,
B
0

A1
A12
n1 n1 n1 n2
A =
(22.1)
.
nn
O
A22
n2 n1

n2 n2

A01 (22.1)
( B1 )

0
1 = W . , ,
1
A22 , .. 22 ,
( W2 ) , .
(17.2),
() = .
B B() = A En ,
P P [].
..

!
En1 A01
A12
C() = En A =
,
(22.2)
O
En2 A22
B(). 27.1 [A1 ]
- ,
:
.
( , , . 17.1.
. , " " P .)

22

251

, :
h () = det(C()) = det(En1 A01 ) det(En2 A22 ),

h () = h01 () h22 ().

(22.3)


22.1. 1. .. L(V )

W1 6 V,
0

1 = W
1
:
h01 () | h ().
(22.4)
2. V -
Wi (i = 1, ..., s),

:
h () = h01 () h02 () ... h0s (),

(22.5)

0i = W .
i

.
(22.3). ( s = 2)
, ( W2 ) .. 22
02 :
h () = h01 () h02 ().
(22.30 )
( s) (22.5) .
22.2.
.
() = {1 , 2 , ... , s }

(22.6)

, n-
V (, , , ).

252

. 3

i :
mi = max{k N : ( i )k | h ()}

(22.7)


ni = dim(Si ()).

(22.8)

,
18.2.
22.2. :
ni 6 mi ; i = 1, ... , s.

(22.9)

.
Wi = Si ().

(22.10)

19.1, -
[. (19.5)]:
0i = i i ; i = Wi .
(22.11)
.. (22.11) [. (17.11)]:
h0i () = ( i )ni .
(22.12)
22.1,
:
( i )ni | h ().
(22.13)
(22.9) (22.7) .

22

253

22.3. ..
W 0 = si=1 Wi
.. , . . S(). n0 , -, . -
W 00 W 0 ,
B = [ B0 , B 00 ] = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs , B00 ],

s
!
M
V =
Wi W 00 ,

(22.14)

(22.15)

i=1

- (21.20),
- (n00 n00 )- G00 ..

00 = 00 W 00 L(W 00 ),
(22.16)
00 W 00 .
22.1 (22.12), :
h () = ( 1 )n1 ( 2 )n2 ... ( s )ns q(),

(22.17)

q() = h00 ()

(22.18)

n n0 .
(17.31), i mi g() ( n m0 )
P, (22.17) q()
( i , mi > ni ). q() 00 ,
( , , W 0 ).
( V ) W 00 ( ), :
ni = mi (i = 1, ... , s).

(22.19)

254

. 3

Ps
(
i=1 ni = n, Ps
ni 6 mi (i = 1, ... , s) i=1 mi 6 n.)
(22.19)
Ps i=1 mi = n,
.
(17.31) (22.17)
, ( ).

23. ,

23.1. ,
.. ,
n- V ( P ).
V

= 0 , , 2 , ... , k , ... ,
(23.1)
L(V ).
k .. (k-) . , ,
(): k k- .. .
(23.1) (. . 14.2);
V :
N (k) = Ker(k ); k = 0, 1, 2, ... ;

(23.2)

M (k) = Im(k ); k = 0, 1, 2, ... .

(23.3)

(, , ,
.)
23.1. , (23.2) [ (23.3)], [ ] .. .

23

255

(. 14.2), ,
,
23.2. ( ), . .
d(k) = dfc(k ) = dim(N (k) ); k = 0, 1, 2, ... ,

(23.4)

r(k) = rank(k ) = dim(M (k) ); k = 0, 1, 2, ... ,

(23.5)

( ) .. .
, , .
23.1. 1.
, n-
V, :
O = N (0) 6 N (1) 6 N (2) 6 ... 6 N (k) 6 N (k+1) 6 ... 6 V.

(23.7)

2. :
0 = d(0) 6 d(1) 6 d(2) 6 ... 6 d(k) 6 d(k+1) 6 ... 6 n.

(23.8)

3. :
V = M (0) > M (1) > M (2) > ... > M (k) > M (k+1) > ... > O.

(23.9)

4. :
n = r(0) > r(1) > r(2) > ... > r(k) > r(k+1) > ... > 0.

(23.10)

5. k > 0 :
d(k) + r(k) = n.

(23.11)

256

. 3

6. -
. , :
(N (k) ) 6 N (k1) 6 N (k) (k = 1, 2, 3, ...);

(23.12)

(M (k) ) 6 M (k+1) 6 M (k) (k = 0, 1, 2, ...).

(23.13)

. 1. , (23.2) .
, 0 = , , N (0) = Ker() = O.
, x N (k) , . . k (x) = 0.
k+1 (x) = (k (x)) = (0) = 0.
, x N (k+1) . N (k) 6 N (k+1) ( k > 0)
.
2. (. . 5.5), (23.7)
(23.8).
3. (23.3) M (0) = V, Im(0 ) = Im() = V.
x M (k+1) (k > 0), . . x = k+1 (u) u V,
x = k ((u)) M (k) . M (k+1) 6 M (k) .
4. (23.10)
(23.9) .
5. (23.10) "
" [.
(14.25); , () ].
6.1. N (0) = O , , -. x N (k) (k > 1), . . k (x) = 0,
(k1) ((x)) = 0 , , (x) N (k1) .
(N (k) ) 6 N (k1) . (23.7), (23.12).
6.2. x = k (u) M (k) , (x) = k+1 (u) M (k+1) , ,
(23.9), (23.13).
23.2. ..
(23.7)
(23.10), , , , . ,

23

257

l 6 n (
.. ),
0 6 k 6 l ( , );
k > l , . . , l-, .
,
23.1. L(V ); dim(V ) = n. l 6 n, , (23.7)
(23.10) :
O = N (0) < N (1) < N (2) < ... < N (l) = N (l+1) = ... 6 V ;

(23.70 )

0 = d(0) < d(1) < d(2) < ... < d(l) = d(l+1) = ... 6 n;

(23.80 )

V = M (0) > M (1) > M (2) > ... > M (l) = M (l+1) = ... > O;

(23.90 )

n = r(0) > r(1) > r(2) > ... > r(l) = r(l+1) = ... > 0.

(23.100 )

. , ,
(23.80 ) (23.100 ) < > ,
(23.70 ) (23.90 ) .
, , .. .
k (k > 0).
.. . 14.3 (. ),
N (k) = O;
d(k) = 0;
: M (k) = V ;

: r(k) = n.
,
, l = 0.
, .. , ,
N (1) = Ker() 6= O,
, , d(1) > 0.

258

. 3

() (23.8). , .
, d(k) n. l ,
( : l , k = l :
d(l) = d(l+1) ). , l n.
(. 5.6),
: N (l) = N (l+1) . ,
" ", . .
N (k) (k > l + 1) N (l) .
, N (l+1) 6 N (l+2) .
, ,
.
x N (l+2) . : l+2 (x) = 0.
, l+1 ((x)) = 0 (x) N (l+1) ,
, , N (l) . ,
(x) N (l) , l+1 (x) = l ((x)) = 0 , , x N (l+1) . .
, l- (l + 1)- (l + 1)-
(l + 2)- . , , .
,
[. . (23.70 )], . (23.80 ) ( ).
.
(23.11),
. (
k = l) ( ),
. (23.100 ) ; (23.90 )
( , ).
23.3. ;
. ( ) ,
" " ..
23.2. () l, ( 23.1) -

23

259

, , , ,
.. .
, , , N (l) , d(l) , M (l) , r(l) .
V . ,
V. k N (k) ,
M (k) . ,
.
23.2. 1. N (l) M (l) L(V ) - , . .
V = N (l) M (l) .

(23.14)

2. (23.14) ..
. 1. 23.1, - ,
. N (l)
M (l) (. . ).
x N (l) M (l) . ,
l (x) = 0, , , x = l (u)
u V. u :
2l (u) = l (l (u)) = l (x) = 0.
, u N (2l) . N (2l) = N (l) ( 2l > l).
u N (l) , . . l (u) = 0. : x = 0.
.
,
n, (. 9.2) (23.14).
2. N (1) = Ker() , ( ) Ker().

260

. 3

15.1, M (l) . M (l) , .. , (. . 15.4) .


23.1. . 20.2 ,
( k 6 l) .
-. , , (
. 20.2) - ( ) . , , , N (k) (k = 1, ..., l) - C (k)
N (k1) , :
N (k) = N (k1) C (k) ; k = 1, ... , l;
N

(l)

l
M

C (k) .

(23.15)
(23.16)

k=1

23.4. ..
..
"", 13.4 . 13.8 (.
21.1).
.
23.4. .. L(V ) ,
k ,
: k = o. , . .
l = min{k N : k = o},

(23.17)

.. .
, l = 1 .
.. (
, ). , ,
..
13.4 (. 23.1 ) , = 0 (n + 1)-
V = Rn [x] l = n + 1.

23

261

19.1 , ..,
, ( 1). ,
N (2)

, N (2) 2.
, ( ), , , :

(N (2) )2 = 2 N (2) = o.
:
23.3. -
O = N (0) < N (1) < N (2) < ... < N (l) 6 V

(23.18)

N (l) .. L(V ).
N (k) (k = 1, ..., l)
k.
, , .
: ..,
( l) V, .
23.4. .. n- V l.
1) l;
2) : N (l) = V ;
3) : d(l) = n;
4) : M (l) = O;
5) : r(l) = 0.
. : , , .
, : l = o l1 6= o. ,
N (l) = V N (l1) 6= V. , l,
V.

262

. 3

23.2. :
, ..
( ).
23.3. 23.4 l .. L(V ):
l 6 n = dim(V ).
, , 23.1,
.
23.1 ( 19.2).
O < R = R0 [x] < R1 [x] < R2 [x] < ... < Rn [x] = V

(23.19)

[. (19.3)] , (23.18) = 0 .
. " " 23.4.
23.40 . A ,
nn

l, A = O, k = 1, ... , l 1 Ak 6= O.
12.1 ( ) , .. L(V ) , A
( V ).
23.2. .. n- V , B = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn ] V , ... (. 13.4):

0 1 0 0 ... 0 0
0 0 1 0 ... 0 0

0 0 0 1 ... 0 0

0 0 0 0 ... 0 0
A = Jn (0) =
(23.20)
.
... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0 0 0 0 ... 1 0

0 0 0 0 ... 0 1
0 0 0 0 ... 0 0

24

263

B .. :

bn 7 bn1 7 .... 7 b2 7 b1 7 0.

(23.21)

, l = n
:
N (k) = hb1 , b2 , ... , bk i ; k = 1, ... , n.

(23.22)

, 23.1 (
B = [ 1, x, x2 /2!, ... , xn /n! ]) , : ... n + 1.

24. .

24.1. .
.. , n- V. l

0 = d(0) < d(1) < d(2) < ... < d(l1) < d(l) = d(l+1) = ...

(24.1)

.

p(k) = d(k) d(k1) ; k = 1, 2, ...

(24.2)

.
,
p(1) = d(1) ;
k = 1, ... , l : p(k) > 0;
k > l, ,
.
24.2. .
(24.2) () C (k) [. (23.15)]:
N (1) = C (1) ; N (k) = N (k1) C (k) ; k = 2, ... , l;

(24.3)

264

dim(C (k) ) = p(k) ; k = 1, ... , l.

. 3

(24.4)

, ,
.
:

C (l) ;
C (k) (k = l, l1, ... , 3, 2),
( ) C (k1)
, (C (k) ).

24.1 ( ). .., n- V , l .
:
{N (k) }lk=0 ;
{d(k) }lk=0 ;
{p(k) }lk=1 .
k {2, ..., l} - C (k)
N (k) N (k1) .
.. N (k)
()

N (k) : N (k) N (k1) .

(24.5)

1) (24.5)
(k)
C 6 N (k) (C (k) );
2)
dim((C (k) )) = p(k) ;

(24.6)

3) N (k2) (C (k) )
N (k1) ;
4) C (k1) N (k2) N (k1)
,
(C (k) ) 6 C (k1) .

(24.7)

24

265

C (l)
N (l1) N (l) ,
5) C (k)
, k = 2, ..., l
(24.7);
6) k = 2, ..., l
p(k) 6 p(k1) ,

(24.8)

. . {p(k) }lk=1 .
. 1. , (N (k) ) 6 N (k1) ,
23.1; .. N (k)
(24.5).
C (k) 6 N (k) N (k1) 6 N (k) , , 23.1 ( k > 2), N (1) = Ker(). , C (k)
N (1) ( ).
15.1, (24.5) C (k) , . ., , " " C (k) , , , , , (C (k) ).
2. (C (k) )
= C (k) (24.6).
3. N (k2) (C (k) ), . .
.
x (C (k) ) N (k2) . , , x
x = (u), u C (k) ,
k2 (x) = 0.
, : k1 (u) = k2 ((u)) = k2 (x) = 0.
, u N (k1) , ,
N (k1) C (k) , ( ).
, u = 0 , , x = 0.
4. , 9.4, ()
, .

266

. 3

N (k2) 6 N (k1)
C (k1) , (24.7).
5. C (l) , , C (l1) , .
C (l1) C (l2) ; . .,
C (2) . : N (0) = O, ()
C (1) = N (1) , (C (2) )
.
6. (24.8) (24.7), (24.6).
24.1. ( )
,
. (24.8) ,
:
d(k) 2d(k1) + d(k2) 6 0; k = 2, ... , l.
(24.80 )

: .
[
, , .
( ) .]
24.3. . ,
.
() .


p(k) p(k1) = d(k) 2d(k1) + d(k2) .

(24.9)

(24.80 ), .

25

267

" " ,
. .
24.2.
q (k) = p(k) p(k+1) ; k = 1, ... , l,

(24.10)

p(k) (24.2).
, ( ) p(l+1) = 0. , q (l) = p(l) .
.
24.1. C (k) . q (k) :
q (l) = p(l) = dim(C (l) )

(24.11a)

( k = 1, ... , l 1)
q (k) = dim(D(k) ),

(24.11b)

D(k) (C (k+1) ) C (k) .


:

C (k) = (C (k+1) ) D(k) .

(24.12)

24.2. (
) ,
q (k) (k = 1, ... , l 1)
. (C (k+1) ) = C (k) ,
, : D(k) = O. q (l) ,
, .

268

. 3

25.

25.1. .. (. 21.1), , (..):

0 1
0
0 ... 0
0
0 ... 0
0
0 0 1

0 0 1 ... 0
0
0

(25.1)
0
0 0 ... 0
0 .
Jn (0 ) = 0

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

0
0
0
0 ... 0 1
0
0
0
0 ... 0 0
, (25.1) nn. n = 1, . . ..
J1 (0 ) = (0 ) .

(25.1a)

n > 2 (25.1) (...):


Jn (0 ) = 0 En + Jn (0) .

(25.2)

, .
25.1. .. L(V ) V, - (, ) .
W () -
V,
W ..
0 = W L(W ).
25.1. (. 21.1
21.10 ) , , .. .

25

269

25.2. .., . L(V ),


n- V . N (1) = Ker()
( ,
S0 (); . 16.2). l
, N (l) .
. 23.3 [. (23.16)],

N (l) = C (1) C (2) C (3) ... C (l2) C (l1) C (l) ,

(25.3)

C (1) = N (1) , C (k) () N (k1)


N (k) (k = 2, ... , l).
(25.3) :
d(l) = p(1) + p(2) + p(3) + ... + p(l2) + p(l1) + p(l) ,

(25.4)

d(l) , p(k) (k = 1, ... , l) [. (24.2)], , p(1) d(1) .


24.1, ,
(24.3), , C (k)
C (k1) (k = l, ..., 2; ). ,
(C (k) )
= C (k) .
25.2.
N (l)
G0 = [g1 , g2 , ... , gd(l) ] ,

(25.5)

d(l) , D0
( . 25.1 . 3),
1) l
;
; - k- (k = 1, ..., l) p(k)
[ ];
2) , k- , C (k) ;

270

. 3

3) .. : ; k- (k = 2, ..., l) (k 1)- ;
4) :
, (
l; l + 1; . ., ,
).
25.2. , . 25.1
. 3.
, .. (25.5), , N (l) ,
(25.3).
:
N (1) ;
N (2) ; N (3) . .
.
" "
( ) : "", "", "".
( )
l.
,
. . d(1) = p(1) .
k 1 l. ,
.
k-
q (k) = p(k) p(k+1) . ,
. (
q (l) = p(l) .)
q (k) k, k- (
; ;
).
. (
) j, 1

25

271

d(1) ( ).
, , :
d(1) = q (1) + q (2) + q (3) + ... + q (l2) + q (l1) + q (l) .

(25.6)

j- kj ; ( ) ,
.
, , , :

l,

l 1,
kj = ........

2,

1,

1 6 j 6 q (l) ;
q (l) + 1 6 j 6 q (l) + q (l1) ;
.............................................................

(25.7)

q (l) + ... + q (3) + 1 6 j 6 q (l) + ... + q (2) ;


q (l) + ... + q (2) + 1 6 j 6 d(1) .

j- k1 + ... + kj1 + 1, k1 + ... + kj .


, , (25.3).
: j-

Yj = gk1 +...+kj1 +1 , ... , gk1 +...+kj

(25.8)

kj -
Zj = hYj i 6 N (l) ; j = 1, ..., d(1) ,

(25.9)

.
9.2, :
N (l) = Z1 Z2 ... Zd(l) .

(25.10)

(25.10) (25.5) (25.8):


G0 = [Y1 , Y2 , ... , Yd(1) ] .

(25.11)

272

. 3

Zj -. .. (25.8), 25.1. :

gl 7 gl1 7 gl2 7 ... 7 g3 7 g2 7 g1 7 0.

(25.12)

, (, )
, , (25.8).
25.3. . ,
.. ,
,
. (. 27) " ".
25.1 ( , ). .., n- V,
l, U = N (l) m = d(l) .
1) U (25.5),
;
2) ;

3) 0 = U -
(m m)- J0
(. . 25.2 . 3);
4) ... J0 d(1) = dfc(); 1 l,
q (k) k k ( q (k)
; k = 1, ... , l).
. 1. 24.1. ( . 25.1.)
C (l) (
q (l) ) .. , (C (l) ). C (l) .
N (l2) C (l1) N (l2) N (l1) .

25

273

(C (l) ) ( p(l1) ) C (l1) . q (l1) = p(l1) p(l)


. ( ,
, " ".)
24.1, , D(l1) (C (l) ) C (l1) .
,
k > 2. k 1,
C (k1) C (k)
( q (k1) = 0);
( q (k1) > 0)
q (k1) , D(k1) (C (k) ) C (k1) .
(
), ( ; .
. 25.4).
U , (25.3) .
2. ,
. 25.2, (25.10) U - Zj
(j = 1, ... , d(1) )
(25.11).

20.4, 0 = U
- , d(1) ,

0j = Z L(Zj ); j = 1, ... , d(1) .


(25.13)
j

(25.13) j-
. 25.1 , (
). (. 23.2), 0j Yj Jkj (0) .
, , 25.1 J0 (. . 25.2 . 3) ...,
.

274

. 3

25.1, (25.11) 0 .
3. , .
. 0 :
h0 () = m ,
(25.14)
m = d(l) .
. , h0 () = hA0 () = det(E A0 ),
m , (m m)-
E A0
.
25.4.
. .. , n- V. ,
, .
"" , 16.2 ,
:
0 ().

(25.15)

, ,
:
N (1) = Ker() = S0 (),
(25.16)
()
:
d(1) = dfc() = dim(S0 ()).
(25.17)
( ) " "
..

25

275

25.1. d(l) () .. L(V ) (25.15).


. 23.2.
(23.14),
-, ( 22.1) h ():
h () = h0 ()h00 (),

(25.18)

0 = N (l) 00 = M (l) , 00 , , , .
, , 0 (25.14).
,
h () = m h(),

(25.19)

m = d(l) ,

(25.20)


h() = h00 () ( 00 )
, . . h(0) 6= 0.
, m ,
(, : ).
25.5. .. 23.3, .. (
) ..; .
.. 0 ( l).
( ).
, .. J0 .
.. L(V ),
V (. 23.4). ,

276

. 3

25.2. .. ,
n- V
( V ). , , , .
:
h () = n .

(25.21)

25.2. (25.21) ,
.. ,
, n , , V.
25.6. .. 25.1 ( N (l) ) .
C (l) , D(l1) , ... , D(2) , D(1) ( ). , 10.4. ,
" ": - ( "") , . F (k) N (k) (k = 1, ... , l) (.
. 14.3)
10.1. 25.2 " ": . 25.1
"" ,
N (l) ,
. (
24.1.)
25. 1.

() .. L(V )
,
..
n- V ( P )

25

277

B, (nn)- A. G0 .
, , ""
B.
1.
h () = hA ().
, ;
; .
| h (), m .
2. .
2.1. N (1) = Ker() = L0A ,
- A, . .
F (1) ... A x = 0.
; d(1) .
d(1) = m, : l = 1;
; F (1) ( : ); ( ).
2.2. d(1) < m, A2
2.1: F (2) , () d(2) .
d(2) = m, 3;
: A3 . .
( l 6 n)
: d(l) m ( l );
F (l) ()
N (l) .

( ):
F (1) ; F (2) ; F (3) ; ... ; F (l2) ; F (l1) ; F (l) .

nd(1)

nd(2)

nd(3)

nd(l2)

nd(l1)

nd(l)

(25.22)

. ,
. (

278

. 3

, .)
.
3. J0 , ( )
0 .. . (, J0

G0 .)
3.1. l = 1, : J0 = O.
3.2. l > 1,
d(1) ; d(2) ; d(3) ; ... ; d(l2) ; d(l1) ; d(l)

(25.23)


p(1) ; p(2) ; p(3) ; ... ; p(l2) ; p(l1) ; p(l)

(25.24)

p(1) = d(1) ; p(k) = d(k) d(k1) (k = 2, ... , l)

(25.25)


q (1) ; q (2) ; q (3) ; ... ; q (l2) ; q (l1) ; q (l)

(25.26)


q (k) = p(k) p(k+1) (k = 1, ... , l 1); q (l) = p(l) .

(25.27)

3.3. (25.24) ( )
D0 25.1 (. . 3): d(l) , l (
); k- p(k) (k = 1, ... , l).
3.4. J0 m m -: q (l) (...) Jl (0)
l l, , (k k)- q (k) ( ,
).
J0 . 25.2 . 3. (
"" ;

25

279

"" . "" : ,
28.1.)
4. ( D0 ; . . 25.1 . 3).
4l . . 10.4
- C (l)
. : -

M (l) = F (l1) F (l) ;


(25.28)
nd(l1)

nd(l)

( ) "
" " ". (
) (n p(l) )- G(l)
(. . 25.1 . 3).
4l 4l1 . .
4l1 .1. q (l1) = 0 ( ),
C (l1) ()
.
G(l) A
G(l1) = A G(l) ,
nn

np(l1)

np(l)

(25.29a)

() C (l1) .
4l1 .2. q (l1) > 0 ( ),
C (l1) (C (l) ) ( 10.4) - D(l1)
. "" :

(l1)
(l1)
(l2)
(l)
M
= F
.
(25.30)
A G F
nd(l2)

np(l)

nd(l1)

(23.30) ;
" " ;
( ) H (l1)
n q (l1) ; D(l1) . C (l1)

(l1)
(l1)
(l)
G
= AG H
.
(25.29b)
np(l1)

np(l)

nq (l1)

280

. 3

, H (l1) , D(l1) = O; , ( n 0).


- (25.29a) [ (25.29b)]
(l 1)- .
4k 4k1 . (3 6 k 6 l 1) .
(n p(k) )- G(k) , C (k) , (n p(k1) )- G(k1) , C (k1) ,

(k1)
(k1)
(k)
,
(25.31)
G
= AG H
np(k1)

np(k)

nq (k1)

H (k1) , F (k1) D(k1) ,


,
C (k1) = (C (k) ) D(k1) .
(25.32)
H (k1)

M (k1) = F (k2) A G(k) F (k1) ;


(25.33)
nd(k2)

np(k)

nd(k1)

( ) F (k1) , H (k1) .
q (k1) = 0 .
42 41 .
, .
, F (0) .
(25.33) :

(1)
(1)
(2)
M = AG F
;
(25.34)
np(2)

nd(1)


( ) (n q (1) ) H (1) . (25.31)
:

(1)
(1)
(2)
G
= AG H
.
(25.35)
np(1)

np(2)

nq (1)

26

281

- , .
5. . d(l)
, , :
, .

G0
nm

= (g1 | g2 | ... | gm ) .

(25.36)

:
G0 , .., -

nm

J0 ,
mm

.
25.3. .. , 25.1

. ( , 23.4,
.)
25.4. ,
.
( ; . . 27.2)
28.1
.. .
( 28.1 25.1, .)

26.

26.1. .
V n P ,
.., V , () = {1 , 2 , ... , s }
( ).

282

. 3

i () (i = 1, ... , s) ..
i = i .
(26.1)
16 19 .. , . . (26.1):
Wi = Si () = Ker(i ); i = 1, ... , s.

(26.2)

( ) . 23 25
,
( ) i ,

.
i (i = 1, ... , s)
(k)

Ni

= Ker(ik ); k = 1, ... , li ,

(26.3)

li i .
:
i , k ( ) ( i ).
(26.3) k ,
, i .
26.1. .. , i (),
.. (26.1):
(li )

Ui = Qi () = Ni

= Ker(ili ); i = 1, ... , s.

(26.4)

(26.4) .. , i .
26.1. , (26.2),
(26.4).
, Wi ( ) Ui ( ),
.

26

283

, Si ()
Qi (), , .
(26.4) (l )
Ni i , li , . . i .
(26.2) .
(1)
: Si () = Ni .
, ;
li = 1, . .
26.2. .

Ui (i = 1, ... , s) .. ,
.. j (j = 1, ... , s), , ,
.
26.1. .. n- V () = {1 , 2 , ... , s }.
(26.4) .
1) Ui i ,

i0 = i U
(26.5)
i

.., , li ;
2) Ui -,

0i = U
(26.6)
i

, :
(26.7)
0i = i i + i0 ,
i = Ui ;
3) Ui

j j 6= i, j U
i
..

284

. 3

. 1. 23.1, , , "" ( ). Ui i ,
i -.
, 23.3, ..
.., , . , (26.5) li .
2. , .. i (26.1), . . . , i - Ui -.
(26.1) Ui ,
0
i = 0i i i , (26.7),
i " ".
3. , ,
j - Ui j = i
( ), j 6= i.
j U ( i
15.2) Ui
Ker(j ), . . :
Ui Ker(j ) = O.

(26.8)

x Ker(j ), . . .. , j .
(x) = j x, , ,
i (x) = ( i )(x) = (x) i x = j x i x = (j i )x.
.
:
i2 (x) = i ((j i )x) = (j i )i (x) = (j i )2 x.
:
ik (x) = (j i )k x; k = 1, 2, ...

(26.9)

26

285

k (26.9) (. . x 6= 0 j i 6= 0). , x i ,
Ui . (26.8) .
26.3. . . .
, . ( ) (, ) , . 26.4. ( "
" , , , , .)
[A1 ] (. . 48.5) (
)
. .
( P ):

f () = f0 + f1 + f2 2 + ... + fn n ; fn 6= 0

(26.10)

p() = p0 + p1 + p2 2 + ... + pl l ; pl 6= 0.

(26.11)

F = f p , :
F () = f0 + f1 p() + f2 (p())2 + ... + fn (p())n ,

(26.12)

.
(26.12) , nl, fn (pl )n .
, , :
(f g) p = (f p) (g p),

(26.13)

, f , p F , :

286

. 3


g() = g0 + g1 + g2 2 + ... + gm m ; gm 6= 0,

(26.14)

- h = f g:
h() = h0 + h1 + ... + hn+m n+m ; hs =

fi gj ,

(26.15)

i,j>0
i+j=s

- G = g p H = h p,
, (26.12).
(26.13) :
H = F G.

(26.130 )

" "
( ):
H() = (h p)() = h(p()) = (f g)(p()) =
= f (p()) g(p()) = (f p)() (g p)() =
= F () G() = (F G)().

(26.16)

", ". . ( 39 [A1 ].


, .)
(26.13) " " :
1) (26.130 ) f () = fi i ,
g() = gj j p() = pk k ;
2) , (26.13)
f () g() (, )
, p1 () p2 (), f (),
g() p() = p1 () + p2 ();
(26.13) f g p;
3) g:
f , , g1 g2 ,

26

287

p, f , g = g1 + g2 p,
, f g p;
4) f
.
, , , , . , .
, " " " ". , :
f () = fi i ;

g() = gj j ;

h() = fi gj i+j ;

F () = (fi pik )ki ;

G() = (gj pjk )kj ;

k(i+j)
H() = (fi gj pi+j
;
k )

(26.130 ) .
( ) :
F () = f ( + 0 ); 0 P ;

(26.17)

p() = + 0 .
(26.13), .
:
1) 1 P f ()
, 1 0 (26.17);
2) f () P
, F ().
26.4. .
..
, Ui = Qi (),
i , mi
.
25.1, .
( ) .

288

. 3

.. L(V ):
h () = hA () = det(E A),

(26.18)

A , - B V. (26.18) , (17.31):
h () = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ...( s )ms g(),

(26.19)

i , mi (i = 1, ... , s), g()


P.
(, 1 ) .. [ (26.1)]: 1 = 1 . B B1 = A 1 E.
1 :
h1 () = hB1 () = det(E B1 ) =
= det(E (A 1 E)) = det(( + 1 )E A) = h ( + 1 ),
, :
h1 () = h ( + 1 ).

(26.20)

, 1
( 1 ).
, . 26.3,
. ,
(26.19) h ()
h1 () = m1 ( (2 1 ))m2 ... ( (s 1 ))ms g( + 1 ), (26.21)
g(+1 ), g(),
P.
, (. . 1 ) ( 1 ) , , ( 1 ):
(1 ) = { 0, 2 1 , ... , s 1 },

(26.22)

26

289

(m1 , m2 , ... , ms ).
, 1 ,
1 .
, , ,
i (i = 1, ... , s).
, .
26.2.
Ui = Qi (), i (), :
dim(Qi ()) = mi ; i = 1, ... , s.

(26.23)

. Ui (
. 26.1) .. i . 25.1,
. ,
0 (i ) mi
i ().
, 0i [. (26.6)]
.. Ui .

26.3.
0

i = U
i

h0i () = ( i )mi ,

(26.24)

mi i .
. 26.1, .. (26.6) [. (26.7)]: 0i = i i + i0 , i0 , 25.2 (
, ; Ui ):
hi0 () = mi .

(26.25)

290

. 3

(26.20), :
h0i ( + i ) = mi .

(26.26)

(26.26) (. . i ), (26.24).
26.5. ..
25.1 () , () .. , - ... Jk (0) . Ui = Qi ()
i ,
("") .
,
i (" ")
. Jk (i ) .
26.1. .., n- V, i ,
mi Ui = Qi (), (
li ) .. i = i .


(k)

di

= dfc(ik ); k = 1, ... li ;

(26.27)


(1)

pi

(k)

= d(1) ; pi

(k)

= di

(k1)

di

(k = 2, ... , li );

(26.28)


(k)

qi

(k)

= pi

(k+1)

pi

(li )

(k = 1, ... , li 1); qi

(l )

= pi i .

(26.29)

1) Ui , Di (. . 26.1 . 3);

26

291

2)
.. ;

3) i = U -
i

(mi mi )- Ji Jk (i ) (. . 26.2 . 3);


4) .. Ji
(1)
di = dfc(i ) (, , ni i ); 1 li ,
(k)
qi k k.
. , Ui .. i .
25.1 (. . 3).
26.1 ( ) , ;
Di , i . Ui ,
. . mi i .
(1)
di
.. i , . . Ker(i ).
ni i .
i0 - Bi0 ,
. 25.2. ,
(, ) :
, ( ) .
(26.7) i0 0i ,
:
A0i = i Ei + Bi0 ,

(26.30)

( Ei )
mi mi .
, A0i Bi0 ,
. 25.2, i . ,
Bi0 , A0i Jk (i ) . : A0i = Ji .
. 26.2 ( . 3).

292

. 3

, Di Ui
.. Ui Ji ,
.
26.6. .
. 25.1 i = i , i
.. ,
mi . i Ui = Qi (). Ui
i ; . - (mi mi )-,
Ui .
26. 1.
Gi .. L(V )
Ui = Qi ()

, U
i

1. n- V ( P ) B, (nn)- A.
i ().
.. i = i , B
Bi = A i E.
2. .
... Bik x = 0,

(k)

Ni

= Ker(ik ) = L0B k .
i

(26.31)
(k)

( ) di ;
(1)
i : di = ni .
(k)
(k)
(n di )- Fi . ,

26

293

mi ; k li ; i .
3. (mi mi )- Ji , 0i
(l )
.. Ui = Ni i .
(26.28) (26.29) Di 26.1 (. . 3):
mi , li ; k- (k)
pi (k = 1, ... , li ). Ji
(k)
qi .. Jk (i ) , , : k = li , ... , 1 (.
. 26.2 . 3).
4. ( Di ).
Di ,

(l 1)
= Fi i

(li )

Mi

(l 1)

nd i
i

(li )
Fi ;

nd(li )

(26.32)

(l )
Ci i ;
(l )
(l )
(n pi i )- Gi i .
, k- (k 1)- (k = li , ..., 2)
(k)
(k)
(npi )- Gi , (k)
(k1)
(k)
Ci Ni
Ni ,
"" -

(k1)

Mi

(k2)

= Fi

nd

(k2)

Bi G(k)
i

np(k)
i

(k1)
F

i (k1) ;
nd

(26.33)

( )
(k1)
(k1)
(k1)
(n qi
)- Hi
Fi
,
(k1)
Di

(k)
(k1)
i (Ci ) Ci
.

294


(k1)

Gi

. 3

(k1)

, Ci
,

(k1)
(k)
(k1)
.
(26.34)
Gi
= Bi Gi Hi
(k1)
(k)
(k1)

np
np
nq
i

(k1)

qi
= 0, (26.33)
(26.34) . k = 1
(26.33).
5. . mi
, Di , " , "

Gi = (g1 | g2 | ... | gmi ) .


(26.35)
nmi

: (n mi )- Gi , Gi .. Ui
(mi mi )- Ji , 0i .

27. .


27.1. .. 19. , , . 19.2 19.3 ,
. ,
19.3 19.1. (
27.1 27.2.)
27.1.
A = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak ],

(27.1)

ai (i = 1, ..., k)
L(V ), i () (i = 1, ..., k), .
( )
k.

27

295

k = 1 ,
( , ) , , .
, .., k , k
,
A0 = [ a1 , a2 , ... , ak , ak+1 ]; ai Si (),

(27.2)

k + 1 ,
i () (i = 1, ... , k + 1) .
, (27.2) ,
, A, k
(27.1), , , .
, 3.1, ,
ak+1 , A0 , A,
. . i P (i = 1, ... , k) ,
ak+1 = 1 a1 + 2 a2 + ... + k ak .

(27.3)

( ) 19.3.
, ,
.
ai (i = 1, ... , k + 1) i , . .
(l )
Ui = Ni i = Ker(ili ),
(27.4)
i = i .
.. i li , (. 26.1)
Ui ;
i ili (ai ) = 0. "" mi = dim(Ui ) , ,
n V. ,

in (ai ) = 0
(27.5)
i = 1, ... , k + 1.

296

. 3

n
(27.3) .. k+1
:
n
n
n
n
k+1
(ak+1 ) = 1 k+1
(a1 ) + 2 k+1
(a2 ) + ... + k k+1
(ak ).

(27.6)

, (27.5), n
. : k+1
ai "" Ui
( i = 1, ... , k).
k+1 , ,
Ui (. 26.1). , i = 1, ... , k
-
n
(ai )
(27.7)
bi = k+1
Ui , , ( ). , (27.7)
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bk ]
(27.8)
k , ( )
i . , .. (27.8)
.
(27.6), (27.7)
0 = 1 b1 + 2 b2 + ... + k bk

(27.9)

, (27.8),
i (i = 1, ... , k).
(27.3), ak+1 = 0, . .. A0 .
, ;
; .
, 19.3, , , .
.
27.1
, , 19.1 19.3. [

27

297

: Wi = Si ()
Ui = Qi (), ni
mi .]
: ,
. .
27.1. .. . :
0

U =

s
X

Ui .

(27.10)

U 0 = Q().

(27.11)

i=1

(
.)
,
.
27.1. ..,
V.
1) Ui = Qi () [i = 1, ..., s]
;
2) :
Q() =

s
M

Qi ();

(27.12)

i=1

3) U 0 = Q()
B0 = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ],

(27.13)

Bi (i = 1, ..., s) Ui ;
4) (27.12) m0 :
0

dim(U ) = m =

s
X
i=1

mi .

(27.14)

298

. 3

27.2. . . (27.10), - , - (. 19.1). , 27.1,


, , ,
. 20.5. ,
.
27.2 ( , ).
, n- V ( P ); () = {1 , 2 , ... , s } ( P , ), mi
i , Ui = Qi () (i = 1, ... , s), m0
, U 0 = Q() .. .
U 0 G 0 ,
0 = U 0 (m0 m0 )- J 0 , - s ""

(mi mi )- Ji , 0i = U 0 ,
i
, , -
, 26.1.
. 26.1, Ui Gi
..
G 0 = [ G1 , G2 , ... , Gs ],
(27.15)
(27.12), .

, 20.4, 0 = U 0
U 0
(27.15) - J 0 ,
. 27.1 . 3.
Ji ( ""), , , . 26.2, "" "" (
).
m0 = n
V , , V . (

27

299

: G,
... J.)

.
27.2. 1. .. L(V ) V ,
n = dim(V ).
2. P ,
.
. 1. 27.2: m0 = n, U 0 = V
G 0 = G V.
. G V

J =

Jk1 (1 )

Jk2 (2 )
..

(27.16)

Jkt (t )
- , .. Jki (i ) (i = 1, ... , t)
( i ). ,
, , ,
i
. i (
, , 1 , 2 , ... , s ; s 6 t) "" Ji ,
mi .
( J) ;

1 , ... , 1 , 2 , ... , 2 , ... , s , ... , s ,


| {z } | {z }
| {z }
m1

m2

ms

m1 +m2 +...+ms = n; (
, ) ; .

300

. 3

.. . J.
E J.
;
1 , ... , 1 , 2 , ... , 2 , ... , s , ... , s ,
|
{z
} |
{z
}
|
{z
}
m1

m2

ms

( , )
1. ,
h () = det(E J) = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ...( s )ms .

(27.17)

(27.17) :
1) i ,
2)
mi ,
3) m0 n.
.
2. P
, (. 18.2), m0 = n
, .. .
, .. .
27.1. .. L(V )
( V ),
: = + .
,
- J, ""
, , - ,
"" .
. ,
J D ( i ,
, )
Y ( J .. ). J = D + Y

27

301

= + , , , , , , .
27.3.
. 27.2
" ".
27.2. , A
(...),
- J .
27.3. (n n)- A P ... , ,
, ,
n.
P ...
. . 13.6 , A, A0 L(n, P ) ( AA0 ) ,
.. L(V )
B, B 0 V . ( V
P n .) ,
...
, , , 27.3 27.2.
27.2. , ... , , .
"" ,
, ,
( ) "" (..)
"" .
,
- , , ,
, ,
"" .
... .

302

. 3

, , - , , . , ... ,
.

(, ,
). ,
( )
, ( )
.
27.3. . . ,
, "" , "" (),
. ( "" ), "
" ... .
, (. . " ")
.
... , .
i
(k)
di ,
.
. .
27.4. P . A B . :
(1) A B ;
(2) A B ...;
(3) A B ,
i :
dfc((A i E)k ) = dfc((B i E)k ); k = 1, 2, ... .

(27.18)

27

303

. 1. B = T 1 AT, (. 17.1)
, , A B:
(A) = (B) = {1 , 2 , ..., s }.
P
(s > 0). , A
B, , ,
:
B E = T 1 (A E)T.

(27.19)

(27.19)
i ,
B i E = T 1 (A i E)T ; i = 1, ... , s.

(27.20)

( k)
(B i E)k = T 1 (A i E)k T.

(27.21)

[. (13.16)] , , . , (27.18), (1) (3) .


2. ( ) (.
27.2) ... . , (3),
A B , . . (3) (2).
3. , ..., , , . , (2) (1),
" " .
27.4. (27.18), , , (, ):
rank((A i E)k ) = rank((B i E)k ); k = 1, 2, ... .

(27.180 )

304

. 3

27.4. .
... . , , , ( n > 2) , .
( ) ,
, ...

R C. ,
, . ,
, .. .. , (
) , .
.. (. 21.3 21.2).
, , ,
- . ,
, [1] [2].
( )
( ).
C (. 31 [A1 ]) R2 .
( ) :
= (, );
= + i, , R.
, V , (. . 9.4)
:
V C = V V = {(x, y) : x, y V }.

(27.22)

, V C R;
:
(x, y), x y V [ (27.22)];
z = x + iy, i .

27

305

z V C
= + i C.
z = ( + i) (x + iy) = (x y) + i(x + y),

(27.23)

( ) (31.21) . :
( , z ).
, (27.23) V C
C, (. . 1.2
). [A1 , . 31.3].
V C , ,
V.
V V C
, x = (x, 0). ,
(0, y) = iy = i(y, 0), iV.
(. 9.5) ()
V C = V iV.

(27.24)

(27.24) V C , , , (. [20]), -. .
- ,
( 21.2) , :
x + iy = z 7 z = x iy,

(27.25)

C. , C z V C :
z = z.

(27.26)

306

. 3

, V dimR (V ) = n ( , R). , , V

B = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn ].
(27.27)
(27.22) R 2n,
..
C = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn , ib1 , ib2 , ... , ibn ]

(27.28)

( ).
(27.22) C,
.. (27.27) V C . ,
z = x + iy V C :
z=

n
X
k=1

k bk + i

n
X
k=1

k bk =

n
X

(k + ik )bk =

k=1

n
X

k bk ,

k=1

k , k R; k = k + k C (k = 1, ... , n).
, V C C
n, V R :
dimC (V C ) = dimR (V ).

(27.29)

(27.27) V C (-) .
""
. :
P2 (P2 P1 ) , , P1 .
, V , VR V.
( R) VR
( C) V, , B = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn ] , .. C = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn , ib1 , ib2 , ... , ibn ]. ( : , ,
.)

27

307

"" . , ,
. ( ) , ,
, , .

().
R- LR (V, W ) C-

= C LC (V C , W C ),

(27.30)

(z) = (x) + i(y); z = x + iy V C

(27.31)

.
( C) (27.31) [. (27.23)].

(z) = (z).

(27.32)

(27.31) , V 6 V C
.
: -
- ? (
.)
V W . ,
- V C W C .

308

. 3


(. . 12.2) , .
. .. n- V, (27.27), (n n) A. V C .. = C ; , (27.27) V C ,
A.
.. ( R):
() = R (A),

(27.33)


A.
( ) , . . n, .. V
A ... ( R).
. (
- , .. .)

A n, :
() = C (A).

(27.34)

, , () G V C .. . () J,
... A.
(. [A1 , . 43.3]), :
p , mp (p = 1, ... , s) [ i " ",
p ];

27

309

p = p + ip , mp , p = p ip , (p 6= 0;
p = s + 1, ... , s + t).
( n):
m1 + ... + ms + 2(ms+1 + ... + ms+t ) = n.
p ...
"" Jp , Jk (p ) (p = 1, ... , s).
p , p
J "" , Jp Jp ,
,
. Jk (p ) ,
Jk (p ) , p = s + 1, ... , s + t.
"" Jp
rp(k) = rank(Bp ); Bp = A p E
(27.35)
(, , ).
p
Bp = A p E,

(27.36)

, , (27.35).
, "" Jp Jp .
, z = x+iy V C k- p ,
p = p + ip , , z = x iy k- p ,
p = p ip .
, k = 1 :
( p )(z) =
= (z) p z = (x) i(y) (p ip )(x iy) =
= (x) + i(y) (p + ip )(x + iy) = (z) p z =
= ( p )(z);

310

. 3

k. ,
, . . ,
,
Qp () = Qp (); p = s + 1, ... , s + t,

(27.37)

. . , ,
, , , , .
, ,
,
Qp () , ,
Qp (). , , () .
:
Z =< g1 , g2 , ..., gk >; Z =< g1 , g2 , ..., gk > .
:
( p )(g1 ) = 0; ( p )(gu ) = gu1 (u = 2, ... , k);
( p )(g1 ) = 0; ( p )(gu ) = gu1 (u = 2, ... , k),

(27.38)

, :
(g1 ) = p g1 ; (gu ) = p gu + gu1 (u = 2, ... , k);
(g1 ) = p g1 ; (gu ) = p gu + gu1 (u = 2, ... , k).

(27.39)

Z Z
( )
Jk (p ) Jk (p ) ,
Z Z -

Jk (p )
O
.
C =
2k2k
O
Jk (p )

(27.40)

27

311


:
h1 =

1
1
(g1 + g1 ); h2 = (g1 g1 );
2
2i
1
1
h3 = (g2 + g2 ); h4 = (g2 g2 ); ... ;
2
2i
1
1
h2k1 = (gk + gk ); h2k = (gk gk ).
2
2i

(27.41)

h1 , g1 , h2 : h1 = Re(g1 ); h2 = Im(g1 );
. . :
g1 = h1 + ih2 ; g2 + h3 + h4 ; ... ; gk = h2k1 + ih2k

(27.42)

.
h1 , h2 , ... , h2k
Z Z, , . . V . (2k2k)- R,
Z Z. :
(h1 ) =

1
((g1 ) + (g1 )) =
2
1
1
= (p g1 + p g1 ) = (p g1 + p g1 ) = Re(p g1 ) =
2
2
= Re ((p + ip )(h1 + ih2 )) = p h1 p h2

, ,
(h2 ) = p h1 + p h2 .
,
1
((g2 ) + (g2 )) =
2
1
1
= (p g2 + g1 + p g2 + g1 ) = h1 + (p g2 + p g2 ) =
2
2
= h1 + Re(p g2 ) = h1 + Re ((p + ip )(h3 + ih4 )) =

(h3 ) =

= h1 + p h3 p h4
, ,
(h4 ) = h2 + p h3 + p h4 .

312

. 3

: R ,
, - (
):

p p
1
p p
0

R =
2k2k

0
1
p
p

1
0
..

0
1
..

p p
p p

1 0

0 1

p p
p p

(27.43)

, :

R=

E2
p

E2
..
.

..

p =

p
p

p
p

E2
p

(27.44)

(27.45)

(22)-, p = p + ip , E2
.

, , V C
H, JR , .
-; , ,
(27.44), .

28

313

, , ,
: "".
, ,
, , (. [26])
;
.
, , JR H
.. . A.
A JR .

28.

28.1.
.. ( 18.1, 21.1, 25.1 26.1),
, .
, "
" .
n- V ( P ) B, V .
L(V ) (n n)- A B.
18.1
h () = det(E A)
, . . ,
() = {1 , 2 , ... , s },
mi (i = 1, ... , s).
( .. ,
.)

314

. 3

Wi = Si ();
Fi ... Bi x = 0,
Bi = A i E.
mi , ni = dim(Wi ), . . i . m0 n0
.
21.2 18.1.
n0 = n (
Fi )
.. .
n0 < n, ""
0

S() = W =

s
M

Wi .

i=1

25.1 () .. G0 ,
.. - J0 , .
D0 , d(k) = dfc(Ak ); k = 1, 2, ... l, l
.. . , D0 (d(l) d(l) )- J0 .
( 25.1 25.2
3.)
26.1 ( i = 1, ... , s)
"" 25.1 ..
i = i ,
B Bi .
li i
k ,
(k)

di

= dfc(Bik )

28

315

mi .
(l )

di i = mi
i , . .
Ui = Qi ().
Gi Ui , (n mi )- Gi ,
(mi mi )- Ji ,
Ui .. . -;
( , Di ) Jk (i ) , 1 6 k 6 li .
.
( )
ni .
( 3
26.1 26.2,
, .)
28.1 "" ,
. ,
, .
28.2. ()
..
28. 1.

..
()
1. 18.1
h (), () = {1 , 2 , ... , s }, mi (i = 1, ... , s) m0 .
1.1. m0 = n, , G
V ,

s
M
0
Q() = U =
Ui .
(28.1)
i=1

316

. 3

1.2. m0 < n, G 0 m0 U 0 < V ; V .


2i . i = 1, ..., s Bi ,
.. i = i , , 26.1, "" i ,
, ( ); mi . Di , "" (mi mi ) Ji (-, Jk (i )
), Gi ( Ui ) (n mi )- Gi .
3. (n m0 )-
G0 = (G1 | G2 | ... | Gs ) ,

(28.2)

U 0 , (m0 m0 )
J 0 = diag(J1 , J2 , ... , Js )
(28.3)
(. . 27.1 . 3), .. U 0 .
4. ( ) , ... (
...) .. .
4.1. m0 = n, (n n)- G = G0
V, ( )
J = J 0 A.
G (
) V . G J = A J det(G) 6= 0
.
4.2. m0 < n, G0
U 0 = Q(). 10.4
. m00 = n m0
, U 00
U 0 . K n m00 ,

28

317

, G0 . (n n)
T = (G 0 |K)
(28.4)
V,
(-
- )

J1

...

C10

O J2 . . . O C 0
2

0
1
A = T AT = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,

0
O O . . . Js Cs
O

...

(28.5)

C 00

(mi m00 )- Ci0 (i = 1, ... , s) (m00 m00 )- C 00 .


28.1. ( ) ,
.
, ,
Q.
,
,
. .
, ,
, Q[i], ( )
Q[ d],
z = a + b d; a, b Q ( d
);
Fq (q = pn , . . ),
Fp
( p), n
Fp .
, . , Q.

318

. 3


. , " " 0
hA () = det(E A) ( ,
) hA (0 ) = det(0 E A). B0 = A 0 E , ,
Ker(B0 ) .
.
, , ? , .
(, , )
( ) ,
( ) " " .

28.3. " ". (2 2) 28.1 (, , ) .


n- V ( P )
L(V ) V
B, V
P n (B En ). .. L(P n ); A L(n, P ).
: P
P = Q ( ,
, ,
).
, A Mat(n, Q), , 1/, , ,
A. .

28

319



"
"
V = Qn
: V V ; (x) = A x,
A () n n.

() m0
.. ;
(m0 = 0) ( )
;
0 < m0 6 n U 0 = Q()
.. ( m0 -
V ) G 0 ;
G0 m0 n;
J 0 m0 m0 ,

0 = U 0 : U 0 U 0
G 0 ;
m0 = n, , V G = G 0 [ (n n) G = G0 ], .. J = J 0 ,
...; : G J = A G det(G) 6= 0;
0 < m0 < n, , V ; G 0 U 0
T ( ), (n n)- T ;

A0 = T 1 A T
, T (
A); : det(T ) ;
- (m0 m0 )- A0 J 0 .

320

. 3

9
1

0
n = 8; A :=
1

1
6

5
0
6
1
1
1
0
5

3
0 8
2
1
2
5
1 9
0 1
1
1
0 3
1
1
1
1
0
0
2
1 8

7 13
2 3

5 12

1
0
.
1
2

2 2

1 2
5
9

3
1
4
1
0
3
0
4


1. :

3
0
8
3
7
+9 5

2
1
2
1
2
1

6
+5
1
9
4
5
6

1
0
+1
1
1
1
0
h () =
1
1
0
+3
0
1
1

1 1 1 1 1 +3 2

0
1
0
0
0
+1
1

12

0
=
2

13

= 8 + 137 + 706 + 1965 + 2804 + 1123 2242 320 128.


. n > 6 "" .
, Maple
( . . 28.4).
, 42 [A1 ], .
, . .
(
"") .

28

321

, ""
. (, Maple-.)
26 . 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; 64. : 1 = 1 ( m1 = 1) 2 = 2
( m2 = 7) .
.. () = {1, 2}; m0 = 8 . V = Q8
.
21 .1. ()
( ) U1 .
U1 -
B1 = A 1 E = A E, . ., ... B1 x = 0,
(1)
F1 . " (1)
" , G1 = F1 , :
U1 = RG1 , G1 = (g1 ) .
:

B1 =

10

13

0
...
2

12

2
8

1
1

0
(1)
0 ; G1 = F1
= .

0
0

0

0

0

0
1

21 .2. , "" :
g1
D1 :
,
0

322

. 3

.. 1 = 1 = ;
l1 = 1.
21 .3. ( "") :
J1 = J1 (1 ) = 1 .
,
"" (
...). , ""
( ,
),
: , ,
- , "" (..)
(, "" ).
22 .1. B2 = A 2 E = A + 2E B2k ,
(k)
d2 " ",
m2 = 7.
, ""
. ..., .
.
"" .

0
B2 =
1

13

0
...
2

12

2
11

1 ;

28

(1)

F2

18

1
=
1

0
0

(1)
; d2 = 3;

17

26

11

16

18

27

18

18

18

27

10

17

18

0
2
B2 =
0

35

36

1
...
0

36

0
0

(2)

F2

54

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

0
=
0

1 ;
0

0
(2)
; d2 = 5;
0

0
1

54

27

81

28

53

54

27

81

27

54

54

54

27

81

27

54

54

0
3
B2 =
0

108

108

0
...
0

108

323

324

(3)

F2

1/2

3/2

1/2

3/2

1/2

1/2

0
=
0

162

243

81

162

162

81

243

81

162

162

162

81

243

81

162

3/2

1/2

(4)

F2

(3)
; d2 = 6;

81

(1
2

1/2

162

162

0
4
B2 =
0

. 3

324

324

0
...
0

324

2 ) ;

1/2

3/2

1/2

0
=
0

(4)
; d2 = 7.

(4)

: d2
: l2 = 4.

= m2 ;

22 .2. D2 ,
, , :

28

325

28.1
(4)

d2
(3)
d2
(2)
d2
(1)
d2

(4)

= 7;
= 6;
= 5;
= 3;

p2
(3)
p2
(2)
p2
(1)
p2

= 1;
= 1;
= 2;
= 3;

(4)

q2
(3)
q2
(2)
q2
(1)
q2

= 1;
= 0;
= 1;
= 1.

, D2 . 3 (. 28.1).
22 .3. "" J2 , ,
m2 = 7. "" (..)
(1)
"" n2 = d2 = 3.

(. . 28.1) :
(4)

q2 = 1 J4 (2) ;
(3)

J3 (2) , q2 = 0;
(2)

q2 = 1 J2 (2) ;
(1)

q2 = 1 J1 (2) .
, D2 ..,
.
, ..
"" .
, : , , , .
:

J2 = diag

J4 (2) , J2 (2) , J1 (2)

22 .4. . 22 .1,
(k)
N2 (k = 1, 2, 3, 4) .. 2 . (k)
() F2 .

326

. 3

, W2 = S2 (); U2 . ,
D2 .
.
[ - .
"" () ( ), " " .]
. 28.1 (. 3) G2 : ,
.
(8 7)-
G2 = (g1 | g2 | g3 | g4 | g5 | g6 | g7 )
. , " ".
:
(4)

(3)

(2)

(1)

G2 = (g4 ) ; G2 = (g3 ) ; G2 = (g2 | g6 ) ; G2 = (g1 | g5 | g7 ) .


(k)

G2 (k1)
(k)
N2
N2 ; , .
"" .
22 .4.1. g4 . -:
(4)
M2

(3)
F2

(4)
=
F 2

28

1/2

1/2 2

1/2

3/2

1/2

3/2

1/2

1/2

3/2

1/2

0 .

1/2 2

0
=

3/2

327

, , ,
( ),
. , ,
. ,
. (4)
F2 ; (
) g4 :

1

(4)

G2

= (g4 ) =

0
0
0
0
0
1

22 .4.2. .
(3)
(3)
(q2 = 0), G2
:
(3)

(4)

G2 = B2 G2 .

328

. 3

(, B2 .. 2 .)
g3 = B2 g4 :

(3)

G2

0
= (g3 ) =
1

13


12

0

2

2

11

0
0
0
0

1

1

1
= .
0

1

0
1

22 .4.3. " ":


" " g2 ,
(2)
G2 :

11

0
g2 = B2 g3 =
1

13

1

12 1


0 1

=
2 0


2 1

1
0
1
0
0

(2)
(1)
(3) (2)
M2 = F2 B2 G2 F2
,

, ( )
( g2 );
:

0
1
1 2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 1

0
1 1 1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1 0 1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1 0
1 1 0 1 0
(2)
M2 =

1 0 0
1
0
0
0
1 0

0
0 0 0
0
1
0
0
1

0
1
0 1 0
0
0
1
0

28

0
...

0
0

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

3/2

3/2

3/4

3/4

3/4

329

0 ;

2
1

, , g6 ( ), , ,
( (2)
): F2 ,
(, , ,
, , ;
" " ); , (2)
g6 G2 :

1/2

1/2

(2)
g6 =
; G2 = (g2 |g6 ) =
0

22 .4.4. ( ) , , . , , , :
(1)
M2

= B2

(2)
G2

(1)
F
,
2

, , g1
g5 , g7 .

330

. 3

(2)

B2 G2

0
=
1

(1)

M2

; g1 =
1/2

1/2

1/2

0
1
0
0
1

3/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

3/2

3/2

0
0
1
0
0

3/2

1
0

13

1/2

11


12

0

2

2

3/2

1/2

1
; g5 =
;

1/2

1/2

3/2
0

... 0

3/2
1/2
0

1
0
0

3/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

3/2

(1)
g7 = ; G2 = (g1 |g5 |g7 ) =
1

1 ;
1

22 .4.5. , , , -

28

331

G2 =

3/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

3/2

3 4. .
,
, , G = G0
T ( ):
T = G = (G1 |G2 ) .
A:

J = diag(J1 , J2 ) = diag J1 (1) , J4 (2) , J2 (2) , J1 (2) .


:

1
0

0
G=
0

0
1

1
2 0 1 3/2 1/2
0
1 1 0
1/2 1
0
0 1 0
0
1
1
1 1 0
1
0
0
0 0 0 1/2 0
0
0 1 0
1/2
0
1 1 0 1
3/2
0
0
1 1 0
0
0
1

0
J =
0

2
0
0
0

1
2
0
0

0
1
2
0

0
0
1
2

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

2 1
0 2
0

1
1

0
;
1

0
1

2
0
0
0
0

332

. 3

. GJ = AG (, ).
; :
1
det(G) = .
4
28.4.

1. (. 25.1),
.. .
, i Di "". (
.)
.. .
, , , .
... .. "" ( ,
"" , , :
).
, ( ).
( ) , .. .
, ...
(..).
2. . 21.6 27.4 , .
.
28.1. .. V = Q5 ,

28

22 17 19 4
4 6
1
6

A= 5
3 4
1

32 26
29 5
6
6 5
1

333

17
5

26
4

:
hA () = 5 54 + 123 162 + 12 4 =
= ( 1) (2 2 + 2)2 = ( 1) ( (1 i))2 ( (1 + i))2 .
, (. .
), 1 = 1. () , . :

A0 =

1
0
0
0
0

6
16
6
5
26

6
11
4
3
20

5
14
6
4
24

1
3

1
,
1
4

() .. J1 (1) = 1 -
. ( ) :

1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0

T = 0 0 0 1 0.

1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
() Q, Q[i]
. ..,
A, ,
1 = 1, () 2,3 = 1 i, .
. ,

334

. 3

V C = Q[i]5 ( ).
... A :

J = 0

0
0

1+i 1
0 1+i
0
0

0
0

1i 1
0 1i
0
0

0
0

(, ,
, , ):

T = 0

7 26
6+ 9 i

1 1
96i

7 26
6 9 i

1 1
9+6i

2
9 +i

2 5
99i

2
9 i

2 5
9+9i

13 8
18 + 9 i

8 1
9+6i

13 8
18 9 i

77
2 18 i

77
2+ 18 i

1 1
9+2i

1 1
92i

8 1
96i .

( )
27.4, (
, ), .. () ...
28.5. ... Maple. LinearAlgebra
A ... J,
T , : J = T 1 AT.

> JQ := JordanForm( A, output = [ J, Q ] );
" " ... ( , ). ;
, :

28

335

> J := JQ[ 1 ]; T := JQ[ 2 ];


"" , , . !
( )
.
28.2. :
> A := Matrix([ [5, 4, 3, 5, 1, 1, 5, 1, 1, 3, 1],
[12, 30, 14, 4, 5, 8, 0, 4, 12, 8, 4],
[12, 8, 3, 5, 1, 1, 1, 4, 5, 2, 3],
[1, 14, 7, 1, 4, 7, 3, 3, 4, 2, 1],
[12, 8, 1, 5, 3, 1, 1, 4, 5, 2, 3],
[13, 28, 12, 5, 4, 8, 1, 4, 11, 7, 4],
[6, 18, 10, 5, 5, 8, 3, 1, 5, 5, 0],
[6, 4, 3, 5, 1, 1, 5, 0, 1, 3, 1],
[12, 34, 16, 4, 6, 9, 0, 4, 14, 9, 4],
[23, 39, 21, 8, 7, 9, 0, 8, 17, 11, 7],
[13, 22, 16, 10, 9, 9, 7, 1, 6, 8, 0] ]);

30

14

12

14

28

12

11

18

10

34

16

14

23

39

21

17

11

13

22

16

10

12

12

12

A := 13

12

7
0

...
:
> J := JordanForm( A, output = J );
T := JordanForm( A, output = Q );
:

336

T := 1

7
3

208
27

20
3

263
27

J :=

1
3

2
3

7
3

262
27

10
3

2
3

14
3

371
27

13
3

226
27

10
3

145
27

16
3

62
27

7
3

19
27

7
3

235
27

1
3

2
3

7
3

262
27

7
3

17
27

4
3

145
27

17
3

5
3

1
3

11
3

. 3

7
3

17
3

13
3

10
3

7
3

4
3

, Maple " "


.
( , ""
.)

28

337

, Maple-
, ,
( , "" ,
-
).
28.6. "-" jrd 2.
jrd, A ( Q)
() J,
T , () .
jrd , 28.1,
" " 2 (. . 28.2).
, , "", , J T ,

(, , , ,
).
(, Maplets),
, ! . (
Maplet-.)
, - , ,
. (, " ".) ( )
.
Maple
( ).
, ,
(4)
N2 (. . -(4)
B24 ), 28.1 28.4 F2 ,
jrd
: F [2][4]. ,

338

. 3

, , , : F24 (. . ).
( )
. 1 (. . 2).
( ""), Q
Q[i].
,

(, Q[ 2])
Maple, .
jrd 28.1. . 1 (. . 2).

29.


.

29.1.
( ). "" , .
.
.
, , .

(
).
P , V
P , L(V ) (),
V. , ,

29

339

(. . 12.1).
L(V ) () k
.. (
: 0 = ).
.. P ()
:
= = ,

(29.1)

, . ( , ,
L(V ) , . . , , , ..)
( ):
. ..
:
k l = l k (= k+l ).
(29.2)
" " ( , ;
. [A1 , . 3]).

f () = a0 r + a1 r1 + ... + ar1 + ar

(29.3)

r, , ai P (i = 1, ... , r);
a0 6= 0.
29.1. (29.3)
(: ) L(V ) ..
f () = 0 r + 1 r1 + ... + r1 + r .
(29.4)
..
o.
:
: P [] L(V ); f () 7 f (); f () P [],

(29.5)

340

. 3

() .. . (29.5) (39.2)
[A1 ], f (c) (29.3)
c .
(29.5) , . . :
(f + g)() = f () + g();

(29.6a)

(f g)() = f ()g(),

(29.6b)

g() P.
(29.6) ; (29.6b), , , ( ) " ",
.
(39.7) [A1 ],

f (c) g(c) c P.

f () g() " " L(V ).

, .

(fk k )(gl l ) = (fk gl )k+l
(29.2) [ ..].
(29.6b) : f () :
f () = a0 ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ... ( s )ms ,
(29.7)
Ps
i P ; mi N (i = 1, ..., s); i=1 mi = r,
:
f () = a0 ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ... ( s )ms .

(29.8)

, , .. f (), g() P []
L(V ) f () g() ..:
f ()g() = g()f ().
(29.9)

29

341

(29.9)
(29.2) .. ( ).
, V dim(V ) = n.
B V L(V ) .., V, (n n) L(n, P ).
,
..
29.10 . (29.3)
A L(n, P )
f (A) = a0 Ar + a1 Ar1 + ... + ar1 A + ar E.

(29.40 )

( 12.1), A
B, ( ) f (A)
f (), , ,
, ..
( )
, , " ".
( , -
).
1. A -:
A = diag(A1 , A2 , ... , As ),

(29.10)

f () P []
:
f (A) = diag(f (A1 ), f (A2 ), ... , f (As )).
(29.11)
20.4.
2. A B , . .
B = T 1 AT

(29.12)

342

. 3

T,
f () P []:
f (B) = T 1 f (A)T,
(29.13)
. . f (A) f (B) (
T ).
,
B k = T 1 Ak T ; k = 0, 1, 2, ... ,

(29.14)

(29.13) .
29.1. (29.3)

0
0

0
A = Jn (0 ) =
...

0
0

1
0
0
0
...
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
...
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
...
0
0
0

... 0
... 0
... 0
... 0
... ...
... 0
... 0
... 0

0
0
0
0
...
1
0
0

0
0

0
,
...

1
0

(29.15)


A = 0 E + I 1 ,

(29.16)

E = En ,

0 1 0
0 0 1

0 0 0

0 0 0
I1 = Jn (0) =
... ... ...

0 0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0

0
0
1
0
...
0
0
0

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
... ...
0 1
0 0
0 0

0
0

...

1
0

(29.17)

.
0 E ,
, : (0 E)k = k0 E.

29

343

I1 k:
(I1 )k = Ik ,

(29.18)

1) I0 = E; 2) k {1, ..., n 1} Ik , k-
; 3) k > n: Ik = O.
: ( , n) I1 . ,
( 13.4)
... -
,
, (, ,
k, , , .., I1 ).
I14 n = 7:

0
0

4
I1 = I4 = 0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0

0.

0
0

, ,
, , . ( , ,
(ab)k = ak bk ,
ab = ba, .)
, A, B L(n, P ) (. . : AB = BA), k > 0
:
k
X
k
(29.19)
(A + B) =
Cks Aks B s ,
s=0

, , ( ) :
Cks =

s(s 1)...(s k + 1)
.
s!

(29.20)

344

. 3

(29.19) (29.16):
k

A = (0 E + I1 ) =

k
X

Cks (0 E)ks I1s

s=0

k
X

Cks ks
Is .
0

(29.21)

s=0

, s > n, (29.21) , . .
min(k, n 1).
, n = 7, k = 4 :
4
X
4
4
Is = 40 E + 430 I1 + 620 I2 + 40 I3 + I4 =
A = (0 E + I1 ) =
Cks ks
0

s=0

40

430

620

40

40

430

620

40

40

430

620

40

40

430

620

40

430

40

40 ,

2
60

3
40

0
0
0
0
0
n = 7, k = 8 :

40

A8 = 80 E + 870 I1 + C82 60 I2 + C83 50 I3 + C84 40 I4 + C85 30 I5 + C86 20 I6 =

80

870

C82 60

C83 50

C84 40

C85 30

C86 20

80

870

C82 60

C83 50

C84 40

C85 30

80

870

C82 60

C83 50

80

870

C82 60

80

870

80

4 4
C8 0

3 5
C8 0 .

2 6
C8 0

7
80

80

29

345

(29.15) (29.3),
:
f () =

r
X

fk k = f0 + f1 + f2 2 + ... + fr r .

(29.30 )

k=0


,
. (k, s),

{0 6 k 6 r; 0 6 s 6 k},
(s, k),
{0 6 s 6 r; s 6 k 6 r}.
:
f (A) =

r
X
k=0

X
(s,k):
06s6r;
s6k6r

fk A =

r
X

fk

Cks ks
Is
0

s=0

k=0

Cks fk ks
Is
0

k
X

Cks fk ks
Is =
0

(k,s):
06k6r;
06s6k

r
r
X
X
s=0

k=s

!
Cks fk ks
0

Is =

r
X

s Is ,

s=0

s , . :
(29.20)

s
s
s = fs + Cs+1
fs+1 0 + Cs+2
fs+2 20 + ... + Crs fr rs
=====
0

fs+1 0 + (s+2)(s+1)...3
20 + ... + r(r1)...(rs+1)
fr rs
=
= fs + (s+1)s...2
0
s!
s!
s!

1
=
s!fs + (s + 1)s...2 fs+1 0 + ... + r(r 1)...(r s + 1) fr rs
.
0
s!
s! s- f (s) (), = 0 .
:
r
X
f (A) =
f (s) (0 ) Is ,
(29.22)
s=0

346

. 3

, s > n Is
, . . (29.22)
s = min(r, n 1).
, n = 6, r = 8 :

f (A)=

f (0 )

f 0 (0 )

1 00
2! f (0 )

1 (3)
3! f (0 )

1 (4)
4! f (0 )

1 (5)
5! f (0 )

f (0 )

f 0 (0 )

1 00
2! f (0 )

1 (3)
3! f (0 )

1 (4)
4! f (0 )

f (0 )

f 0 (0 )

1 00
2! f (0 )

1 (3)
3! f (0 )

f (0 )

f 0 (0 )

1 00
2! f (0 )

f (0 )

f 0 (0 )

f (0 )

29.1. , , , ,
, ... , J = T 1 AT
A,
A = T JT 1 (29.3), f (A) = T f (J)T 1 . f (J) ,
(29.22).
, ( ...) f (A) .
(
.)
29.2.

3 0 1
A := 5 1 3 .
2 1 2
, :

160956416 49807360 60293120


A20 = 351272960 109051904 131072000 .
128450560 39321600 48758784

29

347

" " ( ) . ...


:

2 1 0
J = 0 2 1.
0 0 2

20
2
20 219 190 218
2 20
20
19
20
19
J = 0
2
20 2 = 2 0 2
0
0
220
0 0

95
20 .
2

, T ( ):

3 1 1
0
2
5
1
0
3 6 .
T = 6 5 0 ; T 1 =
27
3 2 0
27 9 9
T J T 1 .
, A20
J 20 .
29.2. .. .
"" ( , "", . . , ). , , (" ",
) , . .
(),
. , .
,
:
, ?
, , ( , ,
).
.
() "" .

348

. 3

, (.. ),
.
29.2. f () P [] (..) .. L(V ) (
A), f () = o ( f (A) = O).
12.1, B V
A, f ()
,
A.
, , .. ( ). . , A n n, Ak (k = 0, ..., n2 )
, n2 + 1 n2 - L(n, P ). .. ,
. . k P, ,
2

n
X

k Ak = O.

k=0

f () =

n
X

k k ,

k=0

, n2 , A.
, .. :
A .. , n.
, A L(n, P )
.
, ,
.
.. A .
g() , A f () g().
, f () g():
f () = g()q() + p(),

(29.23)

29

349

p() = 0 deg(p()) < deg(g().


p() .. A. ,
(29.6 a ,b)

p(A) = (f gq)(A) ======= f (A) g(A)q(A) = O,


, p() 6= 0, g(). p() = 0 g()|f ().
A
. , g(), g1 () A,
,
, , . ,
.. A .
.
29.1. .. , V ( A), g() .

( A).
. .
, 29.1,
.
29.2. .. .. ( A) (...) ( A)
g () [ gA ()].
, A .. ,
... ... A .
... , , : gA () () , ( ) A.
...
(, ,
..).

350

. 3

29.2. 1. ... (29.10) ... :


gA () = [gA1 (), gA2 (), ... , gAs ()].

(29.24)

2. ...:
A) = ( gB () = gA () ).
(B

(29.25)

. 1. (29.11), f () - (29.10) , ,
, f (Ai ) = O ( i = 1, ..., s).
gAi ()|f (); ( )
[gA1 (), gA2 (), ... , gAs ()] | f ().

(29.26)

, A ,
. , A .
2. . 29.1, B = T 1 AT f (B) = T 1 f (A)T . , f (A) f (B)
, . . A
B . ...

29.1. 1.
A = Jn (0 )
gA () = ( 0 )n .

(29.27)

2. (n n)- A
, (A) = {1 , 2 , ... , s } . i li
.

29

351

A
:
gA () = ( 1 )l1 ( 2 )l2 ... ( s )ls .

(29.28)

. 1. , f () = ( 0 )n
A = Jn (0 ) .
[ , .
A f ()? , "
" (. . )?
, ,
" ".
:
; . . 29.1 , , (29.8).
,
, .
, , , .]
,
f (A) = (A 0 E)n = (0 E + I1 0 E)n = I1n = O,
I1 = Jn (0) ( n) , 29.1 (29.17).
, f () .. A. ... A
f (). () f ()
g() = ( 0 )k , 1 6 k < n.
A,
n I1 (
).
, f () = gA () ... .. A.
2. A , ...,
J. 29.2, A ..., - J.

352

. 3

29.2, gJ () J, .. Jk (i ) .
..,
i , li .
( " " li .
.. i = i , Bi = A i E.
" ": li Di , i .)
,
( i )li ..,
i , , , Ji (. . 26.2
27.1 . 3).
( i )li , i (i = 1, ..., s),
, , ,
( , . [A1 , 38]).
29.2,
gJ () = (gJ1 (), gJ2 (), ... , gJs ()) =
= (( 1 )l1 , ( 2 )l2 , ... , ( s )ls ) =
= ( 1 )l1 ( 2 )l2 ... ( s )ls ,
(29.28).
29.3. . 29.1 ( ),

.
29.2 ( ). A (n n) P.
hA () = det(E A) A
, . .
hA (A) = O.
(29.29)

29

353

.
"" ( )
, , .
: , A
... ( P , ...
.)
( , )

.
, A ... 27.2,
:
hA () = ( 1 )m1 ( 2 )m2 ... ( s )ms .

(29.30)

(29.30) mi
i ;
n.
29.1, ... gA ()
( ) li , ,
(. 26), mi .
,
1) :
gA () | hA ();
(29.31)
2) , . .
(29.29).
.
P : P P
(. [A1 , 40]). A ,
.
hA (): P .
P , A
... J. ( J
P, P , .)

354

. 3

, (29.9). P ,

P, P.
29.2. .
:
, "", (), ( )
; [1] [2] ;
, "", ,
( ), ,
;
(. ).
. , (, , )
.
, .
, . . [17]
,
. , . ,
. . [11]. ,
,
.
, 30 ( )
. , ""
.

29

355

29.3. , (., , [26, . 110])


" " 29.2: hA () = det(EA) A;
: hA (A) = det(A E A) = det(A A) = det(O) = 0.
""?
29.4.
.
" (4.8.1805 2.9.1865)
, . , .-. . . . , , 10 , 12 12 . "" ,
; 13 17 . . , 22 -
."
(. . , . . . "
". , , 1979)
- ""...
29.5. "
". , . ( ) ,
()
, .
, , " ",
, . . "" .
: . ( 1853 ) 29.2
(2 2)-; ()
( ) . ( )
.
. . 1878 .
, ?
, .
29.6. A ( , ...).
hA () n ( ). A

356

. 3

Ps
... i=1 mi = n .
gA () , (29.28),
,
s
X
l=
li
(29.32)
i=1

.
li 6 mi [, , (29.31)],
gA () = hA ()

(29.33)

, :
li = mi i = 1, ..., s;
Di ;
... J A i ..
, A (. . n ), (29.33) .

(

...).
29.3. A 2 (. . 28.3).
, , 1 = 1 (
m1 = 1) 2 = 2 ( m2 = 7).
: l1 = 1 l2 = 4.
( ):
hA () = ( 1)( + 2)7 ;
gA () = ( 1)( + 2)4 .

29

357

29.4. A . 2 . 1,
- jord. :
hA () = ( 2)5 ( + 1)6 .
: l1 = 4; l2 = 3. ,
gA () = ( 2)4 ( + 1)3 .
, LinearAlgebra Maple ...:
> MinimalPolinomial( A, lambda );
29.4. . 29.1 ( ..). . 29.2
( , ... gA () ) f (A) f P [].
,
f () = gA ()q() + fe(),

(29.34)

fe() , , l
[. (29.32)], ,
(29.6a) (29.6b), ,
f (A) = (gA q + fe)(A) = gA (A) q(A) + fe(A) = O q(A) + fe(A) = fe(A),
. .

f (A) = fe(A).

(29.35)

, A , , ( A).
P R C,
, ,
.
, A, f ()
, li 1 i (A).

358

. 3

p() ( ), , l 1, , i
,
() , li 1:
p(k) (i ) = f (k) (i ); k = 0, 1, ... , li 1; i = 1, ... , s.

(29.36)

,
( f () ,
i li ) (
, - ).
, , n li = 1, . ,
n1 i . (: -
,
.)
" ", n = 4:
(2 )(3 )(4 )
(1 )(3 )(4 )
p()=f (1 ) ( )( )( ) +f (2 ) ( )( )( ) +
1
2
1
3
1
4
2
1
2
3
2
4
(1 )(2 )(4 )
(1 )(2 )(3 )
+f (3 ) ( )( )( ) +f (4 ) ( )( )( ) .
3
1
3
2
3
4
4
1
4
2
4
4

f () p() : ,
f (A) = p(A),

(29.37)

. . A A. (
, ,
.)
29.7. ( ) .

30

359

. . .
() ( )
( )

X xk
1 2
1 k
e = 1 + x + x + ... + x + ... =
.
2!
k!
k!
x

k=0

( . ;
- [A1 , . 34.3].)

X Ak
1 2
1 k
e = E + A + A + ... + A + ... =
,
2!
k!
k!
A

(29.38)

k=0

, A.
( ) (., , [7, 11, 16, 17]).

30.

30.1. . ( , , . 38.8 [A1 ]).


. ""
() .

Z, Z (, , ) . ,

360

. 3

(
),
.
.
, P [] ( P ). , , -

.
[11, 16, 17].

a11 () a12 ()
a () a22 ()
A() = 21
...
...
am1 () am2 ()

... a1n ()
... a2n ()
,
...
...
... amn ()

(30.1)

aij (i = 1, ..., m; j = 1, ..., n) P (


).
( ) : ,
(), , ;
(i) (xvii); . . 2.3
[A1 ].
(. . 23.1 [A1 ])
,
: , , , , . ( " " ; ., , . 17.1 22.1 .)
"" ( "") .
(nn)- A() ,
. A() , det(A())

30

361

P [], . . .
A ()
(
).
(. . 28.3 [A1 ]):
A() A () = A () A() = det(A()) E,

(30.2)


( , ):
A1 () =

1
A (); det(A()) = a P \ {0}.
det(A())

(30.2)

" " ( ; . . 30.2 [A1 ]). (. .


) .
,
.
.
(30.1) - s , ( . . 48.1 [A1 ])
I = (i1 i2 ... is ); i {1, ..., m} (1 6 6 s),

(30.3)

i
; s :
J = (j1 j2 ... js ); j {1, ..., n} (1 6 6 s).

(30.4)

(s s)-,
ai j (); 1 6 , 6 s.
s A

A

I
J

=A

i1
j1

i2
j2

... is
... js

(30.5)

362

. 3

( .)
"" , I J
. :
( )
;
, sgn().

(,
, , ), -.

C = A B ,
mp

mn

np

s, min(m, p),
, I [. (30.3)]
K = (k1 k2 ... ks ); k {1, ..., p} (1 6 6 p),

X

I
I
J
C
=
A
B
,
K

(30.7)

(30.8)

(30.4).
( s > n J . ,
s C .)
( )
(
A):
d(A)
s () =
= {A


I
J

() : I, J s},

(30.9)

s 6 min(m, n) P [],
(,
).

30

363

, , d(A)
1 (),
, A, ( ,
) : d(A)
0 () = 1.
() :
(A)
d(A)
(30.10)
s1 () | ds (); s = 1, ... , r,
r = rank(A()).
r+1 6 s 6 min(m, n) .
, ( ) , .
30.2. . (m n)- A = A()
I III
(. . 4.3 14.3 [A1 ]).
:
I: i j ; i, j {1, ..., m}; i 6= j;
II: i + j c(); i, j {1, ..., m}; i 6= j; c() P [];
III: i c; i {1, ..., m}; c P \ {0}.
. " " : (
) , . . .
, A = A() B = B(), , [
: A() B()],
,
.
() (mn) A() () ,
( ,
) . 14.3, 14.4
.

364

. 3

-
( ). "" , U ()
m m, , A() Em . , "" (n n)- V ().

A() B()

(30.11)


B () = U () A () V (),

mn

mm

mn

nn

(30.12)

U () V ().
[ 30.2 ,
(30.12), , (30.11). ,
(. . 13.3 ) .
13.3; 30.2
.]
, (30.8), ,
, . . (30.11)
rank(A()) = rank(B()) (= r)

(30.13)

(B)
(s = 1, ... , r) [d(A)
s () = ds ()] .

(30.14)

, 30.2.

.

30

365

30.1 ( ). A() Mat(m, n, P [])



()
1
2 ()

S() =

..

.
r ()

(30.15)

r = rank(A()), s () = (A)
s () ( s = 1, ... , r)
,
s () | s+1 (); s = 1, ... , r 1

(30.16)

:
(A)
s () =

ds(A) ()
; s = 1, ... , r.
d(A)
()
s1

(30.17)

(). , . (30.15) A = A().


, ,
( ) (..) A.

, (
).
( )
.
.
( ) [18],
. ( .)

366

. 3

30. 1.


(m n)- A = A().
U = U0 = Em V = V0 = En . ()
A () U ( V ).
1. A
- .
2. ,
,
.
2.1. ,
4.
2.2. , ,
, - 2.
3. 2
A0 = A0 (),
, .
3.1. A0 ( )
( ), ,
.. 1 () .
3.2. , "" . A0 ,
, ( 2).

,
1 (), 4.
4. A0 , ,
.
5. ,
..,
( ) ;
( );

30

367

, .. (, , ), - .
6. (m n)- S = S()
A (
) :
(m m)- U = U () (n n)- V = V ().
S = U AV , det(U ) det(V ), .
.
, (30.17) [. (30.14)].
, , ( ).
30.1. P
P [],
(
).
(. 5.1
): .. .
30.2. (
1861 )
. 30.1
1878 , (. 29.5) . . .
.
( , , [11]).
. , .
, 1875 , . (
? ,
.)
30.3. Maple , -

368

. 3

A S ( ), U V , ,
S = U AV . SmithForm
LinearAlgebra. , (
Maple-)
help-.
.
:
r
(A)
(A)
d(A) = [d(A)
1 (), d2 (), ... , dr ()];

(30.18)

r
(A)
(A)
(A) = [(A)
1 (), 2 (), ... , r ()].

(30.19)

, ,
.
: (
) .. () (. [A1 , . 45.5]).
( ) .
(..) k
(A)
s () (f ()) ,
f () - (A)
s (),
k
k , , (f ())
, .
(30.16), ,
( - ) ..,
( ) (
).
.. ( ..).
- () , ..; , (

30

369

), .. (
).
: .. , .
(A) ..
A.
P
, 0 .
( 0 )k , k 0 ..
30.1. (A) (A). .. ()
:
(A) = [ 1,

1, (+1)2 (1), (+1)2 (1)3 , (+1)3 (1)3 (2)2 ].

, r = 5. , , ..:
(A) = [ (+1)3 ,

(+1)2 , (+1)2 ;

(1)3 , (1)3 , (1), (1);


(+2)2 ].

, ,
(
..).
, (A), r = 5,
.. , :
(A)
5 () ..;
(A)
4 () ;
(A)
3 () ;
(A)
2 () ( );
(A)
1 () , ..
.

370

. 3

: S() .. .., , r, (m n) ( , ,
r).
, , , , .
30.2. A = A() B = B() m n.
:
(1) A B , . . ;
(2) U = U ()
V (), m m n n , ,
(30.12);
(3) A B ;
(4) A B
;
(5) A B ..;
(6) A B ( ) ..
. , (1) (6), .
. , ()
14.3 [A1 ].
30.3.
.

a11 () a12 () ... a1n ()


a () a22 () ... a2n ()
A() = 21
(30.20)

...
...
...
...
an1 () an2 () ... ann ()
n n, P [].
m = max{deg(aij ()) | 1 6 i, j 6 n }

(30.21)

30

371

A() m
(, , ):
A() = A0 m + A1 m1 + ... + Am1 + Am ,

(30.22)

Ak L(n, P ) (k = 0, ... , m) mk A(); A0 , , (A0 6= O).


30.2.

A() =

22
2

32 + 2 + 1
3

( 2):
A() = A0 2 + A1 + A2 =

2 3
1
2
=
+
0 0
1

2
3

0 1
2 0

; L(n, P ) (nn)- ( )
, ( n > 2) .
,
:

m
X
i=0

! l
m+l
X
X
mi
lj

=
Ck m+lk ,
Ai

Bj
j=0

Ck =

(30.23)

k=0

Ai Bj ,

(30.24)

i,j>0
i+j=k

- Ai Bj .
, (
):

372

. 3

" ". , Cm+l = Am Bl


.
,
( ). : " ".
( 30.2.
, , .)

,
.
, (30.20) (30.22), A() . A()B()

, , ;
, , .
.
, . (30.22)
. ,
,
A() = m A0 + m1 A1 + ... + Am1 + Am ,

(30.220 )

(30.22).
:
E. ,

.
()
a() = a0 m + a1 m1 + ... + am1 + am

(30.25)


A() = a()E =
= (a0 E)m + (a1 E)m1 + ... + (am1 E) + (am E),

(30.25m)

30

373


(. .
), ,
. 29.1 .
( , ) A () ()
nn

C :
nn

, (30.22):

A(C) = A0 C m + A1 C m1 + ... + Am1 C + Am ;

(30.26)

, (30.220 ):

A(C) = C m A0 + C m1 A1 + ... + CAm1 + Am .

(30.260 )

, A()
[, ,
a();
. (30.25m)], ( C) .
, , ,
() A() + B()
C
C.

(A B)(C) = A(C) B(C)

(30.27)

( ) , , .
30.3. A() = A0 B() = B0 .
(A B)() = A0 B0 2 .
C :

A(C) = A0 C; B(C) = B0 C; (A B)(C) = A0 B0 C 2 .

374

. 3

- ,
A0 B0 C 2 = A0 CB0 C .
, , (30.25m)
(30.27) (, ,
).
(. [A1 , 37, 38, 45]) ,
.
() ;
(. 37.2
[A1 ]) : .
: , . ,
: .
. , A() ( m) B() ( l), , A() (. . A0 ),
:

Q() ( );

R() ( ,
, m);

Q() ( );

R() ( , , m),
, () :

B() = Q()A() + R();

B() = A()Q() + R().

(30.28)
(30.280 )

, .
,
. ( " ".)

30

375

( )
.
() , ,
A() () B(). :

[ A() | B() ] [ Q() ] [ B() = Q()A() ];

[ A() | B() ] [ Q() ] [ B() = A()Q() ].

(30.29)
(30.290 )

[ , (30.29) (30.290 )
A().]
: ()
() , .
,
.
(. . 17.1 )
C() = E A,

(30.30)

A ( P ).
(30.30) , , .
, ( , )
F () = F0 m + F1 m1 + ... + Fm1 + Fm .

(30.31)


30.3 ( ). 1. ()
F () EA
() F () A, . .
:

F () = Q()(E A) + F (A);

F () = (E A)Q() + F (A).

(30.32)
(30.320 )

376

. 3

2. E A () F () ,

F (A) ( F (A)) A
. :

[ E A | F () ] [ F (A) = O ];
[ E A | F () ] [ F (A) = O ].

(30.33)
(30.330 )

" ". : , F () E A ()
, :

F () = Q()(E A) + R0 .

(30.34)

, (. . 39.2 ),
(30.34) A
, A EA
.
, , ( ) " ". , . ?

"" Q(),
m1, EA:

Q() (EA) = (Q0 m1 +Q1 m2 +...+Qm2 +Qm1 )(EA) =


= Q0 m + (Q1 Q0 A)m1 + ... + (Qm1 Qm2 A) Qm1 A,

A
, .
, (30.34)
A R0 .
.
, (. 29.2 ).

30

377

()
hA () = det(E A) = n + c1 n1 + ... + cn1 + cn

(30.35)

(n n)- A
H() = hA ()E.

(30.35m)

(E A) , ; , n 1
(
). (30.2):
(E A) (E A) = det(E A) E = h()E = H().

(30.36)

(30.36) , EA (
, ) (30.35m).
, A
. (30.35m) (30.35) ( :
) A A (30.35).
hA (A) = O, .
30.4. Maple . , MatrixPolynomialAlgebra,
, (
) (, .)
30.4. ( ) (
).
E A. A L(n, P ), , ,
.
"" ,
, ,
, . .
.

378

. 3

30.4. A, B L(n, P ) , E A
E B .
. 1. B, . .
: A
B = T 1 AT

(30.37)

T, , 17.1, :
E B = T 1 (E A)T.
(30.38)
(30.37)
E B = U ()(E A)V (),

(30.39)

( ) (n n)-
U () = T 1 V () = T.
2. . (30.39) (
) U () V (). [
T GL(n, P )], A B
(30.37).
(30.39)
W ()(E B) = (E A)V (),

(30.40)

W () = (U ())1 [ det(U ())]


.
( )
W () E A:
W () = (E A)W1 () + M0 ;

(30.41)

V () E B:
V () = V1 ()(E B) + N0 ,

(30.42)

, ,

M0 = W (A)

(30.43)

30

379

W () A,

N0 = V (B)

(30.44)

V () B.
(30.41) (30.42) (30.40) ,
(E A)(W1 () V1 ())(E B) =
= M0 (E A) + (E A)N0 . (30.45)
(30.45) ,
;
, () .
,
, .
,
W1 () = V1 (),
(30.47)
(30.45)
M0 (E A) = (E A)N0 .

(30.48)

(30.48)
, :
M0 = N0 ;

(30.49)

M0 B = AN0 .

(30.50)

, M0 ,
(30.49) (30.50) (30.37),

T = M0 = N0 = V (B).

(30.51)

, M0 .
W (),
E = W ()U ().

(30.52)

380

. 3

, U ()
E B:
U () = (E B)U1 () + K0 ,
(30.53)

K0 = U (B).

(30.54)

(30.41) (30.53) (30.52), (30.48), (30.49), (30.42) (30.47) [


], :

E = (E A)W1 () + M0 (E B)U1 () + K0 =
= (E A)W1 ()(E B)U1 () +
+ (E A)W1 ()K0 + M0 (E B)U1 () + M0 K0 =
= M0 K0 + (E A)W1 ()(E B)U1 ()+
+ (E A)W1 ()K0 + (E A)M0 U1 () =
= M0 K0 + (E A)F (),

(30.55)

F () = W1 ()(E B)U1 () + W1 ()K0 + M0 U1 () =

= W1 ()(E B) + M0 U1 () + W1 ()K0 =
= W ()U1 () + W1 ()K0 . (30.56)
, (30.55) (30.56),
,
.
, F () = O (30.55)
E = M 0 K0 .

(30.57)

M0 .
: (30.39) A B (30.37)
; T
(30.51).

30

381

30.5. . . 30.4,
,
, , 30.2, , .
. 30.2 , C() = E A.
,
, . . rank(C()) = n ( P []).
, C() , A:
d(C)
n () = hA ().

(30.58)

( n- , C(). n
, , . ,
.
, .)
, () A ( .. ..),
. ,
( ) A, .. (..) C = C(). , " .. (A)" ( ) "
.. (C)".
n .. A, (30.17), :
(A)
(A)
(A)
(A)
1 () 2 () ... n1 () n () =
(A)

= d1

d(A)
d(A)
d(A)
n1 ()
n ()
2 ()
() (A)
... (A)
(A)
=
d1 ()
dn2 () dn1 ()
= dn(A) () = hA (),

(30.59)

. . .. .

382

. 3

(
): hA ().
(.
) .
(. . 29.2):
(A)
n () = gA ().

(30.60)

( ...:

.)
30.2, 30.4,
.
30.5. A, B L(n, P ) ,
( ):
B ] [ (A) = (B) ] [ (A) = (B) ].
[A

(30.61)

[ 27.4 ( ).]
30.6.
... ,
hA () .
.. [ hA ()].
(i )k ,
i (i = 1, ..., s) A. k ( ..) n.
i - ..
.
- (n n)- J ( ) :
.. ( i )k e .. Jk (i ) ;
,
, ( )
Ai .

30

383

, J ...
A, .. J , ,
.
.
1. : ..
- .
2. ,

E H =

1
i

1
..
.

..

.
i

1
i

(30.62)

H = Jk (i ) , , , , (i )k .
( , , k,
, .)
, .. H , k
k
: (H)
n () = ( i ) . , ( i )
.. H.

[. 27.2 ()].
30.6 ( ). ... ,
;
.. ( i )k .. Jk (i ) .
(, "") ...
30. 2.


(n n)- A P. ... J A ( ), T, , J = T 1 AT.

384

. 3

1. C() = E A
( 30.1)
S = S(); (
U0 = V0 = En ) U = U () V = V (),
, S = U CV. (
, V.)
2. S : 1 (), 2 (), ... , n (); . ,
. . i , ... .
3. ()
A, .. n ()
( ) i
(i = 1, ... , s). (), ( ) .
4. ..
, . . ( i )k .., (A),
: ,
; ..
.
5. - J, .. ( i )k (A) .. Jk (i ) . ,
.. ... A.
6. G() = E J
( , 1) , ( ) S.
W = W () Y = Y (), , S = W GY.
(
Y.)
7. U CV = W GY G:
G() = P ()C()Q(),

(30.63)

30

385

P = W 1 U ; Q = V Y 1 .

(30.64)

, Q,
, (30.64).
V , ,
6, (
).
8.
Q = Q() ( ).
J:

T = Q( J ).

(30.65)

(30.65) .
J = T 1 AT , T J = AT,
det(T ).
30.4. ...
. . , ""
, .
, ""
:
. . ,
,
.
... (6 6)-

4
5

3
A=
5

10
5

0
1
0
0
0
0

1
1
2
1
2
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0

2
2

3
.
2

4
3

386

1. :

C0 = C = E A =

+1

+1

10

+1

+3

. 3

"" () : U0 = V0 = E6 .
1.1. 30.1. C0 1 . -
, . , ,
. ( : ,

3 + 1 ( + 4).)
() C0 U0 ( V0 ). "" .
, , ("")
,
,
. :

+1

+611

+1

+1

2+2

+1

0
C1 =
0

+2
U1 =
1

2+7
;
0

+1

0
1
; V1 =
0
0

+4

2
.
0

0
1

- (5 5)-,
, .

30

387

, . , ""
. ( "" .)
1.2. ,
: ! ,
. - (4 4)-, - (2 2)-,
+ 1:
+ 1 18 9.
, .
:
2 + 6 11 = ( + 1)( + 7) 18.

( ). .
: 2 + 3 ,
[ (2, 2)].
, "", "" . ,
2 + 6 11 2 + 7
+ 1.
, .
: 3 + 2 ( 7), ,
.
U V .
:

18

+611

+1

+1

2+2

+1

0
C2 =
0

0
+1
2

2+7
;
0

+1

388

+1

+2
U2 =
1

0
1
; V2 =
0
0

+4

. 3

2
.
0

0
1

, 1/9 ( ) :

0
C3 =
0

0
0

+2+3

+1

+1

2+2

+1

+1

57)/9
;
0

0
(2

( 21)/9

1/9

1/9

(27)/9

(2+2)/9

( 10)/9

(1)/9

(1)/9

(+1)/9

(22 +11)/9
U3 =
1

1
V3 =
0

(2+2)/9

(1)/9

;
0

(2+7)/9

, "" ; .. [ (4 4)- C3 ].
1.3. + 1
[, (4,3)] (3,3),
. :

30

389

, . . . , - (3 3)-
+ 1, ,
, ..
:

0
C4 =
0

+1

2 23

22

+1

;
2
(2 57)/9

( 21)/9

1/9

1/9

(27)/9

(2+2)/9

(2 19)/9

(1)/9

(1)/9

(+1)/9

U4 =
2
(2 +916)/9

;
0

0
1

1
V4 =
0

+2

(2+2)/9

(1)/9

(2+7)/9

1.4. "" : , (5,5), + 1,


(4,4) , ,
-
( 3 3)
+ 1. :

0
C5 =
0

+1

+1

23

(2 57)/9

(2 21)/9

0
2

0
2

390

U5 =

. 3

(+1)/9

1/9

1/9

(2 +916)/9

(27)/9

(2+2)/9

(1)/9

(1)/9

( 19)/9

1
V5 =
0

+2

(2+2)/9

(1)/9

;
0

(2+7)/9

1.5. : C5
1 (5,5), 1 . , ,
+ 1. - ""
1 1, ( ..) + 1. (
9) ( )
: 3 32 + 4.
, :

0
S = C6 =
0

+1

+1

+1

0
0

U = U6 =

0
3

32 +4

(+1)/9

1/9

1/9

( +19)/9

(+1)/9

(+1)/9

3 +52 +1041

2 4+4

2 45

1
V = V6 =
0

0
2

1
2

0
0

1
+2

(+1)/9

9+27

( ++2)/9
.
(1)/9

( 3+5)/9
2

(22)/9
(+1)/9

30

391

( ) ; : S = U CV ;
U V . ( ) ,
, ( ,
1).
2. , ( ..) :
(A)

1 () = 1;
(A)

2 () = 1;
(A)

3 () = + 1;
(A)

4 () = + 1;
(A)

5 () = + 1;
(A)

6 () = 3 32 + 4 = ( + 1)( 2)2 .
, , , ...
(A)
3. .. 6 () .
: 1 = 2, 2 = 1.
4. ( ..)
( )
, , , :
(A) = [ ( 2)2 ;
+ 1, + 1, + 1, + 1 ].
5. .. (
):
J2 (2) ; J1 (1) ; J1 (1) ; J1 (1) ; J1 (1) ,
( )
-
J = diag( J2 (2) , 1, 1, 1, 1),

392

. 3

( ).
6.

+1

+1

+1

+1

G0 = G = E J =

; , :
W0 = Y0 = E6 .
G, ,
, C.
W Y ,
, S = W GY .
, , . "":
( , , ,
). - .
6.1. G0 ,
1 ; :

2 4+4

+1

+1

+1

+1

0
G1 =
0

0
W1 =
0

;
0

0
0
1

30

393

0
Y1 =
0

.
0

0
0
1

G1 "" .
, : .
, ("
") , G1
(2,2) (6,6). - (4 4)-,
2 4+4 +1 9 (
5).

,
( , + 5),
(2,2), 1/9,
,
9,
: G2 = S

W = W2 =

(2)/9

1/9

1/9

3 62 +3+10

2 45

2 4+4

+5

(2 4+4)/9

0
Y = Y2 =
0

(1)/9

(2 ++2)/9

, ( )
.

394

. 3

7. U C S, W
G S. P = W 1 U , "" C G. , Q = V Y 1
.
P Q
(
).
, , ,

. , V , , ,
, Q.
P .
, "" , .
( ) P Q. ( Maple):

P =

+3

( +19)/9

(+1)/9

(+1)/9

+3

(2 45)/9

(3 62 +1217)/9

(3 +42 4)/9
Q=
(2 +4+5)/9

2
(2 +8+10)/9
2

(2 81)/9

(+1)/9

+2

(2 )/9

(1)/9

(22)/9

(2+2)/9

(2 +7)/9

Maple- , G = P CQ
, det(P ) = det(Q) = 1.
8. Q = Q() 3 (

30

395

):
Q() = Q0 + Q1 + Q2 2 + Q3 3 =

5/9

17/9

0
=
5/9

10/9

1/9

1/9

4/3

0 4/9
+
1/9 4/9

1/9

1/9

8/9

8/9

2/9

2/9

2/9

2/9
0

1/9

1/9 2
1/9
+
0
0

1/9

1/9

4/9

7/9

2/3

4/9
+
1/9

1/9

+
1/9

2/9
2/9

3 .
0

0
0

J,

0
2
3
T = Q( J ) = Q0 + Q1 J + Q2 J + Q3 J =
1

,
0

, J = T 1 AT.
"" :
T J = AT det(T ) = 1.
:

2
0

0
J =
0

0
0

1
2
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0

0
1
0
1

0
0
; T =
0
1

0
2
1
1

0
0
1
0
0
0

1
3
1
0
0
2

0
0
0
0
1
0

1
3
1
1
2
2

0
1

0
.
0

0
0

4
,

31.

.

31.1. .
"" ( ; . 1.11
12.2, 13.3). , [A1 ] (. . 48.4) ( ) ,
( ) .
()
31.1. V ( P ) V P ,
.
31.1. , , .
( ):
,
,
.
, . ,
( 31.1) ( 48.6 [A1 ]).

31

397

, , " " .
"" f (x) = ax + b
( ) b = 0.
( ) ( ) .
"" "", , "" , ()
.
" ", , ,
( - ,
).
, - ,
. (- .

, "" .)
31.1.
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(31.1)

n- V ( P )
V n
i : V P ; i (x) = xi , x =

n
X

xi bi V.

(31.2)

i=1

i (i = 1, ... , n) x V
i- B.
(. . 6.4) :
: V P n ; (x) = x; x V.

(31.3)

31.2.
int[a,b] , 1.11
() C([a, b], R),

398

. 4

12.2 ( ) R[x] () Rn [x],


() f (x) Rb
a f (x)dx.
13.3 ,
, tr : L(n, P ) P
L(n, P ).
31.2. - . , V ( n), (31.1). P, ,
, ( ),
: E1 = [1].
. 12.2 A [. (12.9)] : V W B
C ... V W . ,
W = P ,
f :V P

(31.4)

, :
A = at = (1 2 ... n ),
(31.5)

j = f (bj ); j = 1, ... , n.

(31.6)

[ (12.9), ,

.]
31.2. (31.5) -, f L(V, P ) (31.1) V.
, y = (x) [. (12.28) (12.32)] y = A x. (31.4)

31

399

:
t

f (x) = a x =

n
X

j xj = 1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + n xn ,

(31.7)

j=1

, (31.6).
(31.7) , " ", . .
.
31.3. (31.2) [. 31.1]
- ei t .
12.2 (. 31.2) - int[a,b]
Rn [x].
- tr [. (13.33)].
( .)
31.3. ()
. ()
31.3. L(V, P ) , V, ( ) V .
:
V = L(V, P ).
(31.8)
31.2 ( ).

, , ( ,
"").
(. 12.2), (31.8) :
dim(V ) = dim(L(V, P )) = 1 n = n.

(31.9)

, 6.2 ( ...), :
V
= V.

(31.10)

400

. 4

(31.10) V V
- .
(31.1) .

L(V, W ),
12.2:
ij (i = 1, ... m; j = 1, ... , n), B
[. (12.12)]:
ij (bk ) = jk ci ; k = 1, ... , n,

(31.11)

C = [c1 , ..., cm ] , W , jk
.
: W = P, m = 1, C
E1 = [1]. (31.11) (i = 1)
c1 = 1; , .
bj 1j (j = 1, ..., n),
:
bj (bk ) = jk ; j, k = 1, ... , n.

(31.12)

, , , (
) . , (31.12) bj V .
(. .
)
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ],

(31.13)

, , V .
31.3. (31.13) V
() B V .
31.3. , (31.13),
(31.1) (31.12), V , . , (31.12). .
.

31

401

bj x V
:
bj (x) = bj (

n
X

x i bi ) =

i=1

n
X

xi bj (bi ) =

n
X

i=1

xi ij = xj ,

i=1

, :
bj (x) = xj ; j = 1, ... , n.

(31.14)

( , bj
31.1; "" j .)
V , V , , (31.10),
B : V V ,

(31.15)

:
B (

n
X
i=1

xi bi ) =

n
X

xi bi ;

(31.16)

i=1

x V B (x) V , B , B.
31.4. "", (31.15) , , B. , B0 B0
, , .
6.1 "" . (31.15)
, .
(31.4) (31.1) - (31.5).
, (31.6) (31.13). .
, , , . ,

402

. 4

f V B a, at . , , :
f=

n
X

j bj ,

(31.17)

j=1

,
x V (31.6)
(31.14):
(31.7)

f (x) ===

n
X

(31.14)

j xj ===

j=1

n
X

j bj (x)

j=1

=(

n
X

j bj )(x).

j=1

.
31.1. V n- P. V = L(V, P )
n , , V.
(31.1) V
(31.13) V ; (31.12).
f V
(31.17) (31.13); (31.6).
. .
31.4. P n , , (
), -

x1
x
x = 2 ; xi P (i = 1, ... , n)
...
xn


E = [ e1 , e2 , ... , en ].

31

403

P n ? ( ,
.)
f : P n P ( E) [. (31.7)]
n
X
t
f (x) = a x =
i xi ,
i=1

. . -
at = (1 2 ... n ).
,

P n . (, ,

-, ; . (2.3) [A1 ], (1.3) .)
,
-
- ( ). ,
E, , , (
)
E = [ e1 t , e2 t , ... , en t ],
-.
31.4. . ,
(31.1), V :
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ]

(31.10 )

T.
: B (B0 ) . ,
.
, B
B0 . (,
: , .)

404

. 4

31.2. - at (a0 )t , f V B B0 , :
at = (a0 )t T 1 ; (a0 )t = at T.

(31.18)

. (31.18) A0 = Q1 AT [. (13.2)].
V ( ) P , ();
Q = E1 = (1).
T 1 .
(31.18), , , 31.2, f B (B0 ) :
a = (T 1 )t a0 ; a0 = T t a.

(31.19)

R B (B0 ) ,
( 7.3) :
a = R a0 ; a0 = R1 a.

(31.20)

(31.19), (31.20) f V , , ,
a0 P n ( f (B0 ) ).
, 13.1,
, R (T 1 )t .
,
31.3. ... V B B0 T , V B (B 0 ) (T 1 )t .
, 31.4,
"" (31.15).
31.5. , B B0 , V , T S = T 1 ,
.

31

405

(7.12): x = T x0 , ,
:
n
X
xi =
tij x0j .
(31.21)
j=1

B (B 0 ) V .
31.3,
R = (T 1 )t = S t ,

rij = sji ; i, j = 1, ... , n.

(31.22)

(. . 7.1),
(b0j )

n
X

(31.22)
rij bi ===

i=1

n
X

sji bi .

(31.23)

i=1

(31.15), (31.16),
B0 : V V ,

(31.150 )

n
n
X
X
0 0
B0 (x) = B0 (
x j bj ) =
x0j (b0j ) .

(31.160 )

j=1

j=1

( , (31.16) (31.160 ) x V ,
.)
(31.15) (31.150 ) ,
x, . .
x V
n
X
i=1

xi bi

n
X

x0j (b0j ) .

(31.24)

j=1

(31.24) xi (31.21),
(b0j ) (31.23).

406

. 4

( ,
),
n
X
i=1

n
X

tij x0j bi =

j=1

n
X

n
X

sji x0j bi ,

i=1

(31.25)

j=1

( , B )

n
n
X
X
0
tij xj =
(31.26)
sji x0j ; i = 1, ... , n.
j=1

j=1

(31.26) :
T x0 = S t x0 .

(31.27)

(31.27) x0 P n
( x V , P n ). , T S t = (T 1 )t , , , T
:
T 1 = T t .

(31.28)

(31.28) . ( (2 2)-.) , -
, . (. . 40.2),
, (31.28), . (
)
(, ,
).

32.
32.1. .
... .
(

32

407

) . , ()
:
V = (V ) ;

(32.1)

, . . . , 31.1,
( ).
(32.1) ( ) V V .
,
32.1. V
P.

: V V

(32.2)

V V , x V (x) V ,
f V :
(x) f f x:
(x) (f ) = f (x)

(32.3)

x V ; f V .
32.1. ,
( ).
f (x) (32.3).
, , () . ( - , 100%
, .)
, , x, - , ()
f ,
x f (x),
- .

408

. 4

, salto mortale, f (x) f . x , f


( - ).
, x , f f (x).
(32.3).
. 1. , (x) , . . f f (x) (32.3).
, , , P
f, g V :
(x) (f + g) = (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) =
= (x) (f ) + (x) (f ) = (x) (f ) + (x) (f ),
, , , x V (32.3)
(x) V .
2. (32.2), . .
(x + y) = (x) + (y),

(32.4)

, P x, y V.
(32.4) V , . . ,
f V :
(x + y) (f ) = ((x) + (y)) (f ).

(32.5)

(32.2), , (32.5)
:
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y).

(32.6)

(32.6) , f
, , . , (32.4).
, :
(32.3) x.

32

409

3. , (32.2) . 6.1 (), , V


V .
( :
, " ",
. . ,
- .)
V B [. (31.1)],
V B [. (31.13)],
B (31.12), V

B = [ b
1 , b2 , ... , bn ],

(32.7)

B [ (31.12)]

b
(32.8)
j (bk ) = jk ; j, k = 1, ... , n.
,
. .

(B) = B ,

(32.9)

(bj ) = b
j

(32.10)

j = 1, ... , n.
(32.10) f V :
(bj ) (f ) = b
j (f ).

(32.11)

, , (32.11)
, . . f = bk , k = 1, ... , n:

(bj ) (bk ) = b
j (bk ).

(32.12)

(32.11) 32.3:
(31.12)

(bj ) (bk ) = bk (bj ) === kj ,


, , jk , [ (32.8)] .
, (32.12) .
32.1

410

. 4

32.1.
.
.
F = [ f1 , f2 , ... , fn ]

(32.13)

V . , B
[. (31.1)] V,
B = F.

(32.14)

V
F = [ f1 , f2 , ... , fn ],

(32.15)

F, . .
fj (fk ) = jk ; j, k = 1, ... , n.

(32.16)

, 31.1,
(32.15) 1 , (32.3). , (. 6.1),
B = 1 (F )

(32.17)

V.
(32.17) bk (k = 1, ... , n),
(bk ) = fk .

(32.18)

, , (32.14), :
bj = fj ; j = 1, ... , n.

(32.19)

(32.19) V , . . , x V, bk
(k = 1, ... , n):
(32.20)
bj (bk ) = fj (bk ); j, k = 1, ... , n.
(32.20), , jk . ,
[. (32.3)]:
(32.3)

(32.18)

(32.16)

fj (bk ) === (bk ) (fj ) === fk (fj ) === kj .


(32.20), , .

32

411

32.2. .
V P V ,
M V N V .
32.1. M V M V , ,
M, . .
M = {f V : ( x M ) [ f (x) = 0 ]}.

(32.21)

, 32.1 M. ( ) , " " ,


;
V .
M 6= M
( , ), V. (32.21) :

M = {f V : f M = 0}.
(32.21)
N V N V. :
1) , (32.1), ,
, ""
N = { V : ( f N ) [ (f ) = 0 ]},

(32.22)

V ;
2) , 1 : V V ,
(32.2), N
V :
N = 1 (N ) = {x V : (x) N } =
= {x V : ( f N ) [ (x) (f ) = 0 ]} =
(32.3)

=== {x V : ( f N ) [ f (x) = 0 ]}. (32.23)

, ,

412

. 4

32.2. N V N V , , N, . .
N = {x V : ( f N ) [ f (x) = 0 ]}.

(32.24)

(32.21) (32.24):
( )
[ f (x) = 0 ]; , ,
x f , .
, . ,
M V, , (32.21),
M V , , (32.24),
M = (M ) ,

(32.25)

V.
, N V .
, .
( ) 32.2 .
. .
(. . 33.5).
32.2. ( M, M1 , M2 V ; N, N1 , N2 V ) :
(1a)
(2a)
(3a)
(4a)

M 6 V ;
(M1 M2 ) (M1 > M2 );
M = hM i ;
M M ;

(1b)
(2b)
(3b)
(4b)

N 6 V ;
(N1 N2 ) (N1 > N2 );
N = hN i ;
N N .

. 1a. , V V . ,
f, g M , . . f (x) = g(x) = 0 x M, , P f + g
x M, , , M .

32

413

1b. , V V : x, y N ,
. . f (x) = f (y) = 0 f N, ( , P ) x + y N .
2a. M2 ,
M1 M2 . ,
M2 (, , ) M1 .
2b.
.
3a. 3a
; 3b.
3b. : (.
. 2.2). N hN i,
, , 2b,
N hN i . :
x ,
N, () , . . , hN i.
4a. x M. , x M . f M (
32.1) : f (x) = 0, ( 32.2), x M ,
.
4b. .
32.3. .
... V V .
. .
32.3. V ... P , V . M 6 V ; N 6 V :
(1a) dim(M ) = codim(M );
(2a) M = M ;

(1b) dim(N ) = codim(N );


(2b) N = N.

414

. 4

. 1a. dim(V ) = n dim(M ) = k. ,

dim(M ) = codim(M ) = n k.
(32.26)

B 0 = [ b1 , ... , bk ]

(32.27)

M (. . 5.4)
B = [ b1 , ... , bk ; bk+1 , ... , bn ]

(32.28)

V,
B = [ b1 , ... , bk ; bk+1 , ... , bn ]

(32.29)

V . (32.26) ,
, (, , )
C = [ bk+1 , ... , bn ]

(32.30)

M .
, bj (j = k + 1, ... , n) M (31.12): i = 1, ... , k bj
bi , , M = hB0 i.
, .. (32.30) , ..
(32.29). , M .
[. (31.17)]:
f=

n
X

j bj ; f V ; j = f (bj ),

(32.31)

j=1

f M
f=

n
X

j bj ,

(32.32)

j=k+1

, f C.
1b. . (
.)

32

415

V
F = [ f1 , ... , fl ; fl+1 , ... , fn ],

(32.33)

l (. . , ) N.
32.1, F

B = [ b1 , ... , bl ; bl+1 , ... , bn ]

(32.34)

V, . . F = B , fj = bj (j = 1, ..., n).
n l (32.34) N .
2a. (4a) 32.2,
( ): M 6 M . , , ,
, (1a) (1b),
: dim(M ) = k,
(1b)

(1a)

dim(M ) == n dim(M ) == n (n k) = k = dim(M ).


2b. .
32.3 ,
, ( )
.
32.4. V ... P , V .
M V ; N V :
(a) M = hM i;

(b) N = hN i.

(a); (b) .
(3a) 32.2, : M = hM i , : M = hM i . hM i,

416

. 4

, (a).
32.2. (a) (b) ,
( V V ) .
: .
32.4. . ... V
V , :

V > M 7 M 6 V ;

V > N | N 6 V .

(32.35)


( ,
);
( : ).


32.5. (32.35) ,
,
. , M, M1 , M2 6 V
N, N1 , N2 6 V :
(1a)
(2a)
(3a)
(4a)
(5a)
(6a)

(M = O) (M = V );
(M = V ) (M = O);
(M1 6 M2 ) (M1 > M2 );
M = M ;
(M1 + M2 ) = M1 M2 ;
(M1 M2 ) = M1 + M2 ;

(1b)
(2b)
(3b)
(4b)
(5b)
(6b)

(N = O) (N = V );
(N = V ) (N = O);
(N1 6 N2 ) (N1 > N2 );
N = N ;
(N1 + N2 ) = N1 N2 ;
(N1 N2 ) = N1 + N2 .

. (1a) (2b) : ( )
; ( ) .
(3a) (4b) (. (2)
(2b) 32.2, 32.2, ). ,
().

33

417

(5). , M1
M2 , M1 + M2 . , (3),
(M1 + M2 ) , M1 M2 , , , .
(M1 + M2 ) M1 M2 .
f M1 M2 . f M1 ,
M2 . , M1 + M2 ( , x M1 + M2 x = y + z,
y M1 z M2 ; f (x) = f (y + z) = f (y) + f (z) = 0).
, f (M1 + M2 ) .
(5b). , , (5).
, (N1 + N2 ) N1 N2 , :
x , N1 N2 , f N1 g N2 , ,
h = f + g N1 + N2 , . . x
.
(6a). M1 , M2 6 V , M1 = N1
M2 = N2 , N1 , N2 6 V :
(5b)

(4b)

(M1 M2 ) = (N1 N2 ) == (N1 + N2 ) == N1 + N2 = M1 + M2 .


(6b) .

33. .

33.1. .

: . . . ... ... (,
: , ).

418

. 4

, , .
V W (
P ).
: V W.

(33.1)


g : W P

(33.2)

, ,

f = g : V P.
(33.3)
f V g W .
. 33.1
P
%f

g
V W
:
: W V ; g 7 g ; g W .

(33.4)

, (33.4) . , g1 , g2 W
1 , 2 P ( (i) (xiii)
; . 12.1):
(1 g1 + 2 g2 ) =
= (1 g1 + 2 g2 ) = 1 (g1 ) + 2 (g2 ) =
= 1 (g1 ) + 2 (g2 ).

33

419

33.3. (33.4) () (33.1).


, ( x V ):
(g) (x) = (g )(x) = g((x)); g W ; x V.

(33.5)

: L(V, W ) L(W , V ); 7 ; L(V, W ).

(33.6)

(33.6) .
33.1.
1) , . .
V = V ;

(33.7)

2) , . .
(1 1 + 2 2 ) = 1 1 + 2 2

(33.8)

1 , 2 L(V, W ) 1 , 2 P ;
3)
, , . .
( ) =

(33.9)

L(V, W ) L(W, U ).
. 1. :
V (g) = g V = g
g V .
2. .

420

. 4

. 33.2
P
g 1 %
%g 2
g1
V W
2
(33.8) g W :
(1 1 + 2 2 ) (g) =
= (1 1 + 2 2 ) g = 1 (1 g) + 2 (2 g) = 1 1 (g) + 2 2 (g) =
= (1 1 + 2 2 )(g),
(i) (xiii)
.
3. .
. 33.3
P
g % g -g
V W U

(33.9) g W :
( ) (g) =
= g ( ) = (g ) = (g) = ( (g)) =
= ( ) (g).
33.1.
:
( )
,
.
(33.1) :
= ( ) : V W .

(33.10)

33

421

(33.10) V
[ (33.4)]
() = ,
(33.11)
, W , , g W :
() (g) = ( )(g) = ( (g)) = (g ).

(33.12)

() V W
[. (32.3)] V W ,
.
.
. 33.4

V W

=
=

V W
, , . 33.4, :
= .
(33.13)
, ( , )
( ).
(33.13) , x V :
( )(x) = ( )(x).

(33.14)

(33.14) W , . . . ,
() g V :
( )(x) (g) = ( )(x) (g).

(33.15)

, (33.15):
(33.12)

( )(x) (g) = ((x)) (g) === (x) (g ) =


(32.3)

(32.3)

=== (g )(x) = g((x)) === ((x)) (g) = ( )(x) (g).

422

. 4

33.2. . V W (
n m , P );

B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]
(33.16)

C = [ c1 , c2 , ... , cm ].

(33.17)

B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]

(33.16 )

C = [ c1 , c2 , ... , cm ].

(33.17 )

: V W
: W V .
33.2. (33.16) (33.17)
A , (33.16 )

mn

(33.17 ) At .
nm

. S
. S = At .
, S , ;
:
sji = aij ; i = 1, ... , m; j = 1, ... , n.

(33.18)


[. (12.7)], :
m
X
(bj ) =
akj ck ,
(33.19)
k=1

akj = [(bj )]k ,


, ,

(ci )

n
X
j=1

sji bj ,

(33.20)

(33.21)

33

423

sji = [ (ci )]j .

(33.22)

(33.21) ( V ); (33.16 )
(31.6); (33.5) ,
:
(31.6)

(33.5)

m
X

ci (
akj ck )
k=1

m
X

(33.19)

sji = [ (ci )]j === (ci ) (bj ) === ci ((bj )) ===


=

(31.14)
akj ci (ck ) ===

k=1

m
X

akj ik = aij .

k=1

(33.18) .
33.2. (. . 12.4), y = (x);
(x V ; y W )
( ) :
y = Ax; x P n ; y P m .

(33.23)

f = (g) (g W ; f V ) :

a = At b,

(33.24)

1
1


b = 2 P m; a = 2 P n
...
...
m
n

(33.25)

, f g .

(. . 31.2), (33.24):
t
at = b A,
(33.24t )
t

b P m , at P n .

424

. 4

33.2 : , ,
, .
33.3.
, 33.2
:
rank( ) = rank(At ) = rank(A) = rank().

(33.25)

, , ,
dfc() = n r,
(33.26)

dfc( ) = m r,

(33.27)

r = rank().
33.4 ( 12.2). ,
12.1 13 , (. [A1 , . 2.2])
17 .
.


7 .
A 7 At .
33.1 33.1 " " , (xiv) (xvii) .
, , (i) (xiii):

(xiv ) ( V W ) [ = ] ( V V );
,

(xv ) ( V W ) [ ( + ) = + ];

(xvi ) ( P ; V W ) [ () = ];

(xvii ) ( V W U ) [ ( ) = ].

33

425

33.3. .
(1866 1927).
; . [A1 , . 6.3]. .
. ,
, , , ,
. , , ()
.
, , n- V m- W, , W
V .
.
33.1 ( ).
:
;
.
. :
Im() = (Ker( ))

(33.28)

Ker() = (Im( )) .

(33.29)

1. y Im(), . . y = (x) x V.
g Ker( ) :
(33.5)

g(y) = g((x)) === (g) (x) = 0,


. . y (Ker( )) .
Im() 6 (Ker( )) ,
, dim(Im()) = r
dim((Ker( )) ) = m dim((Ker( )) =
(33.27)

= m dfc( ) === m (m r) = r.

426

. 4

2. x Ker(), . . (x) = 0.
f Im( ), . . , f = (g)
g W . :
(33.5)

f (x) = (g) (x) === g((x)) = g(0) = 0.


, x Im( ).
Ker() 6 (Im( )) . :
dim((Im( )) ) = n dim(Im( )) = n rank( ) =
(33.26)

= n rank() = n r === dfc() = dim(Ker()).


, , .
33.5. "" : , ,
b W , ,
(, , )
Ker( ).

... Ax = b,
gk t b, gk t (k = r+1, ... , m)
t
... g t A = 0 , , ,
:
Gt

(mr)m

A =
mn

(mr)n

r = rank(A), G
... At g = 0.
33.4. . , -, . , ,
.
, ,
,
(
).

33

427

, 2I I (. . 1.7) A I
A = X \ A. : A = A.
: (...) V ( ...) V . :
V ,
.
. ()
A B A B
.

W 6 V . W 6 V ,
"": (. (3) (3b) 32.5), .
(b.9) (b.18) (. 1.7) : () ()
. .
, (). (5) (6b) 32.5
.
"" (, , ), : ( ) , , , ()
. .
(b.1) (b.19) ,

428

. 4

; "".
32.5 .
, , (6a),
, (
) (5b);
(6).
... ( ),
:

V
W ;
V

W ,


( ) =
( )
.
.

,
. ,
" " , , , ,
.

34

429

34.
34.1. . V P .
34.1. ( ) V
f : V V P ; x 7 f (x, y); x, y V

(34.1)

V P,
, . .
(1) f (x + x0 , y) = f (x, y) + f (x0 , y);
(2) f (x, y) = f (x, y);
(3) f (x, y + y 0 ) = f (x, y) + f (x, y 0 );
(4) f (x, y) = f (x, y),
P ; x, x0 , y, y 0 V.
34.1.
. [A1 ] (.
2.1)
( ;
. 24, 26).
:
1) x 7 f (x) " ": f (0) = 0; :
f (0, y) = 0 = f (x, 0)

(34.2)

x, y V ;
2)
[. (1.11)]; (), ,
:
k
l
k X
l
X
X
X
f(
i ai ,
j bj ) =
i j f (ai , bj ),
i=1

j=1

i=1 j=1

i , j P ; ai , bj V (i = 1, ... , k; j = 1, ... , l).

(34.3)

430

. 4

, ,
.. (= ).
.. , . . . L2 (V ) ..,
V , ;
..:
(f + g)(x, y) = f (x, y) + g(x, y); f, g L2 (V ); x, y V ;

(34.4)

.. :
( f )(x, y) = f (x, y); P ; f L2 (V ); x, y V.

(34.5)

(34.4) (34.5) (12.1) (12.1) ,


f + g f ..
(, 12, , . 15
[A1 ], , .)
,
(34.4) (34.5) L2 (V ) (V1 ) (V8 ). ,
, ,
P F(M, P )
, () M P. , ..
F(V V, P ) , ,
, , L2 (V ) ( P ).
.
34.1. V = P n (n n)- A
P. (. [A1 , . 2.3]) ,
f : P n P n P ; f (x, y) = xt A y; x, y P n

(34.6)

34

431

.. V. ( , , (1 n)-, (n n)- (n 1)- (1 1), P.


.)
. 34.3 , (34.6) ..
, ,
.. ... (34.6).
: A = En .

f : P n P n P ; f (x, y) = xt y; x, y P n
(34.7)
P n . (
, .)
34.2 ( 11.1). () V = C([a, b], R)
, [a, b] R. ,
Z b
f (x, y) =
x(t)y(t) dt; x, y V
(34.8)
a

,
(34.7).
(, ""
. " ", , () i,
1 n, "" () t, [a, b],
P
n
i=1 xi yi R ()
b
a x(t)y(t) dt.)
34.3. V = L(n, P ) [. (13.34)]:
tr : L(n, P ) P ; X 7 tr(X); X L(n, P ),

(34.9)

V ..
f (X, Y ) = tr(X t Y ); X, Y V.

(34.10)

432

. 4

(1) (4) 34.1 :


;
;
(34.9).
( . , (34.10) ,
.. , 34.6, , .)
34.4. V = C,
P = R.
f : C R; f (z, w) = Re(z w); z, w C,

(34.11)

, .. ( :
f (z, w) = xu + yv, z = x + yi w = u + vi.)
(34.11) , ..:
g : C R; g(z, w) = Re(z w); z, w C,

(34.110 )

g(z, w) = xu yv.
.. :
h : C R; h(z, w) = Im(z w); z, w C;

(34.1100 )

.
34.2. . ,
V ( n) -
B = [ b1 , b2 , ... , bn ].

(34.12)

.. f L2 (V ) f (x, y) (x, y) V V ,
(34.12):
x=

n
X
i=1

xi bi ; y =

n
X
j=1

yj bj .

(34.13)

34

433

, (34.3), :
f (x, y) =

n X
n
X

xi yj f (bi , bj ) =

n
n X
X

aij xi yj ,

(34.14)

i=1 j=1

i=1 j=1

, :
f (x, y) =

n
X

(34.140 )

aij xi yj ,

i,j=1


aij = f (bi , bj ); i, j = 1, ... , n

(34.15)

f .
(34.15) :
A = (aij )ni,j=1 .

(34.16)

34.2. , (34.16) ( ) (34.1) (34.12).


(34.16) (34.14) :
f (x, y) =

n
X
i=1

xi

n
X
j=1

aij yj =

n
X

xi [A y ]i = xt ( A y ) = xt A y,

i=1

1n

nn n1

x, y P n , x, y V B,
.
:
f (x, y) = xt A y.

(34.17)

434

. 4

34.1. V ... n P.
m : L2 (V ) L(n, P ); f 7 A; f L2 (V ),

(34.18)

(34.1) (34.16), ; , ... dim(L2 (V )) = n2 .


. (34.18) (34.15): ;
.
(34.18) ,
.. [ (34.17)]
.
, ( x 7 x) (nn)- A (34.17) f V ,
, m(f ) = A. , (34.17)
x y bi bj , :
x = ei , y = ej Aej = aj (j- A), :
f (bi , bj ) = ei t Aej = ei t aj = aij ; i, j = 1, ... , n.

(34.19)

34.5 ( 34.1). (34.6) En P n , , A,


. ,
f (ei , ej ) = ei t A ej = aij .
, (34.7)
A = En .
34.6 ( 34.3). , (34.7), .. (34.10): n2 - V = L(n, P ).

34

435

, X t Y
:

y1j
n
y2j X
t
t
xij yij ,
[X Y ]jj = xj yj = ( x1j x2j ... xnj )
=
...
i=1
ynj
( ) :
t

f (X, Y ) = tr(X Y ) =

n
X

xij yij ,

(34.100 )

i,j=1

. . f (X, Y ) X Y.
, ,
Eij (i, j = 1, ... , n), (34.10) n2 .
34.7 ( 34.4). , C
B = [1, i], .. (34.11)
, .. (34.110 ) diag(1, 1);
.. (34.1100 ) .
34.3.
. . . 13.5,
, ...,
.
, .. L(V ) B A, ,
T , [. (13.4)] A0 = T 1 AT.
n- V , ""
(34.12), ""
B0 = [ b01 , b02 , ... , b0n ],

(34.120 )

T ,
S = T 1 .
A A0 , .. f L2 (V )
.

436

. 4

34.2. .. :
A0 = T t AT ; A = S t A0 S.

(34.20)

. (34.2),
, , S = T 1 ,
S t = (T t )1 , .
x y V.
B ( B0 ) x y ( x0 y 0 ).
(7.12), :
x = T x0 ; y = T y 0 .

(34.21)

f (x, y) (34.17)
.
:
f (x, y) = (x0 )t A0 y 0

(34.21)

f (x, y) = xt Ay === (T x0 )t A(T y 0 ) = (x0 )t (T t AT ) y 0 .


,
(x0 )t A0 y 0 = (x0 )t (T t AT ) y 0 ,

(34.22)

( x, y V ) - x0 , y 0 P n .
, x0 = ei y 0 = ej , ,
(34.19),
[A0 ]ij = [T t AT ]ij ; i, j = 1, ... , n,
, (34.20).
(34.20)

34

437

34.3. A, B L(n, P ) ( A pyB), T GL(n, P ) ,


B = T t AT.

(34.23)

13.2
.
, py,
. [ , , . :
B = T1t AT1 C = T2t BT2 , T1 T2 , C = T3t AT3 , T3 = T1 T2 GL(n, P ).]
"".
,
, ,
( )
. , .
34.4. . .. , - , ( ). , ,
, " "
( ). ,
(
).
,
(
).
. ( ) (. . 13.3) :
[ A pyB ] [ rank(A) = rank(B) ],
.

(34.24)

438

. 4

34.4. .. f L2 (V ) A, f B V :
rank(f ) = rank(A).

(34.25)

.. f , , . .
rank(f ) = n,
(34.26)
n = dim(V ).
34.8. (34.6) [. 34.1 34.5]
, .
, (34.7) . .. (34.10) [. 34.3
34.6] (34.11), (34.110 ), (34.1100 ) [. 34.4 34.7].
34.5. ..
f L2 (V ) [. (34.1)],
fe : V V P ; x 7 fe(x, y) = f (y, x); x, y V,

(34.27)

, , ..
34.5. (34.1) (), fe = f ( fe = f ).
: ... ...
()
():
( x, y V ) [ f (y, x) = f (x, y) ];

(34.28s)

( x, y V ) [ f (y, x) = f (x, y) ].

(34.28a)

.. L2 (V ) ... L2s (V ) ... L2a (V ).


,
, .
34.2. , , - , ,

34

439

: f 7 fe (..)
L2 (V ); L2s (V )
, 1, L2a (V ) , 1.
(-)
..
, ( ). ,

34.3. V P ; B - V .
f L2 (V ) ()
, A, f B.
,
.
(34.28s) aji = aij (
i, j = 1, ... , n) A [. (34.15)], , , : At = A.
, A , . . At = A.
(34.17) f (x, y) ..
, ,
1 1. ( ). ,
,
(34.28s):

t
f (x, y) = xt A y = xt A y = y t At x = y t A x = f (y, x).
34.3. (-) (-) ..
,
: , (-),
.
:
[ At = A ] [ (T t A T )t = T t At T = T t A T ],
.

440

. 4

34.4. .. f B
,
(34.140 ). ... : n , aii (i = 1, ... , n) A, n2 n ,
Cn2 = n(n 1)/2 ,
aij (1 6 i < j 6 n), ,
aji = aij . :
f (x, y) =

n
X

aii xi yi +

i=1

aij (xi yj + xj yi ).

(34.14s)

16i<j6n

, ,
aji = aij , :
f (x, y) =

aij (xi yj xj yi ).

(34.14a)

16i<j6n


. ,
. . ... , , . .

( ) . . . . " " (8 ), , , " "
(.
: " ", .:
, 1979 " ", .: , 1986).
9.2,
( Ls (n, P ) La (n, P ) ). 34.2 34.3 ,
L2s (V )
= Ls (n, P ); L2a (V )
= La (n, P ),

(34.29)

34

441

(34.18).
,
... ...: n(n + 1)/2 n(n 1)/2.
, , (char(P ) 6= 2),
. , V.
34.4. V P , .
... ...
.., . .
L2 (V ) = L2s (V ) L2a (V ).

(34.30)

. 1. -, , . . . ,
f , , f = f, 2 f = 0, ,
2 6= 0, f = 0. (,
2 6= 0 : 1 + 1 6= 0.)
2. -, , P 21 , :
1
1
f = (f + fe) + (f fe),
(34.31)
2
2
.. fe (34.27).
, (34.31)
..., ... , ..
.
(34.30) 9.1.
34.5. , char(P ) = 2?
: ,
. , .. ( )
, . ( - "" .)

442

. 4

34.6. , ..
, , . ,

34.5. V P , f V.
(1) y f ,
x V
:

fy(1) : V P ; fy(1) (x) = f (x, y); x V

(34.32a)

fx(2) : V P ; fx(2) (y) = f (x, y); y V.

(34.32b)

(2)

f (1) : V V ; y 7 f (1) (y) = fy(1) ; y V

(34.33a)

f (2) : V V ; x 7 f (2) (x) = fx(2) ; x V.

(34.33b)

V
V .
. (34.32),
(34.33) (1) (4)
34.1.
(24.33) , :
f (1) (y) (x) = f (x, y);

(34.34a)

f (2) (x) (y) = f (x, y),

(34.34b)

x, y V .
( ,

34

443

. ,
(34.34) f (1) (y)
f (1) : V V y V , , V , ,
x V ,
P .)
, () f (1) , f (2) L(V, V ),

( ), . ., , x y:
f (2) (y) (x) = f (y, x).

(34.34b0 )

(34.34) (34.34b0 ) ,
(34.33) (34.33b), , . ,
x, y V f (x, y) = f (y, x), f [. (34.28s)].
34.6. (34.33) (34.33b) , .. f .
34.6. (1) (2) . -
- ( ... f L2s (V ) ),
"" :
f ] : V V ; y 7 f ] (y); f ] (y) (x) = f (x, y); x, y V.

(34.35)

V.
dim(V ) = n, V B [. (34.12)],
V B ,
[. (31.12)] B bi (bj ) = ij (
i, j = 1, ... , n).
34.7. f L2 (V ) B A.
B B f (1) A, f (2)
At .

444

. 4

. M (1) M (2) ,
( ) f (1) f (2) .
[. (12.7)], :
(1)

mij = [f (1) (bj )]i ; i, j = 1, ... , n.

(34.36)

(34.36) i- ( B )
, ,
(31.6), (34.34):
(1)
mij = f (1) (bj ) (bi ) = f (bi , bj ).
(34.37)
, (34.15)
.., :
(1)
mij = aij .
(34.38)
M (1) = A, . . , . ( ) f (2) :
(2) (12.7)

(31.6)

(34.34b0 )

(34.15)

mij === [f (2) (bj )]i === f (2) (bj ) (bi ) ===== f (bj , bi ) === aji ;
: M (2) = At .
34.7. 34.7 .
1. .. f f (1) f (2)
. , f (1) f (2)
, , , .
Ker(f (1) ) Ker(f (2) )
.. f ; , , , . (
- L0A L0At A
At ; (2 2)- .)
.. f
( , ) V V .
2. ... f , , f ] ;
x V, f (x, y) = 0 y V.

34

445

...

f ] : V V ,

(34.39)

x V y 7 f (x, y); y V.
34.8. (34.39),
V V V ..., (. 32, 33), , .
, M V M ,
V , V

=
(34.390 )
f [ : V V,
(34.39).
(32.21)

M = f [ (M ) = {y V : f ] (y) M } =====
(34.35)

= {y V : (x M ) [ f ] (y) (x) = 0 ]} =====


= {y V : (x M ) [ f (x, y) = 0 ]} 6 V,

(34.40)

f - M.
.
x, y V f -, f (x, y) = 0;
f - M , f - M. "" , ... f
[. (34.7) , , 40].
, , M
k n- V, M ( M ) n k;
: (M ) = M.
( , , , M M . , , ,
,
; . 38.5.)

446

. 4

, (
. .).
, , :
.
V . , (5) (6) 32.5 :
(M1 + M2 ) = M1 M2 ; (M1 M2 ) = M1 + M2 ; M1 , M2 6 V.
33, : V W

: W V ;

(34.41)

(33.5). , ... f L2s (V ) g L2s (W ), f ] g ] ,


.
"" (34.41)
(f, g)-
? : W V,

(34.42)

(33.5):
f (x, ? (y)) = g((x), y) ( x V, y W ).

(34.43)

( . , "", "".
(34.43) "", , , .)
( ) , .
.

35

447

, .
(34.39) "" (
, ).

35.

35.1. . . ,
. ,
. , ...
35.1. V P . (..) V

h : V P,
(35.1)

h(x) = f (x, x); x V

(35.2)

... f L2 (V ).
, .. h ... f .
V K(V ).
35.1 "" ( ) . F(V )
P - V (. 1.2). (, , ):
q : L2s (V ) F(V ); f 7 h; h(x) = f (x, x); f L2s (V ); x V. (35.3)
K(V ) , (35.3):
K(V ) = Im(q).

(35.4)

448

. 4

, , ,
, , P.
, , , ; ( , , ,
) .

(35.3)
q : L2s (V ) K(V ); f 7 h; h(x) = f (x, x).

(35.5)

35.1. P , , (35.5) , . . .. ... ,


q(f ) = h.
. h K(V ). 35.1,
... f L2s (V ) , q(f ) = h, . . h(x) = f (x, x)
x V. , f h.
h x + y V ,
(1) (4) 34.1,
f (y, x) = f (x, y):
h(x + y) =
= f (x + y, x + y) = f (x, x) + f (x, y) + f (y, x) + f (y, y) =
= h(x) + h(y) + 2f (x, y),

2f (x, y) = h(x + y) h(x) h(y).

(35.6)

2 = 1 + 1 P , ,
, 1/2 P , (35.6)
..:
f (x, y) =

1
h(x + y) h(x) h(y) ,
2

(35.7)

35

449

f h.
35.1. (
) : ... f h,
(35.7) .
" ".
() , ,
( ) . ( ) .
35.2. , : f L2a (V ),
f (x, x) = 0 x V.
35.1 ( 34.3 34.6).
[. (34.10)]
f (X, Y ) = tr(X t Y )
V = L(n, P ) . ,
f (Y, X) = tr(Y t X) = tr((X t Y )t ) = tr(X t Y ) = f (X, Y ).
:
h(X) = f (X, X) = tr(X t X),
, (34.100 ):
h(X) =

n
X

x2ij .

i,j=1

35.2.
. V n- P.
( , .) B = [ b1 , ... , bn ] V
[. (34.29)]

m : L2s (V ) Ls (n, P )

(35.8)

450

. 4

... . ( ,
) (35.5) ...
.., , : L2s (V ), K(V ) Ls (n, P );
n(n + 1)/2; :
( q) ... f .. h,

h(x) = f (x, x); f (x, y) =

1
(h(x + y) h(x) h(y));
2

( m, B) ... f (nn) A,
[A]ij = aij = f (bi , bj ); f (x, y) = xt A y;
(, ... f ) .. h A;
, h
( ) ,
( ) f , h;
... (-)
..
B ... f y = x
.. h, ,
:
n
X
t
h(x) = x A x =
aij xi xj ;
(35.9)
i,j=1

[. (34.14s)], , , ,
:
h(x) =

n
X
i=1

aii x2i + 2

aij xi xj .

(35.10)

16i<j6n

,
( )
2 n

35

451

(. . ; .
[A1 , . 48.4]).
35.3. ,
" " (2 = 0) (35.10)
.
35.3.
() . V n- P.
35.2. B = [b1 , ... , bn ] V ( )
... f L2s (V ) .. h K(V ), , . .
aij = f (bi , bj ) = 0

(35.11)

i 6= j.
, ... (..) ,
,
( ) ( ) , , , :

D=

1
2

..

.
r
0

..

(35.12)

0
i P [ i 6= 0; i = 1, ... r; r = rank(f ) = rank(h) ].
(34.14s)
... f :
f (x, y) =

r
X
i=1

i xi yi ;

(35.13a)

452

. 4

, (35.10) .. h :
h(x) =

r
X

i x2i .

(35.13b)

i=1

... (..) ,
( ). 21
. , ..
(
. . 21.3).
, , ...
(..) (
, ).
.
... f (.. h) B ( ) A. B 0 ,
(35.11). T (. . 7.1);
: , B 0 .
, D ( f h B0 ).
[. (34.20)],
:
D = T t A T.

(35.14)

, .
( .., , : , ; .
, . 34.3.)
35.4. ,
() (. .
13.3),
.

36

453

T , A , , 14.5 [A1 ],
T = Q1 Q2 ... Qs ( : Ti,j , Sj,i, Mi, ; . . 14.3 ).
A A. A
T t = Qts ... Qt2 Qt1 . ,
.
,
I III , ( )
I III, .
II , . , () A Sj,i, , A i + j
(: , , i j).
t
A Sj,i,
= Si,j, , . .
i + j .
,

.
35.5. 34.8
... f -. . ,
40.

36.


()

36.1. ... (..).



... (..),

454

. 4

, ,
.
"" :

( );

;
;
(
...).
, (1736 1813), , , ,
.
:
( ).
36.1.
(
)
. ( )!
, . , - . ( [A1 ]

, , . 43.4 50.3.)

:
(c1 + c2 + ... + cn )2 = c21 + c22 + c23 + ... + c2n +
+ 2(c1 c2 + c1 c3 + ... + c1 cn + c2 c3 + .... + c2 cn + c3 c4 + ... + cn1 cn ),
:

36

455

c21 + 2(c1 c2 + c1 c3 + ... + c1 cn ) = (c1 + c2 + c3 + ... + cn )2

c22 + c23 + ... + c2n + 2(c2 c3 + ... + c2 cn + c3 c4 + ... + cn1 cn ) .


, , , c1 .
36.1 ( ). P , , ... f L2s (V ) [ ..
h K(V )] , f
( h) D = diag(1 , ... , r , 0, ... , 0), i P
[ i 6= 0; i = 1, ... r; r = rank(f ) = rank(h) ].
,

[. (35.10)]:
t

h(x) = x A x =

n
X

aii x2i + 2

i=1

aij xi xj ,

(36.1)

16i<j6n

. .
.

x = T u,

(36.2)

, (u1 , u2 , ... , un ) (36.1)


r
X
t
(36.3)
h(x) = u D u =
i u2i ,
i=1

r = rank(h).
: , " ";
( )
, . , - u, (36.3),
x V , - x (
).

456

. 4

T
; , T = Q1 Q2 ... Qs , ()
(. 35.4).
36. 1.

()

1. h = 0, , A = O
(r = 0).
2. h 6= 0, :
(36.1)
(. . A
aii ),
A , . . (36.1) ;
aij (i < j).
2.1. , a11 6= 0,
2.1.2. a11 = 0,
.
2.1.1. ( ) ,
. ,
, aii 6= 0, ,
:
x1 = yi ; xi = y1 ; xk = yk (k 6= 1, i).

(36.4)

:
x = Q1 y,

(36.5)

Q1 = T1,i I (. (14.3)
[A1 ]);
, , i- . ( ,
; . 13.5.)

36

457

, ( ) , . . , (36.1) a11 6= 0.

2.1.2.
(36.1) , x1 , a11 ;
h1
x2 , ..., xn (, , n 1, V
x1 = 0):
h(x) = h(x1 , x2 , ... , xn ) =

a
a
12
1n
x2 + ... + 2x1
xn + h1 (x2 , ... , xn ).
= a11 x21 + 2x1
a11
a11

(36.6)

, , 36.1 [, x1 , ; h2 (x2 , ... , xn ),


h1 (x2 , ... , xn )]:
h(x) =

a12
a1n
= a11 (x1 +
x2 + ... +
xn )2 + h2 (x2 , ... , xn ) +h1 (x2 , ... , xn ) =
a11
a11
a12
a1n
= a11 (x1 +
x2 + ... +
xn )2 + e
h(x2 , ... , xn ), (36.7)
a11
a11
e
h = a11 h2 + h1 .

y1 =

y2 =

y3 =

yn =

x1

a12
x2
a11

a13
x3
a11

+ ... +

x2

a1n
xn ;
a11
;

x3

;
..

.
xn .

(36.8)

458

. 4

(36.8) .
, , . :

a12
a13
a1n

x1 = y1
y2
y2 . . .
yn ;

a
a
a

11
11
11

y2
;
x2 =
(36.9)

x
=
y
;
3
3

..

xn =
yn .
(36.9) :
x = Q2 y,

(36.10)

( )

Q2 =

a12
a11

a13
a11

...

1
1

..

a1n
a11

(36.11)

1
( "" , ).
( ),
(36.11) II (. (14.4) [A1 ]):
Q2 = S1,2,2 S1,3,3 ... S1,n,n ,

(36.12)

j = a1j /a11 (j = 2, ... , n).


.. :
h(x) = 1 y12 + e
h(y2 , ... , yn ),
1 = a11 .

(36.13)

36

459

( , (36.13)
x V, y1 , y2 , ... , yn : ,
x1 , x2 , ... , xn ,
x, .)
A0 , (36.13), :

1 0 . . . 0

0 0
A =
(36.14)
.
e

A
0
, , (. 34.3), -
e
A.
(36.13) (36.14) , (
) .
"" , 2, "" .. e
h(y2 , ... , yn )
e ( - : A.
y2 , ... , yn " " z2 , ... , zn ,
"" : y1 = z1 .)
2.2. ..
, . . . .
, , : xy
u v, x = u v y = u + v, :
xy = u2 v 2 .
, .
2.2.1. " - " a12 , 2.2.2.
a12 = 0, () . A, , .
, (1, j),
j = 3, ... , n, , Q3 = T2,j (.

460

. 4

. 2.2.1; ,
).
a2j , Q4 = T1,2 T2,j ,
x1 = yj ; x2 = y1 ; xj = y2 ; xk = yk (k 6= 1, 2, j).

(36.15)

: i, j, (i, j) (3 6 i < j 6 n).


Q5 = T1,i T2,j ; :
x1 = yi ; x2 = yj ; xi = y1 ; xj = y2 ; xk = yk (k 6= 1, 2, i, j). (36.16)
,
, . . ,
(36.1) a12 6= 0.

2.2.2.
""
h(x) = 2

aij xi xj

(36.17)

16i<j6n

, x1 x2 :

h(x) = 2 a12 x1 x2 + a13 x1 x3 + ... + a1n x1 xn +


(36.18)

+ a23 x2 x3 + ... + a2n x2 xn + e


h(x3 , ... , xn ),
e
h(x3 , ... , xn ) .. n 2 .
(36.18) ( ):
x1 = y1 y2 ; x2 = y1 + y2 ; xk = yk (k = 3, ... , n).

(36.19)

36

461

, (36.19),

1 1
1 1

Q6 = 0 0


0 0

0
0

...
...
En2

0
0

(36.20)

, det(Q6 ) = 2 6= 0
. ( ,
Q6
I III.)
.. (36.18) :
h(x) = 2a12 (y12 y22 )+

+2 a13 (y1 y2 )y3 + ... + a1n (y1 y2 )yn +

+ a23 (y1 + y2 )y3 + ... + a2n (y1 + y2 )yn +

(36.21)

+e
h(y3 , ... , yn ).
(36.21) y12 , 2a12 6= 0, 2.1.2 .
3. 2 n1 .
, , ""
.. ,
- .
;
; .
36.1 ( ). ()
, (., , [1]).
"" ,
. "" Maple Lagr (. . 1).

462

. 4

36.1. ( Q):
h(x) = x21 + 4x22 + x23 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 .
n = 3 h

1
A = 2
1

2 1
4
0 .
0 1.

( ""
. , 4 x1 x2
h A: 4 = a12 +a21 = 2a12 , : a12 = a21 = 2.)

:
h(x)=(x21 4x1 x2 +2x1 x3 )+4x22 +x23 =

=(x1 2x2 +x3 )2

y1 =x1 2x2 +x3 ;

x1 =y1 +2y2 y3 ;

(4x22 +x23 4x1 x2 )+4x22 +x23 =


=(x1 2x2 +x3 )2 +4x2 x3 =

y2 =

x2 =

x3 ;

x3 =

x2

y3 =

y2

;
y3 ;

=y12 +4y2 y3 =...


:
y1 =z1

x1 =z1 +z2 3z3 ;

y2 =

z2 z3 ;

x2 =

z2 z3 ;

...=z12 +4z22 4z32 .

y3 =

z2 +z3 ;

x3 =

z2 + z3 ;

D=
0
0

T =
0

1
.
1

36

463

T t A T = D.

D ( B T )

.. [. (35.13b)]:
h(x) = z t Dz = z12 + 4z22 4z32 ,
z , x D,
( h) ... [. (35.13a)]:
f (x, y) = z t Dw = z1 w1 + 4z2 w2 4z3 w3 ,
w , D y.
39, 3.
36.2. f ( h) . D
D [. (35.12)], f h),
, , (, , : T t = T )

T =

1
2

..

; i P ; i 6= 0 (i = 1, ... , n)

(36.22)

n
D0 , :

0
t
D = T DT =

1 12

2 22

..

.
r r2

..

.
0

, , r = rank(f ) = rank(h).

(36.23)

464

. 4

36.2. ... (..) . () , . (. 36.2), , , .


(
).
P , , , " " , .
( , , , 6, 14 [A1 ] 13 . -,
, , : , .
,
, .
.)
36.1. P ,
, V n-
P , f h
... .., V , r .
V , f h , r
.
. :
P . ,
, , , P
x2 = a (a P ).
. B . , f h B (35.12). (36.22) ,

37

465

(36.23) . :

1 , i = 1, ... , r;
i
i =
(36.24)

1, i = r + 1, ... , n,

i ( )
x2 = i P.

A0 = diag(1, ... , 1, 0, ... , 0),

(36.25)

r.
36.1 .
36.2.
P (char(P ) 6= 2)
, .

37.


() .

37.1. ... (..).


() , , :
i (i = 1, ... , n) D
() A
;
T ( )
(, . .
) .
,
: . .

466

. 4

(n n)- A Ls (n, P ) P ( , , ).
- :
A(k) = (aij )ki,j=1 ; k = 1, ... , n;
kk

(37.1)

, : A(1) = (a11 ),
: A(n) = A.
(37.1)
k = det(A(k) ); k = 1, ... , n

(37.2)

A. (37.2)
: 0 = 1.
37.1. , A Ls (n, P ) , (37.2), , , , n = det(A), :
k 6= 0; k = 1, 2, ... , n 1.

(37.3)

37.1. 37.1 , (nn)-,


, ,
n 1. , . ,

0 1 0
A = 1 1 0
0 0 0
, 2,
: 1 = a11 = 0.
( )
,
, , . .
A , , ,
,

1 1 0
A0 = 1 0 0 ,
0 0 0
1 = 1, 2 = 1, 3 = 0.

37

467

37.1 ( ). V n- P , , ;
f h
V ; B = [b1 , ... , bn ] V.
f h B A, , V D,
B
T ,
D, D f h,
(37.2)
i
; i = 1, ... n.
(37.4)
i1
. A "" :
i =

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n


a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
A = a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n .

(37.5)

... ... ... ... ...


an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
( , .
, .)
T ,
D = T t AT

(37.6)

, :
1

t12 t13 . . . t1n

T = 0

t23 . . . t2n
1

. . . t3n ,

... ... ... ... ...


0

...

(37.7)

468

. 4

Cn2 = n(n 1)/2 tij


(1 6 i < j 6 n). ""
, . . ...,
(. [A1 , . 29.2]).
AT , (
; ):
Pn1

a11 a11 t12 + a12 a11 t13 + a12 t23 + a13 . . .

j=1
Pn1
j=1
Pn1
j=1

a21 t12 + a22 a21 t13 + a22 t23 + a23 . . .

AT =
...

a31 t13 + a32 t23 + a33 . . .

...

...

...

...

Pn1
j=1

a1j tjn + a1n


a2j tjn + a2n
a3j tjn + a3n .
...
anj tjn + ann

, Cn2
:
[AT ]ij = 0; (1 6 i < j 6 n).

(37.8)

, T t (AT )
( ) :
1

...

...

t12

...

...

...

3 . . .

T t AT = t13 t23

... ... ... ... ...


t1n t2n t3n . . .

... ... ... ... ...

...

...

= 0

3 . . .

0 ,

... ... ... ... ...


0

0 =

. . . n

. . . n

37

1 = a11 ;

2 = a21 t12 + a22 ;


3 = a31 t13 + a32 t23 + a33 ;

..............................................................................

= a t + a t + a t + ... + a
t
n

n1 1n

n2 2n

n3 3n

(n1)1 1(n1)

469

(37.9)
+ ann ,

. . .
(37.8) Cn2
Cn2 . ,
, " ", (n = 4),
, n 1 = 3 ... (,
):

{a11 t12 = a12 ;

a11 t13 + a12 t23 = a13 ;

a21 t13 + a22 t23 = a23 ;

(37.10)
a
t
+
a
t
+
a
t
=
a
;

11
14
12
24
13
34
14

a21 t14 + a22 t24 + a23 t34 = a24 ;

a t + a t + a t = a .
31 14
32 24
33 34
34
(37.10) ...
- diag(A(1) , A(2) , A(3) ) , 1 2 3 .
.
(37.10), (37.9), (1 = 1 ), ( ) tij .
(37.10) :
(2)

t12

a12
A
=
= 21 ,
a11
1

(37.11a)

, ,
a12 ()
a21 A(2) .

470

. 4

2 = a21 t12 + a22 = a21

a12
a11

+ a22 =
=

a21 a12 + a11 a22


2
=
.
a11
1

(37.11b)

(37.10) , :

a13 a12
a12 a13

(3)
a23 a22
a22 a23
A31
t13 =
=
=
,
(37.12a)
2
2
2
, :

a11 a13
a11 a13


(3)
a21 a23
a21 a23
A32
t23 =
=
=
,
(37.12b)
2
2
2

( a31 a32 ) A(3) . ,
(37.12a,b), . . ,
:
(3)

2 = A33 ,

(37.12c)

(
) :
(3)

(3)

A
A
3 = a31 t13 + a32 t23 + a33 = a31 31 + a32 32 + a33 =
2
2


1
3
(3)
(3)
(3)
=
a31 A31 + a32 A32 + a33 A33 =
.
2
2

(37.12d)

. ;

a14 a12 a13


a12 a13 a14

a24 a22 a23


a22 a23 a24

(4)
a34 a32 a33
a32 a33 a34
A41
t14 =
=
=
,
(37.13a)
3
3
3

37

471

, :
(4)

(4)

A
4
A
(4)
t24 42 ; t34 = 43 ; 3 = A44 ; 4 =
.
3
3
3

(37.13b)

n = 4 . (" ") ,
( )
( 1 " ").
.

.
37. 1.

()

... f Ls (V ) [.. h K(V )] B n- V (n n)- A.
1. A i (i = 1, ... , n).
, , , n , , ,
; h :
h(x) =

1 2 2 2
n 2
y1 +
y2 + ... +
y ; x V,
0
1
n1 n

(37.14)

0 = 1, yi (i = 1, ... , n) x () D,
B T , .
2. (37.7) tij (1 6 i < j 6 n).

AT. ...
:
( ,
);

472

. 4

T ( x = T y,
).
37.2 ( ). , , "" [ (37.14)] i1 /i ,
, : ,
n = det(A) .
37.3. ,
T [. (37.7)] B = [b1 , b2 , ... , bn ]
D = [d1 , d2 , ... , dn ].
, S = T 1 :
1 s12 s13 . . . s1n
0

S= 0

s23 . . . s2n
1

. . . s3n ;

(37.15)

... ... ... ... ...


0

...

, (T |E) (E|S)
.
( B D) ( D B) ,
:

d1 = b1 ;

d2 = t12 b1 + b2 ;
d3 = t13 b1 + t23 b2 + b3 ;
(37.16)

...................................................................
dn = t1n b1 + t2n b2 + t3n b3 + ... + t(n1)n bn1 + bn ;

b1 =
d1 ;

d2 ;
b2 = s12 d1 +
b3 = s13 d1 + s23 d2 +
d3 ;

...................................................................
bn = s1n d1 + s2n d2 + s3n d3 + ... + s(n1)n dn1 +

(37.17)
dn ,

37

473

( k = 1, ..., n)
k :
hb1 , b2 , ... , bk i = hd1 , d2 , ... , dk i .

(37.18)

37.1.
..
h(x) = x21 14x22 18x23 + 5x24 +
+ 2(6x1 x2 6x1 x3 5x1 x4 14x2 x3 2x2 x4 2x3 x4 ) = xt Ax,

1
6
A=
6
5

6 6 5
14 14 2
.
14 18 2
2 2
5


1 = 1; 2 = 50; 3 = 200; 4 = 96,
,
h(x) = y12 50y22 4y32 +

12 2
y .
25 4

T (37.7):

1
0
T =
0
0

t12
1
0
0

t13
t23
1
0

t14
t24
.
t34
1


AT (, ):

AT =

t12 6
t13
6
t14 6t24 6t34 5

6t13 14t23 14 6t14 14t24 14t34 2


.

6t14 14t24 18t34 2

474

. 4


..., :
t12 = 6; t13 = 0; t14 =

29
16
; t23 = 1; t24 = ; t34 = 0.
25
25

T :

x1

x2
x

3
x4

= y1
=
=
=

+6 y2
y2

y3
y3

+ 29
25 y4 ;
16
25 y4 ;
;
y4 .

36.1, ,
3 (. 39).
37.2. ...
A, ... f L2s (V ) B, (37.3), , 37.1, f D, B (37.7)
(37.15), [. (37.4)] D,
... D:
f (di , di ) = i =

i
; i = 1, ..., n.
i1

(37.19)

, n 1 (37.19)
.
37.1
T . , ,
.
(37.17)
, ( k = 2, ..., n) k-
dk bk

37

475

d1 , ... , dk1 :

d1 = b1 ;

d2 = b2 s12 d1 ;
d3 = b3 s13 d1 s23 d2 ;

...........................................................
dn = bn s1n d1 s2n d2 ... s(n1)n dn1 .

(37.20)

, D , [. (35.11)] Cn2 :
f (di , dj ) = 0; 1 6 i < j 6 n,

(37.21)

Cn2 sij (37.20).


. j- (j = 2, ... , n)
(37.20):
j1
X
dj = bj
skj dk ,
(37.22)
k=1

i < j ... f (bi , bj ), f , (37.21):


0 = f (di , dj ) = f (di , bj )

j1
X

skj f (di , dk ) = f (di , bj ) sij f (di , di ),

k=1

, :
sij f (di , di ) = f (di , bj ).

(37.23)

(37.23) f (di , di ) = i 6= 0 (. . i < j 6 n).


, :
sij =

f (di , bj )
; 1 6 i < j 6 n.
f (di , di )

(37.24)

S , , D
( ):

476

d1 = b1 ;

(d1 ,b2 )

d2 = b2 ff (d
d1 ;

1 ,d1 )

(d1 ,b3 )
f (d2 ,b3 )
d3 = b3 ff (d
d

1
,d
)
f
(d2 ,d2 ) d2 ;
1 1

.....................................................................

d = b f (d1 ,bn ) d f (d2 ,bn ) d ... f (dn1 ,bn ) d


n
n
f (d1 ,d1 ) 1
f (d2 ,d2 ) 2
f (dn1 ,dn1 ) n1 .

. 4

(37.25)

.
37.2 ( ). n-
V ... f , B .
(37.25) V D, (37.18) .
. .
37.4.
. ()
: f - .
(. 34.8 35.5), x, y V
f -, f (x, y) = 0.
f -, f -
; ( f ).
37.1.
37. 2.

()

, , . 37.1.

37

477

1. ... (..).
2. S
(37.24), sij ... f ,
, (37.25).
37.2. 37.2
37.1.

h(x) = x21 14x22 18x23 + 5x24 +
+ 2(6x1 x2 6x1 x3 5x1 x4 14x2 x3 2x2 x4 2x3 x4 ).
, ,
B = E4 V , Q4 .
37.2 ... f ,
h [ (34.14s)]:
f (x, y) = x1 y1 14x2 y2 18x3 y3 + 5x4 y4
6(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) 6(x1 y3 + x3 y1 ) 5(x1 y4 + x4 y1 )
14(x2 y3 + x3 y2 ) 2(x2 y4 + x4 y2 ) 2(x3 y4 + x4 y3 ).
. (f -)
D = [d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 ]
:

1

0
d 1 = e1 = ;
0
0

d2 = e2

f (d1 , e2 )
1
d1 =
0
f (d1 , d1 )
0

(6)
1

0 1
= ;
0

478

d3 = e3

f (d1 , e3 )
f (d2 , e3 )
d1
d2 =
f (d1 , d1 )
f (d2 , d2 )


0

0
=
1

(6)
1

(50)
(50)

. 4

1 1
= ;

f (d1 , e4 )
f (d2 , e4 )
f (d3 , e4 )
d1
d2
d3 =
f (d1 , d1 )
f (d2 , d2 )
f (d3 , d3 )



d4 = e4
0

0
=
0
1

(5)
1

0

0

(32)
(50)

1

0

0
(4)

29/25

1 16/25
.
=
1

6
0 1
T = d1 d2 d3 d4 =
0 0
0 0
1

0
29/25
1 16/25
.
1
0
0
1

37.1.

38.

()
.
.

38.1. ... (..) R . . , . , R 36.1 36.2,


() , ,
, C.
R , C, , : , R

38

R .

479

: < , = > ,
,
, [ < ] [ + < + ]
( , , R) . .
, R , ,
.
R
: R+ , {0} R .
, R :
. : ,
, .
R: 1
.

. ,
R,
. ., , . .
"" (.: , 1976).
, V ... n R, f h V ... ..
, V B,
A = diag(1 , 2 , ... , r , 0, ... , 0),

(38.1)

r = rank(f ); i R, i 6= 0 (i = 1, ... , r).


.. h :
(38.2)
h(x) = 1 x21 + 2 x22 + ... + r x2r .
, r
A s t
(0 6 s, t 6 r; s + t = r).

480

. 4

, , ,
, s : 1 , ... , s , t : s+1 , ... , r
( r < n, n r
).
: ax2 a
,
:

ax2 = ( a x)2 ;
a < 0, a = (1)(a) , 1 , " "
a:

ax2 = ( a x)2 .
(38.2), :

h(x) = ( 1 x1 )2 + ... + ( s xs )2
p

( s+1 xs+1 )2 ... ( r xr )2 .

(38.3)

, ,
,
, :

xi =

1
yi , i = 1, ... , s;
i
1

yi , i = s + 1, ... , r;
i
yi , i = r + 1, ... , n.

(38.4)

( : ,
, .
, "" xi = yi ,
"" , " ".)

38

R .

481

(38.4) .. (38.3) :
2
h(x) = y12 + ... + ys2 ys+1
... yr2 = y t Gy,

G =

nn

Es

ss

st

Et

ts

(nr)s

tt

(nr)t

s(nr)

t(nr)

(38.5)

(38.6)

(nr)(nr)

. (38.5)
, () R, ( ) .
38.1. () R
,
(38.6). (38.5)
.. h.
, ,
: s , t , n(s+t) . (, - .)
38.1. ... (..) R .
. .
38.2. ... (..) R .
. f L2s (V ) (
h K(V )) : s t, , r = rank(f ) = rank(h).

482

. 4

38.2. [s, t] ,
(38.5),
( ) ... f .. h.
()
f h.
38.1. : . ,
s t , ,
, f h, .
,
. , ,
.
, , , . . s t ( :
).
- , - () .
" " " ". ( : , ""
?)
- ( ) " "
t. : , .
, 38.2,

38.1. () R , . .

( ).
.
h K(V ). (. . 35.3), : ..
. , -

38

R .

483


r = rank(h).
.. h , B
C. x V (x) = x (x) = y . (
, : V P n ; . . 6.4.)
h(x) h x V (.. ):
x21 + ... + x2s (x2s+1 + ... + x2r ) =
= y12 + ... + ys20 (ys20 +1 + ... + yr2 ),

(38.7)

s s0 B C ( , t = r s t0 = r s0 ).
, s = s0 , t = t0 . : s 6= s0 , , , s > s0 .
(38.7) x ( V ); - x x , , ,
P n ; - y.
, , , .
s-
U1 = {x P n : xs+1 = ... = xn = 0} 6 P n
(38.8)
( n s ).
W1 U1 :
1

W1 = (U1 ) = {x V : (x) U1 } =
= {x V : xs+1 = ... = xn = 0} 6 V.

(38.9)

484

. 4

, , :
U2 = {y P n : y1 = ... = ys0 = 0} 6 P n ; dim(U2 ) = n s0 ;

(38.10)

W2 = (U2 ) = {x V : (x) U2 } =
= {x V : y1 = ... = ys0 = 0} 6 V ; dim(W2 ) = n s0 . (38.11)
h(x)
x W1 [ (38.7)]:
h(x) = x21 + ... + x2s > 0.

(38.12)

( , ,
s > s0 , s > 0.)
, x W2 :
h(x) = (ys20 +1 + ... + yr2 ) 6 0.

(38.13)

(38.12) (38.13) , W1 W2 , . . x 6= 0,
.
, .
(. . 8.2) :
dim(W1 W2 ) = dim(W1 ) + dim(W2 ) dim(W1 + W2 ) =
= s + (n s0 ) dim(W1 + W2 ) = (s s0 ) + (n dim(W1 + W2 )) > 0,
s > s0 dim(W1 + W2 ) 6 n.
, W1 W2 6= O; ; .
38.2. ,
( ) ()
R .
R, , ,
.
38.1, .
, ( 36.1) () ... (..)
P,
( 36.2)
P , ,
, P = R.

38

R .

485

38.1. A B ,
.
38.3. () R .
, (), R. , , . (, ... ,
..; .)
38.1. .. h K(V ) [ ...
f L2s (V )]
(..),
x V h(x) > 0;
(..),
x V h(x) < 0;
(...), x V h(x) > 0;
(...), x V h(x) 6 0;
, h , . . x, y V , , h(x) > 0
h(y) < 0.
, () () . , , ,
.
() h () h, . , , .
( , ) .

486

. 4

38.2. h
[s, t] n- V.
(1) h .. s = n ;
(2) h .. t = n ;
(3) h ... t = 0 ;
(4) h ... s = 0 ;
(5) h s > 0 t > 0 .
. 1.1. s = n (, , t = 0
r = s = n), h

h(x) = x21 + x22 + ... + x2n ,


(38.14)
, h(x) > 0 x V ,
x 6= 0, h(x) > 0. h ..
1.2. , h . ,
s = n. .
t > 0,
t = 0, r = s < n.
1.2.1. h
: x2s+1 .
x V, ( )
, : xs+1 = 1, h(x) = 1,
h.
1.2.2. : h(x) , , .
2. , , ,
,
.
3.1. t = 0,
h [ , (38.14)] :
h(x) = x21 + x22 + ... + x2r ;

(38.15)

.
3.2. , , h ... ,
t = 0. , , , 1.2.1.

38

R .

487

4. .
5.1. , h ,
:
h(x) = (x21 + ... + x2s ) (x2s+1 + ... + x2r ).

(38.16)

x, , ,
, x1 = 1, : h(x) = 1.
y, ,
ys+1 = 1, h(y) = 1.
5.2. , h ,
t = 0, s = 0. , , t , , . ( s = 0 .)
38.3. :
() . ( ) . , .
38.4. ( R)
; ( s t ).
38.1. 36.1 [2, 1], .
36.1

h(x) = u21 + u22 u23


:
z1 = u1 ; z2 =

1
1
u2 ; z3 = u3 .
2
2

36.2 ;
[2, 2]. ,
, :

2
y1 = z1 ; y2 = 2 5 z3 ; y3 = 2z4 ; y4 =
3 z2 .
5

488

. 4

( , .)
, ( ) 3 (. 39).
38.2 ( 34.1 34.2).
[. (34.7)]
t

f (x, y) = x y =

n
X

xi yi ,

(38.17a)

i=1

V = Rn , .. ... ..
t

h(x) = x x =

n
X

x2i

(38.17b)

i=1

.
( )
,
(34.8) .
""
" ". ..
Z b
h(x(t)) =
x2 (t) dt,
a


.
38.3 ( 34.3 35.1).
n2 - V = L(n, R)
...
f (X, Y ) = tr(X t Y ); X, Y V.
(38.18a)

t

h(X) = tr(X X) =

n
X

x2ij

(38.18b)

i,j=1

..
f h.

38

R .

489

38.4. () ... (..).


38.1, () ( ) . ( )
, () , . ,
... (..),
. 37.1.
38.1 ( ). V ... n R, B = [b1 , ... , bn ] - V,
f h ... .., V ,
A , B,
i (i = 1, ... , n) A.
(1) f h .. ,
:
i > 0; i = 1, ... , n;

(38.19)

(2) f h .. ,
,
:
1 < 0; 2 > 0; 3 < 0; . . .
(38.20)
. 1.1. (38.19), .. h ( )
[. (37.14)]:
h(x) =

1 2 2 2
n 2
y1 +
y2 + ... +
y ,
0
1
n1 n

(38.21)

. ,
s = n h .
1.2. . .. h ..,
. . h(x) > 0 x V.
1.2.1. 38.1, : s = n, , , B0 h (38.14). , B0 : A0 = E.

490

. 4

(34.20), A A0

A = S t A0 S,
(38.22)
S = T 1 , B 0 B.
: A = S t S.
, ,
det(A) = (det(S))2 > 0,

(38.23)

n .
1.2.2. k > 0 k = 1, ... , n1. k-
Wk 6 V, k
:
Wk = hBk i ; Bk = [b1 , ... , bk ],

(38.24)

() ... f .. h, . .

f k = f W

k Wk

: Wk Wk R; fk (x, y) = f (x, y); x, y Wk (38.25a)

hk = hW : Wk R; hk (x) = h(x); x Wk ,
k

(38.25b)

, ,
,
.
Bk - A(k) [. (37.1)].
1.2.1, :
k = det(A(k) ) > 0.

(38.26)

2. , ..

. h ( B) A, h
( ) A. , k = 1, ... , n,

38

R .

491

(k k)- A k ( A) (1)k .
,
A . ,
,
1 < 0.
38.4.
. ( ), R:
h(x) = x21 2x22 3x23 + 2x1 x2 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 .
, h
.
. .. h:

A= 1
1

1 1
2 1 .
1 3

1 = ; 2 = 2 1; 3 = 5 + 3
.
() :

2
(1)

> 0;
1 > 0;
+ 3 > 0;

2
(2)

< 0;
1 > 0;
+ 3 < 0.

(1) ; (2) (, 3/5).


: h .. < 3/5;
..
"" "" , ,
. ( , ""; ., , " " . 41.3 [A1 ].)
, ? .

492

. 4


, ,
:
R = (, 35 ) { 35 } ( 53 , 12 ) { 12 } ( 12 , 0) {0} (0, ).
(1/2 0),
:
h(x) = 1 y12 +

2 2 3 2
2 + 1 2 5 + 3 2
y2
y .
y2 +
y3 = y12
1
2

2 + 1 3

( = 3/5)
,
3
1
h(x) = y12 y22 ,
5
2
, h
, 2 [0, 2], . . ...
, "" ,
1 = ; 2 =

2 + 1
5 + 3
; 3 =

2 + 1

; :

(, 35 )

[0, 3]

( 35 , 12 )

[1, 2]

( 12 , 0)

[1, 2]

(0, )

[1, 2]

, .. h ,
, , [1, 2].

38

R .

493

:
= 0 = 1/2, . ,
,
.
= 0 A :

0
A= 1
1
x1 =


:

1 1
2 1 ;
1 3

z2 ; x2 = z1 ; x3 = z3 A ,
,

1
A=
1

1
1
0
1 ,
1 3

(1 = 2, 2 = 1 3 = 3)
(1 = 2, 2 = 12 3 = 3)
:
1
h(x) = 2z12 + z22 3z32 ,
2
- [1, 2].
= 12 ,
, "" , ,
. , ,
[1, 2].
:
< 3/5 , = 3/5 ( [0, 2]),
( [1, 2]).
38.5. , ... f L2s (V )
, (: f ; . . 37.3) V 37.2 ( );

494

. 4

(37.25)
.
.. ... f V . f - .
(. 34.8), W
W 6 V W :
V = W W .
(38.27)
38.5. . . , ,
. .
,
.
: y = f (x) x,
x0 . (" " , f (x) .) x, x0
(. . , x = x x0 ) :
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )x + 1 (x0 , x),
(38.28)
1 , x; , :
f (x0 + x) ( x; x0 ,
) ( x) .
(38.28) ( );
:
1
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )x + f 00 (x0 )x2 + 2 (x0 , x),
2

(38.28)

2 , x2 .
x0
f (x), ( )

38

R .

495

f 0 (x0 ) = 0, . . x0 , ,
f (x).
, x0 , , .
f 00 (x0 ) > 0 , f 00 (x0 ) < 0 . , (f 0 (x0 ) = 0;
f 00 (x0 ) 6= 0)
1
f (x) = f (x0 ) + f 00 (x0 )x2 + 2 (x0 , x),
2

(38.29)

x, x ( 2 ). , f 00 (x0 ) > 0, x0
f (x) > f (x0 ).
(f 00 (x0 ) = 0):
.
, , , ( ) ,
. , () f 0 (x0 )x ,
f 00 (x0 )x2 ; ( x).
- . (, ) y = f (x) n x = (x1 , x2 , ... , xn ),
x0 = (x01 , x02 , ... , x0n ).
() xi = xi x0i (i = 1, ... , n),
x = (x1 , x2 , ... , xn ),
x0 :
1) ai = fx0 i (x0 ) (i = 1, ... , n);
2) aij = fx00i xj (x0 ) (i, j = 1, ... , n).
, ( ) :
aij = fx00i xj (x0 ) = fx00j xi (x0 ) = aji .

(38.30)

496

. 4

:
0

f (x) = f (x ) +

n
X

fx0 i (x0 )xi +

i=1

n
X

1
fx00i xj (x0 )xi xj + 2 (x0 , x) =
2 i,j=1

n
1 X
ai xi +
aij xi xj + 2 (x0 , x),
= f (x ) +
2 i,j=1
i=1
0

n
X

(38.31)

:

0

L(x , x) =

n
X

ai xi

(38.32)

i=1

xi , (
, f (x) x0 );

0

H(x , x) =

n
X

aij xi xj

(38.33)

i,j=1

xi , ;
[ (38.30)] A = (aij )ni,j=1 , f (x) x0 );
2 , ,
; ,
( ) .
, , , L(x0 , x) . (,
, .)
x0 (38.31) :
1
f (x) = f (x0 ) + H(x0 , x) + 2 (x0 , x).
2

(38.34)

39

497

x0 (. . , n)
H(x0 , x):
H , . . x H(x0 , x) > 0, x
f (x) > f (x0 ) , , x0
;
H , . . x H(x0 , x) < 0, x
f (x) < f (x0 ) , , x0
;
H , . . x
x0 , H(x0 , x) > 0, H(x0 , x0 ) < 0,
x0 x, x0 ,
f (x) > f (x0 ) f (x0 ) < f (x0 ), , , x0 .
:
, x0
;
, , x0
;
( , ) ,
, ,
, x0 .
2 .
.
.

39.


()
39.1. " () ".
(3 3)

498

. 4

36.1, 37.1, 38.1


.
P = R,
,
, Q ,
, R.

"

( ) "
n- V R ( B)
:
f (x, y) = xt Ay; h(x) = xt Ax,

(39.1)

A (n n)-.
:
(1) 36.1 D (
):
t
h(x) = D;
(39.2)
D T B D,
:
x = T ,

(39.3)

x Rn
Rn ; :
D = T t AT ;

(39.4)

(2) , , 37.1:
h(x) = t D0 ; x = T 0 ;

(39.5)

c D
D0 , T T 0 ;

39

499

(3) (1) N (.
. 38.1):
h(x) = t N ; = T1 ,
(39.6)
T1 , , x
N ; "" ,
:
T2 = T T1 ; x = T2 ;
(39.7)
(4) r, [s, t] ( ) f h (. . 38.1 38.3).

:
n = 6;

4
3

A= 1

1
2

3
2
0
1
2

1 1 2
0 1 2

3 2
1 .

2 2
0
1 0
2


,
: (39.1). , ,
:
h(x) = 4x21 + 2x22 + 3x23 + 2x24 + 2x25
6x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x1 x4 4x1 x5 2x2 x4 + 4x2 x5 + 4x3 x4 + 2x3 x5 .
, ...,
..:
f (x, y) = 4x1 y1 + 2x2 y2 + 3x3 y3 + 2x4 y4 + 2x5 y5
3(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) + (x1 y3 + x3 y1 ) + (x1 y4 + x4 y1 ) 2(x1 y5 + x5 y1 )
(x2 y4 + x4 y2 ) + 2(x2 y5 + x5 y2 ) + 2(x3 y4 + x4 y3 ) + (x3 y5 + x5 y3 ).

500

. 4

1. .. h(x) .
36.1
, .
, , ,
( ) .
: , x1 ,
x21 , , :
h(x) =
= 4(x21 32 x1 x2 + 12 x1 x3 + 12 x1 x4 x1 x5 )+
+ 2x22 + 3x23 + 2x24 + 2x25 2x2 x4 + 4x2 x5 + 4x3 x4 + 2x3 x5 =

9 2
1 2
1 2
x2 16
x3 16
x4 14 x25 +
= 4 (x1 43 x2 + 14 x3 + 14 x4 12 x5 )2 16

+ 83 x2 x3 + 38 x2 x4 34 x2 x5 18 x3 x4 + 14 x3 x5 + 14 x4 x5 +
+ 2x22 + 3x23 + 2x24 + 2x25 2x2 x4 + 4x2 x5 + 4x3 x4 + 2x3 x5 =
= 4y12 14 y22 +
+ 32 y2 y3

2
11 2
7 2
4 y3 + 4 y4 + y5 +
1
7
2 y2 y4 + y2 y5 + 2 y3 y4

+ 3y3 y5 + y4 y5 ,

y1 = x1 34 x2 + 41 x3 + 41 x4 12 x5 ; yi = xi (i = 2, 3, 4, 5),
, :
x1 = y1 + 34 y2 14 y3 41 y4 + 12 y5 ; xi = yi (i = 2, 3, 4, 5).
,
, .. yi (i = 2, 3, 4, 5):
h(x) =
= 4y12 41 (y22 6y2 y3 + 2y2 y4 4y2 y5 )+
2
11 2
7 2
7
4 y3 + 4 y4 + y5 + 2 y3 y4 + 3y3 y5 + y4 y5 =

4y12 14 (y2 3y3 + y4 2y5 )2 9y32 y42 4y52 + 6y3 y4

2
2
7 2
7
12y3 y5 + 4y4 y5 + 11
4 y3 + 4 y4 + y5 + 2 y3 y4 + 3y3 y5 + y4 y5
4z12 14 z22 + 5z32 + 2z42 + 2z52 + 2z3 z4 + 6z3 z5 ,

=
=

39

501

z2 = y2 3y2 + y4 2y5 ; zi = yi (i = 1, 3, 4, 5),


, :
y2 = z2 + 3z3 z4 + 2z5 ; yi = zi (i = 1, 3, 4, 5).
..
zi (i = 3, 4, 5):
h(x) =
= 4z12 14 z22 + 5(z32 + 52 z3 z4 + 56 z3 z5 ) + 2z42 + 2z52 = 4z12 14 z22 +

1 2
9 2
6
+ 5 (z3 + 15 z4 + 35 z5 )2 25
z4 25
z5 25
z4 z5 + 2z42 + 2z52 =
= 4w12 41 w22 + 5w32 + 95 w42 + 15 w52 65 w4 w5 ,

w3 = z3 + 15 z4 + 53 z5 ; wi = zi (i = 1, 2, 4, 5),
:
z3 = w3 15 w4 53 w5 ; zi = wi (i = 1, 2, 4, 5).

:
h(x) =
= 4w12 14 w22 + 5w32 + 95 (w42 23 w4 w5 + 19 w52 ) =
= 4w12 14 w22 + 5w32 + 95 (w4 13 w5 )2 = 412 14 22 + 532 + 95 42 ,

4 = w3 31 w5 ; i = wi (i = 1, 2, 3, 5),
:
w4 = 4 + 13 5 ; wi = i (i = 1, 2, 3, 5).
h :
h(x) = 412 41 22 + 532 + 95 42 ;
D :

4
1/4

D=
5

9/5

502

" " xi (i
" ",

x1 = 1 34 2 + 22 75 4

x2 =
2 + 33 85 4

x3 =
3 15 4

x4 =
4

x5 =

. 4

= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
, :
+ 13 5 ;
13 5 ;
23 5 ;
+ 13 5 ;
5 ,

, :
x = T ,

1 3/4 2 7/5
3 8/5
0 1

T = 0 0 1 1/5

0 0
0
1
0 0
0
0

1/3
1/3

2/3

1/3
1

D. ,
,
T .
: T t A T = D.
2. . ,

.
A:
1 = 4; 2 = 1; 3 = 5; 4 = 9; 5 = 0.
;
. D0
1 =

1
0

= 4; 2 =

2
1

= 14 ; 3 =

3
2

= 5; 4 =

4
3

= 95 ; 5 =

5
4

= 0,

, , D0
D.

39

503

1 t12
0 1

0
T = 0 0

0 0
0 0

t13
t23
1
0
0

t14
t24
t34
1
0

t15
t25

t35 .

t45
1


A T 0 ; ...:

4t12

4t13

3t13

4t14
3t14

t14

4t15

3t15

t15
t15

3;

3t23
+ 2t23

=
=

1;
0;

3t24
+ 2t24

t34

+ 3t34
3t25
+ 2t25

t25

t35

+ 3t35
+ 2t35

=
=
=

1;
1;
2;

+ t45
t45
+ 2t45
+ 2t45

=
2;
= 2;
= 1;
=
0.

(, , ),
, T 0 , , T ,
.
(, : ,
, .)
3. .
:
" " ,
;
: ,
, ;
, 1 .

504

. 4

:
1
9
h(x) = 412 22 + 532 + 42 =
4
5

1
3
= (21 )2 + ( 5 3 )2 + ( 4 )2 ( 2 )2 =
2
5
2
2
2
2
= 1 + 2 + 3 4 ,

1 = 21 ; 2 =

3
1
5 3 ; 3 = 4 ; 4 = 2 ; 5 = 5 ,
2
5

, :

1
5
5
1 = 1 ; 2 = 24 ; 3 =
2 ; 4 =
3 ; 5 = 5 .
2
5
3
( " ".)
, , :

1
0

N = 0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0

0
0

0.

0
0

D N :
1/2
0

T1 = 0

0
0

0
0
0
0
2
0
5/5 0
0
0
5/3 0
0
0
0

0
0

0,

0
1

"" B N :

1/2 25/5 75/15 3/2 1/3


0 3 5/5 8 5/15 2
1/3

T2 = T T1 =
5/5
5/15
0
2/3
0
.
0
0
5/3
0
1/3
0
0
0
0
1

39

505

4. ,
():
... f (.. h) 4, , ,
;
[3, 1], , , .
:
.. h D;
h N ;
T , T1 T2 ,
, (
) :
x = T ; = T1 ; x = T2 ;
, ()
.
39.2. Maple- 3.
LinearAlgebra , ()
. () . , (
) . "" .
, Maple- ...
(..) , , ( ).
. 1 (. 3) Maple Quadro, :
Lagr,
, , , , ;
Jacob, ,
;
Signatura,
( R),

506

. 4

( /).
, " ", . . , , , . (
; Lagr .)
. 3a
, , 3, ,
( ).
Jacob,
, ,

.

40.


()

40.1. ... ...; .



..., f g, ... V . ,
, .

,
.
, .
,
... g L2s (V ). (. 38.2), .. B ( ) -

40

507

:
g(x, y) = xt y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + ... + xn yn ; x, y V ; n = dim(V ). (40.1)
... ,
34.1 [. (34.7)]. (40.1)
( ).
( R) .. ...
( ) .
" ", . .
g, ""
(x, y).
q(x) = g(x, x) ( (x, x), )

q(x) = xt x = x21 + x22 + ... + x2n ; x V

(40.2)

() x (

p 38.2).
|x| = (x, x); x.
, .
g- (. 34.8),
..., .
, , .
W (. 34.8 38.5) W V
, W. g, V : V = O.
W 6 V [. (38.27)]: V = W W .
( W W : x W W , , g(x, x) = 0, ,
g, x = 0.)

508

. 4

B = [b1 , ... , bn ] (..),


(bi , bj ) = 0; 1 6 i < j 6 n;

(40.3)

. 35.5, (,
, g-) B
, B g.
, , (40.3)

(bi , bi ) = 1; i = 1, ... , n
(40.4)
, :
(). (...), ( )
" ".
"" , (.
. 37.2). .. "" (. . ,
). ...
Pn
x =
i=1 xi bi
V B
, :
xj =

(x, bj )
; j = 1, ... , n.
(bj , bj )

(40.5)

, x bj (40.3),
(x, bj ) = xj (bj , bj ), (bj , bj ) > 0
( ).
B (40.5) :
xj = (x, bj ); j = 1, ... , n.

(40.50 )

40

509

40.2. . ...
() . ,
... ...
B B0 ... n- V,
.. ... g(x, y) = (x, y).
... ; , (34.20) , :
E = U t EU , U B B0 .

U 1 = U t .

(40.6)

, (40.6), ;
O(n, R); , ( ), GL(n, R)
.
, , :
40.1. , ,
.
U t U = E U , : ... Rn ,
.
,
: (1).
, U O(2, R) :

cos sin
cos
sin
(1) U =
, (2) U =
;
sin cos
sin cos

, (
) .
( ,
. ,

510

. 4

? , (. ), , , ,
. . . . "" (.:
, 1997), .)
40.3. ..
.., ... g , V ,
, V ,
f (x, y) = g(x, (y)); x, y V
(40.7)
V ( f ).

g : L(V ) L2 (V ); 7 f ; L(V );

(40.8)

, .
40.2. g ...,
(40.8) .
. , Ker(g ) .
Ker(g ), . . f = g () = 0,
f (x, y), x, y V .
(40.7), :
g(x, (y)) = 0 ( x, y V ),

(40.9)

, :
(y) V ( y V ).

(40.10)

, g, : V = O;
(y) = 0 ( y) , , = o.
. , g ,

dim(L(V )) = dim(L2 (V )) = n2 ,

(40.11)

.
B = [b1 , ... , bn ] V .

40

511

40.3. B g G, A.
f = g ()
F = G A.

(40.12)

:
[F ]ij = f (bi , bj ) = g(bi , (bj )) =
= g(bi ,

n
X
k=1

akj bk ) =

n
X
k=1

akj g(bi , bk ) =

n
X

gik akj = [G A]ij .

k=1

40.4. .. . ,
g
.
40.4. g ...
V, f , .. :
g((x), y) = g(x, (y)) ( x, y V ).

(40.13)

:
.. (40.7), , g, (40.13).
(40.13).
34.8, , V W ,
f g , : V W ? : W V,
(f, g)- :
g((x), y) = f (x, ? (y)) ( x V, y W ).

(40.14)

: W = V, g = f
: V V . (40.14)
g((x), y) = g(x, ? (y)) ( x, y V )

(40.15)

512

. 4

g- ..
? : V V.

(40.16)

,
[. (34.39)] g ] : V V :
y V (40.15)
V , , , , ? (y), ,
( x V ) (40.15).
g- .., (40.13)
? = .
(40.17)
, (40.17), g-. 40.4 .
40.40 . ... g , f g-
.. .
, (40.8) (
)

g : Ls (V ) L2s (V )

(40.80 )

g- ( Ls (V )) . ,
, n(n + 1)/2.
( ) . 40.1 40.2 "" . , . . , ... g ,
, .
. g-
; , ,
(40.13) :
((x), y) = (x, (y)) ( x, y V ).

(40.130 )

40

513

40.5. ... V .. L(V ) , f , .


40.3
40.40 : ... (.. ... g) G = E. , (40.12) : F = A,
. . .. ..
f (x, y) = (x, (y))

(40.18)

. .. .. f ; F , ,
A .
, ,
A, (40.50 ):
(40.50 )

(40.130 )

aij = [(bj )]i === ((bj ), bi ) ===

(40.50 )

= (bj , (bi )) = ((bi ), bj ) === [(bi )]j = aji .


40.1. , :
.. ...,
(, , ...
). ( ) , , .
( ...
..)
... . 34.3,
( T )
:
.. A T 1 AT , ..
T t AT.
, T 1 = T t , , (40.6). ( 40.1),
... ...

514

. 4

40.5. . .
40.6. .. .
(40.130 ). W 6 V .. L(V ), . . (y) W y W.
x W . : (x, y) = 0 y W. , ((x), y) = (x, (y)) = 0, . . (x) W .
, . . (. . 19.2)
:
0

W = S() =

s
M

Wi ,

(40.19)

i=1

Wi = Si () , i ;
() = {1 , 2 , ... , s },

(40.20)

R. ( , ,
; W 0
: W 0 = O.)
, (40.19) - , . .. ,
; ,
40.7. .. .
. x y : x Si (), . . (x) = i x,
y Sj (), . . (y) = j y, i 6= j .
(40.130 ):
i (x, y) = (i x, , y) = ((x), y) = (x, (y)) = (x, j y) = j (x, y).

40

515

(i j )(x, y) = 0, , , :
(x, y) = 0. , x y , .
.
, .
.. , V , , S().
.. .
40.1. C .. , n- V , . ,
h () ( ) n .
. "" ( R) " ", .
n- V .. . V - ... B,
( 40.5) A. (), . . ,
(. 17.3) (A) = R (A) A, hA () R[].
R (. [A1 , 43]),
( ) n C,
: 0 = + i ( 6= 0)
f0 = i, . (

, .)
, .
C (A)
A ( C)
-

516

. 4

= C , V C = V iV [. . 27.4; ,
" " z = x + iy,
x, y V ,
(z) = (x) + i(y)]. V V C ; B V

C; ()
A, ; .
, C (A) = R (A).

0 = + i C () = C (A),

(40.21)

z V C , 0 . B z z Cn ,
A z = 0 z; z 6= 0.

(40.22)

,
f0 , ze = x iy,
, 0 . (
. 27.4, .)
(, , ) (40.22) , , e = A,
, A
f0 e
Ae
z=
z.

(40.23)

(40.23) A, :
f0 e
e
z tA =
z t.

(40.24)

- (-) ;

40

517

z1
ze1
z
ze
t
z = 2 ; e
z = 2 ; e
z = ( ze1
...
...
zn
zf
n

ze2

... zf
n );

t
2
2
2
e
z z = ze1 z1 + ze2 z2 + ... + zf
n zn = |z1 | + |z2 | + ... + |zn | ,

( , z 6= 0)
.
, ,
(40.22) (40.24):
f0 (e
f0 e

z t z) = (
z t ) z = (e
z t A)z = e
z t (A z) = e
z t (0 z) = 0 (e
z t z).
:
f0 0 ) (e
(
z t z) = 0.

(40.25)

(40.25) ( ); , f0 = 0 ,
, . .
0 .
, ..,
, (
, : m0
n ).
, n0 ( ) n.
40.6. .. , .. ,
,
.

518

. 4

40.2. .., , .
. 40.1,
W 0 = S() .. Ls (V ) V.
S() = V , (. 21.1) .. (. . W 0 < V ),
(, )
W 00 = (W 0 ) < V.
W 0 ,
40.6, - W 00 . ,
W 00 , . (
, W 00 00 , , , , (40.13)
00 .)
40.1, , .. 00 - , . . W 00
00 ; , , , W 00 . W 0 , ,
W 0 W 00 = O.
, S() = V .
B = [ B1 , B2 , ... , Bs ]

(40.26)

Bi
Wi = Si (); i = 1, ... s.

(40.27)

40.7, (40.27) . ... Bi0 (,


Bi , ), , ,
V
B0 = [ B10 , B20 , ... , Bs0 ].
(40.260 )

40

519

40.7. ( ) ... . . 40.1


...,
. 40.3 .. . 40.6
.
.
40.3.
, .
. f (x, y) V.
40.2 40.40 , ... g(x, y) = (x, y),
V , f .. , , f = f = g (), . .
f (x, y) = (x, (y))

(40.29)

x, y V.
40.2, ... B.
40.5, ... ... f .. . B
f .
,
(, , ) .. ..., ,
40.3 ,
" ".
40.30 .
..., , .
, , :

. ()
.

520

. 4

B, ... f (.. h) A. ... D, D ( ).


... D U
B D. 40.1, (U 1 = U t ).
, A D U , ,

D = U t AU.
(40.30)
() , . , () , . ,
; , V Rn , :
(x, y) =

n
X

xi yi .

(40.31)

i=1

40. 1.

()

... ( ..)
(n n)- A:
f (x, y) = xt A y; h(x) = xt A x.

(40.32)

:
(n n)- U , ...,
(n n)- D,
, (40.30).

40

521

1. 21.1 ( ) A, D,

T = (F1 |F2 |...|Fs ),
(40.33)
;
T ( .., A).
2. Fi , , ""
37.2; Gi [
(40.31)] ( ).
3.
G = (G1 |G2 |...|Gs )

(40.34)

, . . ().
U.
4.
:
f (x, y) = ut D v; h(x) = ut D u,
(40.35)
:
x = U u; y = U v.

(40.36)

40.1. ,
,
, .

h(x) = x21 2x22 + x23 + 4x1 x2 8x1 x3 4x2 x3 .
. V = R3 ;
()

1
2 4
A = 2 2 2 ,
4 2 1

522

. 4


hA () = 3 27 54
1 = 3 ( m1 = 2) 2 = 6
( m2 = 1).
W1 ;

1
0

F1 = f1 f2 = 2 2 ,
0 1
W1 .
W2 ;

2

F 2 = f3 = 1
2
.

1 0 2
T = (F1 |F2 ) = 2 2 1
0 1 2
h.

3
D= 0
0

0 0
3 0 .
0 6

, f3 , :
(f1 , f3 ) = (f2 , f3 ) = 0; (f1 , f2 ) = 4.

(. 37.2);
:

40

523

1
g1 = f1 = 2 ;
0

0
1
4/5
(f2 , g1 )
4
g2 = f2
g1 = 2
2 = 2/5 ;
(g1 , g1 )
5
1
0
1

2
g3 = f3 = 1 .
2

1 4/5 2
G = (g1 |g2 |g3 ) = 2 2/5 1
0
1 2

h ( D, , ).
() - G:
|g1 | =

p
p
p

3
(g1 , g1 ) = 5; |g2 | = (g2 , g2 ) = ; |g3 | = (g3 , g3 ) = 3.
5

G ,

2
U = (u1 |u2 |u3 ) =
5

3 5
2

3 5
5

3 5

2
3

1
,
3

, h.
: U t U = E. D = U t AU.
:

524

x1
x2

x
3

. 4

h(x) = 3y12 3y22 + 6y32 ;


1 y1
=
5
1

= 5 y1
=

+
+

y
3 5 2
2

y
3 5 2
5

y
3 5 2

2
+
3 y3 ;
1
+
3 y3 ;
+ 23 y3 .

40.8. , .
. ,

.
.

. :
R
. , -
, ,
.
C : a + bi = z 7 z = a bi. " "
. , f : V C,
; ,
f (x) = x ( , -
).
, , f (x, y), .
: f (x, y) = f (y, x).
, , , . (, .)
,
h(x) = f (x, x), , , "". -

40

525

,
.
,
, . . ,
. (
, , ,
.)

, :
(z, w) = z1 w1 + z2 w2 + ... + zn wn ,
:
|z|2 = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + ... + |zn |2 .
, . , , . "
". , ,
, : . . , . . . . .: , 1969.
. .
, .

1. . . . . 2. . .: ,
2000.
2. . ., . . . .: ,
1986.
3. . . . .: , 1984.
4. / . . . . .: , 2000.

5. . ., . . Maple 6: , - . .: , 2001.
6. . . . .: -
, 1982.
7. . . . .: , 1983.
8. . . . .: , 2001.
9. . . . .: , 1980.
10. . ., . . . ( -.) .: , 1984.
11. . . . .: , 1988.
12. . . . .: , 1998.
13. ., . : Maple,
MATLAB, LaTeX: . . .: , 2001.
14. . ., . . .
.: , 1970.
15. . . . .: , 1979.
16. . . .: , 1978.
17. . . . .: , 1975.
18. ., . . .:
, 1972.
19. . ., . . : , , . ( -.) .: ,
1962.
20. . . . .: , 1996.
21. . ., . ., . .
( ). --: , 2002.

527

22. . . . .: , 1984.
23. . ., . . .
.: , 1963.
24. . . . .: -
, 1990.
25. . . .: , 1970.
26. ., . . .: , 1989.
27. . . . .
.: , 1969.
28. . . . . 1,2.
: , 1987.


... ..;
.. ;
;
.. ;
... ( );
.. ;
.. ;
... ;
.. ( );
.. ;
... ..;
;
... ..;
;
();
;
;
;
.. ;
... ;
.. (...);
... (...);
;
;
.. (...);
... (...);
... ..;
.. ;
... ;
.. .

1
Maple-
1. BiS
( 1 " "; . 11.3)
> restart;with(LinearAlgebra):
> # ,
# BiS (Bases in Subspaces).
>
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_1]:=proc(A::Matrix)
W
( V);
W
( ... Ax=0).
local m,n,i,j,k,h,GA,JA,rA,pr,fr,ZA,FA,sys;

m:=RowDimension(A);n:=ColumnDimension(A);
# ; n=dim(V).
ZA:=ZeroMatrix(m,n);
# .
if Equal(A,ZA) then
# : A=O , , W=V.
#
# .
FA:=IdentityMatrix(n);
JA:=Matrix(0,n);rA:=0;
# .
pr:=[];
# .
fr:=[seq(k,k=1..n)];
# .
else
GA:=ReducedRowEchelonForm(A);rA:=Rank(GA);
# - .
JA:=SubMatrix(GA,1..rA,1..n);
# - (
# ) .

530

Maple-

pr:=[seq(0,k=1..rA)];
# .
for i from 1 to rA do
j:=1;
while JA[i,j]=0 do
j:=j+1;
od;
pr[i]:=j;
od;
# .
fr:=[];
for k from 1 to n do
if not member(k,pr) then
fr:=[fr[],k];
fi;
od;
# .
FA:=Matrix(n,n-rA);
# ,
# ... Ax=0.
# rA=n, W=O, FA .
# (
# .)
if rA<n then
# . W
# ... Ax=0 .
for h from 1 to n-rA do
FA[ fr[h], h ]:=1;
for i from 1 to rA do
FA[ pr[i], h ]:=-GA[ i, fr[h] ];
od;
od;
#
#
# FA #
# ... Ax=0,
# , 1.
fi;
fi;
sys:=GenerateEquations(JA,[seq(x[k],k=1..n)]);
# ... JA.

. 1

. 1

Maple-

RETURN(FA,n-rA,JA,sys,fr);
# :
# 1) W,
#
FA
#
... Ax=0;
# 2) dim(W)=n-rA,
#
rA - ;
# 3) - JA A
#
( );
# 4) ... sys, JA
#
("" W);
# 5) fr .
end proc;

>
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_2]:=proc(G::Matrix)
W,

(
G).
local n,s,i,j,k,GG,rG,pr,ZG,BG;

n:=RowDimension(G);s:=ColumnDimension(G);
# ; n=dim(V).
ZG:=ZeroMatrix(n,s);
# .
if Equal(G,ZG) then
# : G=O , , W=O.
# .
BG:=Matrix(n,0);GG:=ZG;rG:=0;pr:=[];
else
GG:=GaussianElimination(G);rG:=Rank(GG);
# G.
pr:=[seq(0,k=1..rG)];
# .
for i from 1 to rG do
j:=1;
while GG[i,j]=0 do
j:=j+1;
od;
pr[i]:=j;
od;
# .

531

532

Maple-

BG:=SubMatrix(G,1..n,pr);
# G,
# () .
fi;
RETURN(BG,rG,GG,pr);
# :
# 1) W
#
BG ;
# 2) dim(W),
#
rG ;
# 3) GG ;
# 4) pr .
end proc;

>
#
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_3]:=proc(G::Matrix)

W
( G)
(
... Ax=0).
local n,s,k,A,ZG,sys;

n:=RowDimension(G);s:=ColumnDimension(G);
# ; n=dim(V).
ZG:=ZeroMatrix(n,s);
# .
if Equal(G,ZG) then
# : G=O. ,
# A=E ... [x[j]=0; j=1..n]
# ( ).
A:=IdentityMatrix(n);
else
A:=Transpose(algorithm_1(Transpose(G))[1]);
# G ,
# , algorithm_1,
# ...,
#
# # ,
# .
fi;

. 1

. 1

Maple-

sys:=GenerateEquations(A,[seq(x[k],k=1..n)]);
# ..., .
RETURN(A,sys);
# :
# 1) A,
#
(
#
... Ax=0);
# 2) a a a ( ).
end proc;

>
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_4]:=proc(G1::Matrix,G2::Matrix)
W1
( V)
( ) W2;

W1 W2.
W1 W2
(
G1 G2).
local n,n1,n2,B1,B2,B3,C1,d1,d2,d3;

n1:=RowDimension(G1);
n2:=RowDimension(G2);
if n1<>n2 then
ERROR(`
!`);
else
n:=n1;
fi;
#
# G1 G2.
# : dim(V)=n.
B1:=algorithm_2(G1)[1];d1:=ColumnDimension(B1);
B2:=algorithm_2(G2)[1];d2:=ColumnDimension(B2);
B3:=algorithm_2(<<B1|B2>>)[1];d3:=ColumnDimension(B3);
# algorithm_2
# .
if d2<>d3 then
ERROR(`W1 W2!`);
# ,
# W1, G1,
# W2,
# G2.

533

534

Maple-

elif d1=d2 then


C1:=Matrix(n,0);
# , W1=W2.
# ,
# ,
# C1, - .
else
C1:=SubMatrix(B3,1..n,d1+1..d3);
# : W1
# W2, W2;
#
# ,
# " " B3.
fi;
RETURN(C1,d2-d1,B3,[B1,d1],[B2,d2]);
# :
# 1) C1, ""
#
( W1 W2);
# 2) d2-d1 ;
# 3) B3, W2,
#
W1;
# 4) [B1,d1], B1,
#
W1
#
d1=dim(W1).
# 5) [B2,d2], B2,
#
W2
#
d2=dim(W2).
end proc;

>
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_5]:=proc(G1::Matrix,G2::Matrix)
W3=W1+W2
W1,W2 V.
W1,W2
( G1 G2).
W3 :
, B3[1],
B1 W1;
, B3[2],
B2 W2.

-
(
C1,C2).
d0
W0 .

. 1

. 1

Maple-

local n,n1,n2,B1,B2,B3,C1,C2,d1,d2,d3,d0;
n1:=RowDimension(G1); n2:=RowDimension(G2);
if n1<>n2 then
ERROR(`
!`);
else
n:=n1;
fi;
#
# G1 G2.
# : dim(V)=n.
B1:=algorithm_2(G1)[1];d1:=ColumnDimension(B1);
B2:=algorithm_2(G2)[1];d2:=ColumnDimension(B2);
# algorithm_2
# .
# ( B1 B2)
# W1 W2;
# d1 d2.
B3[1]:=algorithm_2(<<B1|B2>>)[1];
d3:=ColumnDimension(B3[1]);
# algorithm_2
# B1 B2.
# ( B3[1]),
# W3, W1,
# B1.
d0:=d1+d2-d3;
# .
B3[2]:=algorithm_2(<<B2|B1>>)[1];
# algorithm_2
# B2 B1
# ( ).
# ( B3[2]),
# W3,
# W2,
# B2.
if d1=d3 then
C1:=Matrix(n,0);
# : d1=d3
# (, , W1=W3; W2<=W1;
# W1 W3 ;
# 1 ).
else

535

536

Maple-

C1:=SubMatrix(B3[1],1..n,d1+1..d3);
# : d1<d3.
# W1 W3
# (
# , C1).
fi;
if d2=d3 then
C2:=Matrix(n,0);
# : d2=d3
# (, , W2=W3; W1<=W2;
# W2 W3 ;
# 2 ).
else
C2:=SubMatrix(B3[2],1..n,d2+1..d3);
# : d2<d3.
# W2 W3
# (
# , 2).
fi;
RETURN(B3[1],d3,[B1,d1,C1],[B2,d2,C2],d0);
# :
# 1) B3[1],
#
W3 ,
#
( ) W1;
# 2) d3=dim(W3) ;
# 3) , B1,
#
W1,
#
d1=dim(W1)
#
C1,
#
W1 W3;
# 4) [B2,d2,C2]
;
#
# 5) d0 W0 .
end proc;

>
#
#
#
#
#
#

BiS[algorithm_6]:=proc(A1::Matrix,A2::Matrix)
W0
W1 W2 V.
W1 W2
( - A1 A2).
W0 B0.
, W1, W2, W0

. 1

. 1
#
#
#
#
#

Maple-


""
( JA1,JA2, JA0 ).
d3
W3=W1+W2.
local n,n1,n2,alg,JA1,JA2,A0,JA0,B0,d1,d2,d3,d0,sys0;

n1:=ColumnDimension(A1); n2:=ColumnDimension(A2);
if n1<>n2 then
ERROR(`
!`);
else
n:=n1;
fi;
#
# 1 2.
# : dim(V)=n.
JA1:=algorithm_1(A1)[3];d1:=n-RowDimension(JA1);
JA2:=algorithm_1(A2)[3];d2:=n-RowDimension(JA2);
# algorithm_1
# .
# ( JA1 JA2)
# A1 A2.
# ""
# ( JA1 JA2)
# W1 W2,
# d1=dim(W1) d2=dim(W2).
A0:=<JA1,JA2>;
# , W1 W2.
# W0 ( )
# - A0.
alg:=algorithm_1(A0);
B0:=alg[1];d0:=alg[2];JA0:=alg[3];sys0:=alg[4];
# algorithm_1
# A0.
# ( B0),
# W0;
# d0=dim(W0);
# JA0,
# ""
# W0 ( ).
#
# ... sys0.
d3:=d1+d2-d0;
# W3=W1+W2.

537

538

Maple-

RETURN(B0,d0,JA0,sys0,[JA1,d1],[JA2,d2],d3);
# :
# 1) B0, W0
#
W1 W2;
# 2) d0=dim(W0);
# 3) JA0 ,
#
- W0;
# 4) ... sys0
#
JA0 x= 0;
# 5) , JA1
#
,
#
- W1,
#
d1=dim(W1);
# 6) [JA2,d2] W2;
# 7) d3=dim(W3).
end proc;

> save BiS,"F:/MaplePackages/BiS.m";


# BiS.

. 1

. 1

Maple-

539

2. - jrd
( 2 " "; . 28.5)
> restart;with(LinearAlgebra):
interface(rtablesize=infinity):
#
# .
> # MAPLE-:
# ()
# Q ( Q[i])
> jrd:=proc(A::'Matrix'(square))
#
#
#
#

A.
.
( , ,
Q[i] .)
local n,E,i,j,k,u,v,
h,hf,hroots,s,lambda,m,ms,
exist_jbas,
B,BGJ,d,Nbas,F,l,
p,q,DIAGR,RIS,
jlist,num,
JS,J,
M,MG,blist,H,G,
GS,GSE,GSEG,
T,dt,str;

str:=`---------------------------------------------------------------------------------`;
#
#
#
#

"",


.

# " "
# .
# .
n:=RowDimension(A);
print('n'=n);
# .
E:=IdentityMatrix(n);

540

Maple-

# -
# / .
exist_jbas:=true;
# .
h:=CharacteristicPolynomial(A,lambda);
print('h(lambda)'=h);
# ( )
# ;
#
# .
hroots:=roots(h);hf:=factor(h);
# ! Q[i]
# ""
# "" :
# hroots:=roots(h,I);hf:=factor(h,I));
print('h(lambda)'=hf);
# :
# .
if hroots=[] then
ERROR(` !`);
fi;
# .
s:=nops(hroots);
print('s'=s);
#
# .
lambda:=array(1..s);m:=array(1..s);
for i from 1 to s do
lambda[i]:=hroots[i][1];m[i]:=hroots[i][2];
print(evaln(lambda[i])=lambda[i],evaln(m[i])=m[i]);
od;
print(str);
# .
ms:=sum('m[j]',j=1..s);
print(evaln(ms)=ms);
# .

. 1

. 1

Maple-

if ms<n then
exist_jbas:=false;
print(` ,
- .`);
else
print(` .`);
fi;
print(str);
# B,BGJ,d,Nbas,F,l.
# ( )
# .
# B[i]=A-lambda[i]*E:
# B[i][k]=(A-lambda[i]*E)^k,
# i - (i=1,...,s),
# k - (0<=k<=m[i]).
B:=array(1..s);
# , -.
BGJ:=array(1..s);
# : d[i][k]=dfc(B[i][k]);
d:=array(1..s);
# :
# Nbas[i][k]
#
# N[i][k]=Ker(B[i][k]).
Nbas:=array(1..s);
# :
# F[i][k]
# Nbas[i][k].
F:=array(1..s);
# :
# l[i] - B[i].
l:=array(1..s);
# B,BGJ,d,Nbas,F,l.
for i from 1 to s do
#
# - B,d.
B[i][0]:=E:d[i][0]:=0:
# .
l[i]:=1:

541

542

Maple-

. 1

for k from 1 to m[i] do


#
# m[i].
# ()
# B[i]=B[i][1]=A-lambda[i]*E.
B[i][k]:=B[i][k-1].(A-lambda[i]*E):
# B[i][k] -.
BGJ[i][k]:=ReducedRowEchelonForm(B[i][k]):
#
#
#
#
#
#

N[i][k].
( NullSpace
- ,

- ,
- .)

Nbas[i][k]:=NullSpace(BGJ[i][k]):
F[i][k]:=convert(convert(Nbas[i][k],list),Matrix):
# .
d[i][k]:=n-Rank(B[i][k]);
if d[i][k]<m[i] then
# ,
# ,
# .
l[i]:=l[i]+1:
else
break;
# .
fi;
od:
#
# .
print(evaln(l[i])=l[i]);
#
# , , -
# ( F[i][k]).
for k from 1 to l[i] do
print(evaln(B[i][k])=B[i][k],evaln(BGJ[i][k])=BGJ[i][k]);
print(evaln(F[i][k])=F[i][k],evaln(d[i][k])=d[i][k]);
print(str);
od;
print(str);
od:

. 1

Maple-

#
#
# ( ).
# p[i][k]
#
# C[i][k]
# (k-1)- N[i][k-1]
# k- N[i][k].
p:=array(1..s):
# p.
for i from 1 to s do
for k from 1 to l[i] do
p[i][k]:=d[i][k]-d[i][k-1]:
print(evaln(p[i][k])=p[i][k]);
od:
print(str);
od:
print(str);
#
#
#
#




( ).

# q[i][k]
#
# D[i][k]
# C[i][k]
# B[i](C[i][k+1])
# C[i][k+1]
# , B[i].
q:=array(1..s):
# q.
for i from 1 to s do
# ,
# . . dim(D[i][l[i]]).
q[i][l[i]]:=p[i][l[i]]:
# .
# . . dim(D[i][k]), 1<=k<l[i].
for k from 1 to l[i]-1 do
q[i][k]:=p[i][k]-p[i][k+1]:
od:
od:

543

544

Maple-

# q.
for i from 1 to s do
for k from 1 to l[i] do
print(evaln(q[i][k])=q[i][k]);
od;
print(str);
od;
print(str);
#
#
#
#

DIAGR
B[i].

DIAGR[i] {i=1,...,s).

#
#
#
#
#


RIS[i] .
( ,
,
- .)

#
# ( ),
# - :
# ,
# - .
DIAGR:=array(1..s):RIS:=array(1..s);
# .
for i from 1 to s do
# ( " " ``)
# DIAGR[i],
#
# l[i] (= )
# d[i][1] (= ) .
DIAGR[i]:=Matrix(l[i],d[i][1],fill=``):
# DIAGR[i],
# .
# DIAGR[i].
for k from 1 to l[i] do
# DIAGR[i].
for j from 1 to p[i][k] do
# j- k-
# , 1<=j<=p[i][k].
DIAGR[i][k,j]:=`*`;
od:
od:

. 1

. 1

Maple-

# RIS[i]
# ( ).
# ! RIS[i] DIAGR[i]
# :
# k- RIS[i]
# (l[i]-k+1)- DIAGR[i].
RIS[i]:=Matrix(l[i],d[i][1]):
for j from 1 to d[i][1] do
for k from 1 to l[i] do
RIS[i][k,j]:=DIAGR[i][l[i]-k+1,j];
od;
od;
od:
# "" .
for i from 1 to s do
print(evaln(DIAGR[i])=RIS[i]);
od;
print(str);
# .
num:=0:
# .
for i from 1 to s do
# DIAGR[i].
# DIAGR[i].
for j from 1 to d[i][1] do
# DIAGR[i].
for k from 1 to l[i] do #to 1 by -1 do
if DIAGR[i][k,j]=`*` then
# , *,
# num .
# (
# num.)
num:=num+1:
DIAGR[i][k,j]:=num:
else
break:
fi:
od:
od:

545

546

Maple-

# RIS[i].
for j from 1 to d[i][1] do
for k from 1 to l[i] do
RIS[i][k,j]:=DIAGR[i][l[i]-k+1,j];
od;
od;
od:
#
# ( ).
for i from 1 to s do
print(evaln(DIAGR[i])=RIS[i]);
od;
print(str);print(str);
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

jlist
[lambda[i],k],
lambda[i] - ,
k -
,

(. . ).

# jlist .
jlist:=[];
# .
for i from 1 to s do
# DIAGR[i].
for k from l[i] to 1 by -1 do
# k ,
# jlist
# q[i][k] [lambda[i],k].
if q[i][k]<>0 then
for j from 1 to q[i][k] do
jlist:=[jlist[],[lambda[i],k]];
od:
fi:
od:
od:
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

JS A ( n)
- ( ms) - ,
- ,
[lambda[i],k]
J[k](lambda[i])
k- lambda[i] .

. 1

. 1

Maple-

547

JS:=JordanBlockMatrix(jlist);
print(evaln(JS)=JS);
print(str);print(str);
#
#
#
#
#

H,G,M.

,
k
.

# H[i][k],
# D[i][k],
# .
H:=array(1..s);
# G[i][k],
# C[i][k],
# .
G:=array(1..s);
#
# - M[i][k].
M:=array(1..s);
# , .
MG:=array(1..s);
# .
for i from 1 to s do
if l[i]=1 then
# ,
# l[i]=1
# (. . ""
# , ,
#
# ).
# ,
# F[i][1], .
H[i][1]:=F[i][1];
G[i][1]:=H[i][1];
print(evaln(H[i][1])=H[i][l[i]],evaln(G[i][1])=G[i][l[i]]);
print(str);
else
# , l[i]>1.
for k from l[i] to 1 by -1 do
# .

548

Maple-
#
#
#
#

. 1

:
1) ;
2) ;
3) .

if k:=l[i] then
#
# .
# -,
#
# ,
#
#
# .
M[i][k]:=<F[i][k-1]|F[i][k]>;
MG[i][k]:=GaussianElimination(M[i][k]);
print(evaln(M[i][k])=M[i][k],evaln(MG[i][k])=MG[i][k]);
#
#
#
#
#
#

blist
,
M[i][k],
N[i][l[i]-1]
N[i][l[i]]
( , lambda[i]).

# .
blist:=[];
#
# - M[i][k] ( k=l[i]).
v:=d[i][k-1]+1;
# MG[i][k],
# ,
# () ,
#
# .
for u from d[i][k-1]+1 to d[i][k] do
# ( ) u,
# .
# ( .)
while MG[i][k][u,v]=0 do
v:=v+1;
od;
# u,
# v
# ,
# v blist
# .

. 1

Maple-
blist:=[blist[],v];
od;
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

H[i][k],
k=l[i]
(. . D[i][k])
M[i][k],
,
blist.
G[i][k],

(. . C[i][k]).

# ( .)
H[i][k]:=SubMatrix(M[i][k],1..n,blist);
G[i][k]:=H[i][k];
# .
print(evaln(H[i][k])=H[i][k],evaln(G[i][k])=G[i][k]);
print(str);
elif k<l[i] and k>1 then
# ,
# .
if q[i][k]=0 then
# , k-
# .
# H[i][k],
# , - ,
# G[i][k], ,
# B[i]
# G[i][k+1],
# ( ) .
G[i][k]:=B[i][1].G[i][k+1];
# .
print(evaln(H[i][k])=[],evaln(G[i][k])=G[i][k]);
print(str);
else
# , k- .
# "" M[i][k]:
# - ,
# () N[i][k-1],
# - ,
# B[i].G[i][k+1]
# C[i][k+1]
# , B[i],
# - ,
# () N[i]{k].
M[i][k]:=<F[i][k-1]|B[i][1].G[i][k+1]|F[i][k]>;

549

550

Maple-

. 1

# M[i][k]
# .
MG[i][k]:=GaussianElimination(M[i][k]);
print(evaln(M[i][k])=M[i][k],
evaln(MG[i][k])=MG[i][k]);
# blist
# ,
# () M[i][k],
# k- N[i][k]
#
# (k-1)- N[i][k-1]
# B[i](C[i][k+1]).
# .
blist:=[];
#
# - M[i][k].
v:=d[i][k-1]+p[i][k+1]+1;
#
# MG[i][k],
# ,
# ,
#
# .
for u from d[i][k-1]+p[i][k+1]+1 to d[i][k] do
# ( ) u,
# .
# ( .)
while MG[i][k][u,v]=0 do
v:=v+1;
od;
# u,
# v
# ,
# v blist
# .
blist:=[blist[],v];
od;
# H[i][k],
# k
# (. . D[i][k])
# M[i][k],
# ,
# blist.
H[i][k]:=SubMatrix(M[i][k],1..n,blist);
# G[i][k],
# k-

. 1

Maple-

551

# (. . C[i][k]).
G[i][k]:=<B[i][1].G[i][k+1]|H[i][k]>;
# .
print(evaln(H[i][k])=H[i][k],evaln(G[i][k])=G[i][k]);
print(str);
fi;
else;
#
# .
if q[i][k]=0 then
# ,
# .
# H[i][1],
# , - ,
# G[i][1], ,
# B[i]
# G[i][2],
# .
G[i][k]:=B[i][1].G[i][k+1];
# .
print(evaln(H[i][k])=[],evaln(G[i][k])=G[i][k]);
print(str);
else
# , .
# - M[i][1]:
# - ,
# B[i].G[i][2]
# C[i][2]
# , B[i],
# - ,
# () N[i][1].
M[i][k]:=<B[i][1].G[i][k+1]|F[i][k]>;
# M[i][1]
# .
MG[i][k]:=GaussianElimination(M[i][k]);
print(evaln(M[i][k])=M[i][k],
evaln(MG[i][k])=MG[i][k]);
#
#
#
#
#

blist
,
() M[i][1],
N[i][1]
B[i](C[i][2]).

552

Maple-

. 1

# .
blist:=[];
#
# - M[i][1].
v:=p[i][k+1]+1;
#
# MG[i][1],
# ,
# ,
#
# .
for u from p[i][k+1]+1 to d[i][k] do
# ( ) u,
# .
# ( .)
while MG[i][k][u,v]=0 do
v:=v+1;
od;
# u,
# v
# ,
# v blist
# .
blist:=[blist[],v];
od;
# H[i][1],
# k=1
# (. . D[i][1])
# M[i][1],
# ,
# blist.
H[i][k]:=SubMatrix(M[i][k],1..n,blist);
# G[i][1],
#
# (. . C[i][1]).
G[i][k]:=<B[i][1].G[i][k+1]|H[i][k]>;
# .
print(evaln(H[i][k])=H[i][k],evaln(G[i][k])=G[i][k]);
print(str);
fi;
fi;
# 1) 3)
# .

. 1

Maple-
print(str);

od;
# .
fi;
# # ( -) .
od;
# .
# .
# GS,
# ( ) .
# ( GS ms
# .)
GS:=Matrix(n,ms);
# .
for i from 1 to s do
# DIAGR[i].
for k from 1 to l[i] do
# u 1 p[i][k]
# [k,u] DIAGR[i]
# DIAGR[i][k,u] # , GS
# ,
# G[i][k],
# u.
# G[i][k]
# ( ) - u
# GS
# - DIAGR[i][k,u].
for u from 1 to p[i][k] do
GS[1..n,DIAGR[i][k,u]..DIAGR[i][k,u]]:=
SubMatrix(G[i][k],1..n,u..u);
od;
od;
od;
# GS, .
print(evaln(GS)=GS);
print(str);print(str);

553

554
#
#
#
#
#

Maple-

T
()
( ) ,
( )
J .

if exist_jbas then
#
# ( ),
# GS ,
#
# .
# ... A
# ( ) JS.
T:=GS;J:=JS;
# J T.
print(evaln(J)=J);
print(evaln(T)=T);
print(str);print(str);
#
#
#
#

""
( ,

).

#
#
#
#
#


det(T);
.
,
.

dt:=Determinant(T);
print(evaln(det('T'))=dt);
if dt=0 then
ERROR(` T !`);
fi;
#
#
#
#
#

:

T.J=A.T
,
.

if not Equal(T.J,A.T) then


ERROR(` T*J=A*T !`);
fi;
print(str);print(str);

. 1

. 1

Maple-

else
#
#
#
#
#
#


,
,
GS,
( )
.

#
# GSE,
# GS E.
GSE:=<GS|E>;
GSEG:=GaussianElimination(GSE);
print(evaln(GSE)=GSE);
print(evaln(GSEG)=GSEG);
#
#
#
#

(
GSEG)
GSE
GS.

for i from ms+1 to n do


for j from ms+1 to n do
if GSEG[i,j]<>0 then
T:=<T|SubMatrix(GSE,1..n,j..j)>;
break;
fi;
od;
od;
#
# T n n,
# .
# :
#
# det(T).
dt:=Determinant(T);
if dt=0 then
ERROR(` T !`);
fi;
# J
# A,
# T .
J:=MatrixInverse(T).A.T;
# :

555

556

Maple-

. 1

# - ms ms
# J
# JS.
if not Equal(JS,SubMatrix(J,1..ms,1..ms)) then
ERROR(` JS=SubMatrix(G,1..ms,1..ms)
!`);
fi;
print(str);print(str);
# .
print(evaln(J)=J);
print(evaln(T)=T);
print(evaln(det('T'))=dt);
print(str);print(str);
fi;
#
#
#
#
#
#

" " .

( , )
1) J - () ... A;
2) T -
() .

RETURN(J,T);
end proc;

. 1

Maple-

557

2. jrd
( 2 " "; . 28.5)
> A:=Matrix([[5, -4, -3, 5, -1, 1, 5, 1, -1, 3, 1],
[12, 30, 14, 4, 5, -8, 0, -4, 12, -8, -4],
[12, 8, 3, 5, -1, -1, 1, -4, 5, -2, -3],
[1, -14, -7, -1, -4, 7, -3, -3, -4, 2, -1],
[-12, -8, -1, -5, 3, 1, -1, 4, -5, 2, 3],
[13, 28, 12, 5, 4, -8, 1, -4, 11, -7, -4],
[-6, 18, 10, -5, 5, -8, -3, 1, 5, -5, 0],
[6, -4, -3, 5, -1, 1, 5, 0, -1, 3, 1],
[-12, -34, -16, -4, -6, 9, 0, 4, -14, 9, 4],
[23, 39, 21, 8, 7, -9, 0, -8, 17, -11, -7],
[13, -22, -16, 10, -9, 9, 7, -1, -6, 8, 0]]);
5

12
12
1

-12

A := 13

-6
6

-12

23
13

-4
30
8
-14
-8
28
18
-4
-34
39
-22

-3
14
3
-7
-1
12
10
-3
-16
21
-16

5
4
5
-1
-5
5
-5
5
-4
8
10

-1
5
-1
-4
3
4
5
-1
-6
7
-9

1
-8
-1
7
1
-8
-8
1
9
-9
9

5
0
1
-3
-1
1
-3
5
0
0
7

1
-4
-4
-3
4
-4
1
0
4
-8
-1

-1
12
5
-4
-5
11
5
-1
-14
17
-6

3
-8
-2
2
2
-7
-5
3
9
-11
8

-4

-3
-1

-4

0
1

-7

> jrd(A);

n = 11
h( ) = 11 4 10 5 9 + 30 8 + 15 7 96 6 51 5 + 150 4 + 120 3
80 2 112 32
h( ) = ( 2 ) 5 ( + 1 ) 6

s=2
1 = 2 , m1 = 5
2 = -1 , m 2 = 6

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ms = 11
.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

558

Maple-

. 1

l1 = 4

12
12
1

-12

B 1 = 13

1
-6
6

-12

23
13

-4
28
8
-14
-8
28
18
-4
-34
39
-22

-3
14
1
-7
-1
12
10
-3
-16
21
-16

0
0
0

BGJ 1 = 0

1
0
0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

5
4
5
-3
-5
5
-5
5
-4
8
10

-1
5
-1
-4
1
4
5
-1
-6
7
-9

1
-8
-1
7
1
-10
-8
1
9
-9
9

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0

-2

F 1 = 0

1
0
0

0
1

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

5
0
1
-3
-1
1
-5
5
0
0
7

1
-4
-4
-3
4
-4
1
-2
4
-8
-1

-1
12
5
-4
-5
11
5
-1
-16
17
-6

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

-1
0
1
1
-2
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0

3
-8
-2
2
2
-7
-5
3
9
-13
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

-4

-3
-1

-4 ,

0
1

-7

-2

-1
0

0
0

-1
-1

0 , d 1 = 2

0 1
1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. 1

Maple-

25

-24
-27
-32

27

B 1 = -29

2
10
16

24

-46
0

33
-88
-54
12
54
-79
-45
33
115
-151
78

20
-43
-21
4
21
-31
-24
20
55
-82
53

0
0
0

BGJ 1 = 0

2
0
0

0
0

-3
-7
-9
0
9
-13
12
-3
7
-10
-15
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

5
-17
-6
7
6
-11
-12
5
23
-32
26
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0

-2

F 1 = 0

2
0
0

0
1

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
-1
1
0

-4
27
15
-17
-15
30
21
-4
-33
42
-25
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

-14
1
0
11
0
-5
12
-14
-1
7
-17
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

559

-18
8
9
22
-9
7
2
-9
-8
18
-14
-1
0
1
1
-2
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0

15
-35
-24
-3
24
-29
-12
15
50
-59
27

-14
26
15
2
-15
20
12
-14
-32
50
-26

0
-1
0
0
0
-1
0
1
0
0
0

-1
0

0
0

-10

9
10

-9

9 ,

0
-10

-9

18

-1

-1
-1

0 , d 1 = 3

0 2
1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

560

Maple-

-60

81
81
69

-81

B 1 = 99

3
-9
-33

-81

144
3

-142
270
189
34
-189
216
108
-142
-378
486
-250

-85
135
81
31
-81
81
54
-85
-189
270
-166

0
0
0

BGJ 1 = 0

3
0
0

0
0

29
27
27
-29
-27
54
-27
29
-27
27
56
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-29
54
27
2
-27
27
27
-29
-81
108
-83
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0

-2

F 1 = 0

3
0
0

0
1

. 1

30
-81
-54
24
54
-81
-54
30
108
-135
84

55
0
0
-55
0
27
-27
55
0
-27
55

62
-27
-27
-71
27
-18
-18
35
27
-63
53

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
-1
1
0
-1
-1
0
0
1
0
0

-1
-1

0 , d 1 = 4

0 3
1

-1
0
1
1
-2
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
-1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

-56
108
81
29
-81
81
27
-56
-162
189
-83
0
0
-1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

56
-81
-54
-29
54
-54
-27
56
108
-162
83

27

-27

-27
-27

27

-27 ,

0
27

27

-54

-1
0

0
0

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. 1

Maple-

216

-243
-243
-216

243

B 1 = -297

4
-27
135

243

-432
54

486
-891
-648
-243
648
-648
-243
486
1296
-1620
729

297
-459
-297
-189
297
-243
-108
297
675
-918
486

0
0
0

BGJ 1 = 0

4
0
0

0
0

-108
-81
-81
135
81
-189
54
-108
81
-54
-162
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1
1
0

-1

F 1 = -1

4
0
0

0
0

108
-189
-108
-54
108
-81
-54
108
297
-378
243
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-108
270
189
-27
-189
243
135
-108
-378
459
-243
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
-2
0
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
-1
-1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0

-189
0
0
216
0
-108
54
-189
0
108
-162
0
0
-1
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1
0
1
1
-2
0
0
0
0
0
0

561

-243
81
81
270
-81
27
81
-162
-81
216
-216
0
1
-1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

189
-351
-270
-135
270
-243
-54
189
540
-621
243
0
0
-1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

-189
270
189
135
-189
162
54
-189
-378
540
-243

-1
0

0
0

1
-1

-2

0 , d 1 = 5

1 4
0

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-81

81

81
81

-81

81 ,

0
-81

-81

162

562

Maple-

. 1

l2 = 3

12
12
1

-12

B 2 = 13

1
-6
6

-12

23
13

-4
31
8
-14
-8
28
18
-4
-34
39
-22

-3
14
4
-7
-1
12
10
-3
-16
21
-16

0
0
0

BGJ 2 = 0

1
0
0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

5
4
5
0
-5
5
-5
5
-4
8
10
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
-2

-1

F 2 = 3

1
2
0

1
0

-1
5
-1
-4
4
4
5
-1
-6
7
-9
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0

1
-8
-1
7
1
-7
-8
1
9
-9
9
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0

5
0
1
-3
-1
1
-2
5
0
0
7

1
-4
-4
-3
4
-4
1
1
4
-8
-1

-1
12
5
-4
-5
11
5
-1
-13
17
-6

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

-1
-1
-1
4
1
-4
-3
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
-1
-1
0
0
0
0

3
-8
-2
2
2
-7
-5
3
9
-10
8
0
-1
-1
2
1
-3
-2
0
0
0
0

-4

-3
-1

-4 ,

0
1

-7

1
0

0
0

0
1

1
-4

-1

4 , d 2 = 3

3 1
1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. 1

Maple-

52

48
45
-26

-45

B 2 = 49

2
-26
52

-48

92
78

9
89
-6
-72
6
89
63
9
-89
83
-54

BGJ 2 = 0

0
0
0

2
41
-6
-38
15
41
36
2
-41
44
-43

27
17
21
-9
-21
17
-18
27
-17
38
45

-1
13
-12
-17
21
13
18
-1
-13
10
-28

2
-21
9
25
-9
-21
-27
2
21
-12
29

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

16
1
6
-7
-6
1
-9
16
-1
7
25
0
-5
17
-7
17
14
17
7
17
-20
17
0
0
0
0
0

563

-12
-16
-15
4
15
-17
8
-12
16
-30
-20
-1
-2
17
4
17
26
17
-4
17
-8
17
0
0
0
0
0

9
37
6
-27
-6
37
18
9
-37
43
-9
0
5
17
7
17
3
17
-7
17
3
17
0
0
0
0
0

4
-22
3
14
-3
-22
-18
4
22
-19
22
0
-7
17
-3
17
6
17
3
17
-11
17
0
0
0
0
0

-4

-15

-9
4

-15 ,

0
-4

15

-24

-4
0

-4
17

-9

17
1

17

9
17

-16
17

0
0

564

Maple-

0
4

17
9

17
-1

17

-9
F 2 = 17

16
17
0

0
0
1

0
7
17
3
17
-6
17
-3
17
11
17
0
0
0
1
0

1
2
17
-4
17
-26
17
4
17
8
17
0
1
0
0
0

0
-5
17
-7
17
-3
17
7
17
-3
17
0
0
1
0
0

. 1

5
17

17
-14

17

-7
17 , d 22 = 5

20
17

0
0

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 273

189
162
-192

-162

B 2 = 189

3
-81
273

-189

351
354

47
261
-81
-236
81
261
189
47
-261
180
-142

14
126
-54
-122
81
126
108
14
-126
99
-121

137
72
81
-83
-81
72
-54
137
-72
153
191

-11
36
-54
-43
81
36
54
-11
-36
9
-92

21
-54
54
60
-54
-54
-81
21
54
0
102

64
9
27
-37
-27
9
-27
64
-9
36
91

-73
-63
-54
46
54
-63
27
-73
63
-117
-100

52
117
0
-106
0
117
54
52
-117
117
-2

11
-63
27
43
-27
-63
-54
11
63
-36
65

-36

-54

-27
36

27

-54 ,

0
-36

54

-81

-36

. 1

Maple-

BGJ 2 =
0
3

0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

4
3

-1
3

-7
3
F 2 = 1

3
0
0

0
0
1

11
12
1
4
-5
12
-23
12
5
12
0
0
0
0
1
0

-1
4
-1
4
-1
4
1
4
1
4
0
0
0
1
0
0

17
12
-1
4
-11
12
-29
12
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
3

5
3

-2
3
-8
3
2
3
0
0
1
0
0
0

-2
3
-11
3
2
3
0
1
0
0
0
0

565

-5
3

-5
3

2
3
11
3
-2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0

2
3
8
3
-2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
4
1
4
1
4
-1
4
-1
4
0
0
0
0
0
0

-11
12
-1
4
5
12
23
12
-5
12
0
0
0
0
0
0

-4

1
3

7
3

-1

3
0

0
0

-17

12
1

11
12

29
12

-11 , d 23 = 6

12
1

0
0

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

566

Maple-

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------p1 = 2
1

p1 = 1
2

p1 = 1
3

p1 = 1
4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------p2 = 3
1

p2 = 2
2

p2 = 1
3

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------q1 = 1
1

q1 = 0
2

q1 = 0
3

q1 = 1
4

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------q2 = 1
1

q2 = 1
2

q2 = 1
3

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *
*
DIAGR 1 =
*
*

*
DIAGR 2 = *

*
*

. 1

. 1

Maple-

567

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------4

3
DIAGR 1 =
2
1

8
DIAGR 2 = 7

11

10
9

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

0
0
0

JS = 0

0
0

0
0

1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0

0
0

0
0

-1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
1
0

-2

M 1 = 0

4
0
0

0
1

0
0
1
0
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
-1
1
0
-1
-1
0
0
1
0
0

1
0
-1
-1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
-1
1
0
-1
-1
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0
-1
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
1
0
-2
0
0
0
0
0
1

1
0
-1
-1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0

1
-1

-2

0 ,

1
0

568

Maple-

0
0
0

MG 1 = 0

4
0
0

0
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

H1 =

1
1
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1
0
0
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
1
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1
-1

-2

0 , G1 =

4
1
0

1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

. 1

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1
0
0
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
-1

-1

0
0

1
-1

-2

1
0

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

H1 = [ ], G1 =

3
3

-1

-1
1

0
-1

-1

-1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. 1

Maple-

H1 = [ ], G1 =

2
2

569

-1

-1

0
1

-1

0
-1

-1

-1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

0
0
1

M 1 = 0

1
0
-1

0
-1

0
0
1
0
-2
0
0
0
0
0
1

H1 =

1
-1

0
0

0
-1

0
-1

0
2

0 , MG 1 = 0

1
0
0

0
1

0
0

0
0

0
0
0

1
0

-2

0 , G1 =

1
0
0

-1

0
0
1

0
0
-1

0
-1

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1

0
0

0
0

1
0

-2

0
0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

570

Maple-

4
17

9
17

-1
17

M 2 = -9

3
17
16
17

0
0

0
1

4
3

7
17
3
17
-6
17
-3
17
11
17
0
0
0
1
0

2
17
-4
17
-26
17
4
17
8
17
0
1
0
0
0

-5
17
-7
17
-3
17
7
17
-3
17
0
0
1
0
0

5
17
7
17
-14
17
-7
17
20
17
1
0
0
0
0

17

MG 2 =
0
3

0
0

0
0

-1
3
-7
3
1
3

11
12
1
4
-5
12
-23
12
5
12

-1
4
-1
4
-1
4
1
4
1
4

0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
1
0

7
17
-3
4

2
17
-1
2

-5
17
1
4

5
17
-1
4

-1
3

-2
3

-1

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

. 1

0
-1
3
4
3
-4
9
-4
3
-4
3
0
0
0
0
0

1
4
-47
48
11
12
-11
36
-11
12
-11
12
0
0
0
0
0

5
3

5
3

-2
3
-8
3
2
3

-2
3
-11
3
2
3

0
0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0

-1
4
5
16
-1
4
-1
4
1
4
1
4
0
0
0
0
0

-17

12
1

11
12

29
12

-11 ,

12

0
0

-2
3
5
3
-2
9
-2
3
-2
3
0
0
0
0
0

-2
3
5
3
-11
9
-8
3
-5
3
0
0
0
0
0

4
17

48

-17
12

17
36

17

12
17

12

0
0

. 1

Maple-

H2 =

4
3
0
-1
3
-7
3
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1

, G =
2
3

4
3
0
-1
3
-7
3
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1

571

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0

-2

-1

M 2 =
3
2

2
0

-2
-1
3
-1
3
4
3
1
3

-1

-4

-1

-1

1
0

3
1

2
-2
2
3
1
3
-8
3

0
4
17
9
17
-1
17
-9
17
16
17
0
0

0
7
17
3
17
-6
17
-3
17
11
17
0
0

1
2
17
-4
17
-26
17
4
17
8
17
0
1

0
-5
17
-7
17
-3
17
7
17
-3
17
0
0

5
17

17
-14

17

-7
17

20 ,
17

572

Maple-

MG 2 =
0
2

0
0
0

0
0

-1
3
2
3
-2
-4
3

-1

-2

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

H 2 =

0
4
17
9
17
-1
17
-9
17
16
17
0
0
0
0
1

4
17
7
17
0
11
17
-5
17
0
0
0
0
0
0

, G =
22

7
17
8
17
0
-2
17
4
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
-2
-1
3
-1
3
4
3
1
3
-1
2
-2
2
3
1
3
-8
3

. 1

2
17
-22
17
1
-3
17
6
17
0
0
0
0
0
0

-5
17
-13
17
0
-1
17
2
17
0
0
0
0
0
0

17
-4

17

0
1

17

-2
17

0
0

0
4
17
9
17
-1
17
-9
17
16
17
0
0

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

. 1

Maple-

M 2 =

4
3
0
0
-8
3
0
4
3
4
3
4
3
0
-4
3
0

-6
17
5
17
5
17
12
17
-5
17
-1
17
-6
17
-6
17
-10
17
11
17
0

H2 =

-2

-1

-1

4
1
3

-4
0

0
-1

, MG 2 = 0
4
1
0

0
3
0

0
1

0
0

-2

-1

3 , G2 =

1
2

4
3
0
0
-8
3
0
4
3
4
3
4
3
0
-4
3
0

-6
17
5
17
5
17
12
17
-5
17
-1
17
-6
17
-6
17
-10
17
11
17
0

573

-6
17
5
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

-2
0

0
0

-2

-1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

574

Maple-

. 1

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -1

GS = 0

-1

-1

-1

-1

4
3

-1

-1

-1

-8
3

-2

-2

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-4
3

-1

-1

-2

4
3
4
3
4
3

4
3

-1
3
-1
3
4
3
1
3

-1
3
-7
3
1
3

-1

-2

2
3
1
3
-8
3

-6
17
5
17
5
17
12
17
-5
17
-1
17
-6
17
-6
17
-10
17
11
17

0
0
1

0
4
17
9
17
-1
17
-9
17
16
17
0
0
0
0
1

-2

-1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
0
0

J = 0

0
0

0
0

1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-1
0

0
0

0
0

-1

. 1

Maple-
-1

T = 0

-1

-1

-1

-1

4
3

-1

-1

-1

-8
3

-2

-2

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-4
3

-1

-1

-2

4
3
4
3
4
3

575
4
3

-1
3
-1
3
4
3
1
3

-1
3
-7
3
1
3

-1

-2

2
3
1
3
-8
3

0
0
1

-6
17
5
17
5
17
12
17
-5
17
-1
17
-6
17
-6
17
-10
17
11
17
0

0
4
17
9
17
-1
17
-9
17
16
17
0
0
0
0
1

-2

-1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------det ( T ) =

3200
7803

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

576

Maple-

3. Quadro
( 3 "
()
"; . 39.1)
> restart;with(LinearAlgebra):
> # Quadro
# Lagr, Jacob, Signatura;
#
# () ,
# .
#
# ( ),
# ( R).
> Quadro[Lagr]:=proc(A::'Matrix'(symmetric))
local B,T,E,n,i,j,k,signal,U,U1,V;
#
#
#
#
#

Lagr, :

( )

.

n:=RowDimension(A);
# .
B:=Matrix(n,A);
# .
E:=IdentityMatrix(n);
# .
T:=Matrix(n,E);
#
# .
V:=<<1,1>|<-1,1>>;
# ();
#
# .
for k from 1 to n-1 do
# .
print(`k=`||k);

. 1

. 1

Maple-

577

if not Equal(SubMatrix(B,k..n,k..n),ZeroMatrix(n-k+1)) then


# -
# ( )
# , - ...
if Equal(Diagonal(SubMatrix(B,k..n,k..n)),ZeroVector(n-k+1))
then
# - ,
# .
if B[k,k+1]=0 then
# (k,k+1) ,
#
# () .
signal:=false;
# ,
# .
for j from k+2 to n do
if B[k,j]<>0 then
#
# .
signal:=true;
break;
fi;
od;
if signal then
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k+1,j],inplace=false);
#
# .
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);
else
for j from k+2 to n do
if B[k+1,j]<>0 then
#
# , .
signal:=true;
break:
fi;
od;

578

Maple-
if signal then
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k,k+1],inplace=false);
#
# ( ).
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k+1,j],inplace=false);
#
# ( ).
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);
else
for i from k+2 to n-1 do
for j from i+1 to n do
if B[i,j]<>0 then
#
# , .
signal:=true;
break;
fi;
od;
if signal then
break;
fi;
od;
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k+1,j],inplace=false);
#
# ( ).
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);

. 1

. 1

Maple-
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k,i],inplace=false);
#
# ( ).
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);
fi;
fi;
fi;
U:=Matrix(n,E);U[k..k+1,k..k+1]:=V;
# ,
# .
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);

elif B[k,k]=0 then


# - ,
# - ,
#
# .
for i from k+1 to n do
if B[i,i]<>0 then
# .
break;
fi;
od;
U:=ColumnOperation(E,[k,i],inplace=false);
#
# .
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);
fi;

579

580

Maple-
U:=Matrix(n,E);
# ,
# ;
# .
for j from k+1 to n do
U[k,j]:=-B[k,j]/B[k,k];
od;
if not Equal(U,E) then
# ,
# ,
# ""
#
# .
print(`U=`,U);
T:=T.U;
#
# .
B:=Transpose(U).B.U;
# .
print(`B=`,B);

fi;
fi;
od;
RETURN(B,T);
# : ,
# ,
# .
end proc;

> Quadro[Jacob]:=proc(A::'Matrix'(symmetric))
local B,n,i,j,k,Delta,mu,T,AT,sys,sol;
#
#
#
#
#

Jacob


( ),
.

n:=RowDimension(A);
# .
Delta[0]:=1;
# .

. 1

. 1

Maple-

for i from 1 to n do
Delta[i]:=Determinant(SubMatrix(A,1..i,1..i));
# .
print(evaln(Delta[i])=Delta[i]);
if i<n and Delta[i]=0 then
# ( )
# ,
# .
ERROR(" !");
else
#
# ,
#
# .
mu[i]:=Delta[i]/Delta[i-1];
fi;
od;
for i from 1 to n do
print(evaln(mu[i])=mu[i]);
od;
B:=Matrix(n):
# .
# .
for i from 1 to n do
B[i,i]:=mu[i]:
od:
T:=Matrix(n,symbol=`t`):
#
# .
#
# (
# ).
for i from 1 to n do
T[i,i]:=1;
od:
for i from 2 to n do
for j from 1 to i-1 do
T[i,j]:=0;
od;
od;

581

582

Maple-

print(`T=`,T);
AT:=A.T;
#
#
# .
print(map(simplify,AT));
sys:={}:
#
# ()
#
# .
for i from 1 to n do
for j from i+1 to n do
sys:=sys union {AT[i,j]=0};
# ( )
#
# ,
#
# .
od;
od;
print(sys);
sol:=solve(sys);
# .
print(sol);
#
#
# .
for i from 1 to n do
for j from i+1 to n do
for k from 1 to nops(sol) do
if T[i,j]=lhs(sol[k]) then
T[i,j]:=rhs(sol[k]);
break;
fi;
od;
od;
od;
RETURN(B,T);
# : ,
#
# ,
# .
end proc;

. 1

. 1

Maple-

> Quadro[Signature]:=proc(A::'Matrix'(diagonal))
local n,B1,B2,E,T1,T2,T,i,j,s,t,r,pos,neg,zer,str,new_ord;
#
#
#
#
#

Signature ( )

( )

( ).

n:=RowDimension(A);
# .
E:=IdentityMatrix(n);
# .
s:=0;t:=0;
#
# .
pos:=[];neg:=[];zer:=[];
# ,
#
# (, )
# .
#
# .
for i from 1 to n do
if A[i,i]>0 then
s:=s+1;
pos:=[pos[],i];
elif A[i,i]<0 then
t:=t+1;
neg:=[neg[],i];
else
zer:=[zer[],i];
fi;
od:
r:=s+t;
# .
print(`s=`||s,`t=`||t,`r=`||r);
print(`pos=`,pos,`neg=`,neg,`zer=`,zer);
#
#
# ( ).

583

584

Maple-

if s=n then
str:=` .`;
elif s<n and s>0 and t=0 then
str:=` .`;
elif s<n and s>0 and t>0 then
if r=n then
str:=` .`;
else
str:=` .`;
fi;
elif s=0 and t=0 then
str:=` .`;
elif s=o and t<n then
str:=` .`;
else
str:=` .`;
fi;
print(str);
new_ord:=[pos[],neg[],zer[]];
# :
# ,
#
# ,
# - , ,
# , , - ,
# .
T1:=Matrix(n,E);
#
# .
#
#
#
#

:


.

for j from 1 to n do
T1[1..n,j..j]:=E[1..n,new_ord[j]..new_ord[j]];
od;
B1:=Transpose(T1).A.T1;
# ,
# ,
#
# .
print(`T1=`,T1,`B1=`,B1);
T2:=Matrix(n,E):
#
# .

. 1

. 1

Maple-

# .
for i from 1 to n do
if i<=s then
T2[i,i]:=1/sqrt(B1[i,i]);
elif i>s and i<=r then
T2[i,i]:=1/sqrt(-B1[i,i]);
else
T2[i,i]:=1;
fi;
od:
B2:=Transpose(T2).B1.T2;
# ,
#
# .
print(`T2=`,T2,`B2=`,B2);
RETURN(B2,T1.T2,[s,t]);
# : ,
#
# ,
# ( )
# .
end proc;
> save Quadro,"F:/MaplePackages/Quadro.m";
# .

585

586

Maple-

. 1

3. Quadro
( 3 "
()
"; . 39.1)
> restart;with(LinearAlgebra):
> read "F:/MaplePackages/Quadro.m"; with(Quadro);

[ Jacob , Lagr , Signature ]


>
A:=Matrix([[0,1,0,1,0,1,0],[1,0,1,1,1,1,1],[0,1,0,0,1,0,1],
[1,1,0,0,1,1,1],[0,1,1,1,0,1,0],[1,1,0,1,1,0,1],
[0,1,1,1,0,1,0]]);
0

1
0
A := 1

0
1

1
0
1
1
1
1
1

0
1
0
0
1
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
1
1

0
1
1
1
0
1
0

1
1
0
1
1
0
1

1
1

> (DL,TL):=Lagr(A);
# .
# DL TL
# , ,
# .
#
# ( U)
#
# ( B).
# ,
# ,
# ,
# ,
# .

k=1
1
1

0
U= , 0

0
0

-1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0

. 1

Maple-
2

0
1
B= , 2

1
2

1
1

0
U= ,
0
0
0

0
2
0

0
B= ,

0
-2
1
0
1
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
0
1
-1
2
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
-2

-1
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
1
-1
2
-1
1
2
-1
1
2

1
0
1
0
1

2
0
0
0
1
1
1

0
0
-1
-2
0
-1
0

1
1
1
1
0
1
0
-1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
-1
2
0
-1
2

2
0
0
1
1
0
1

587
1

1
1

-1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
-1
-1
0
-2
0

-1

2
0

0
0

1
0

1
2

-1
2

-1
2

k=2
1

0
U= ,
0
0
0

0
2

0
0
B= , 0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0

0
-2
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
-1
1
-1
1

0
1
0
0
0

0
1
2
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
-1
-2
0
-1
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
-1
-1
0
-2
0

1
2

0
0

1
0

1
0

588

Maple-

. 1

k=3
1

0
0
U= , 0

0
0

0
2
0

0
B= , 0

0
0

0
1
0

U= ,
0
0
0

0
0

0
B= ,

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
-2
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
-2
-1
0
-1
0

0
0
-1
0
1
-1
1

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
-1
-1
0
-2
0

0
1

0
1

0
0

0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
-1
2
1
0
0
0

0
0
-1
2
0
0
1
0

0
0

0
-2
0

0
0
-2

0
0
0
1
2
1
-1
2
1

0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
-1
2
0
-3
2
0

0
0

k=4
1

0
0
U= , 0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
-2
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
1
0

0
-2

. 1

Maple-
2
0

B= , 0

0
0

0
-2
0

0
0
-2

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

-2
1
-2

1
-2
1

0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0

589
0

-2
1

-2

k=5
1
0

0
0
U= ,
0

0
2

0
0

0
B= ,

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
-2
0

0
0
-2

0
0
0
1
2
0

0
0

-1

0
0
0

0
0
0

-2

0
-3
2
0

k=6
2
0

0
DL , TL :=

0
-2
0

0
0
-2

0
0
0
1
2
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

-2

0
-3
2
0

0

0

0

0
,

0

0

-1
2
1
2
1
-1
2

-1

-1

-1

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
-1
-2
1

-1
-1
2
0
-1
2
1
2
1
0

-1

590

Maple-

. 1

> (DJ,TJ):=Jacob(A);
1 = 0
Error, (in Jacob) !

> (DS,TS,sg):=Signature(DL);
# .

s=2 , t=4 , r=6

pos= , [ 1 , 4 ], neg= , [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 ], zer=, [ 7 ]


1
0

0
T1= , 0

0
0

T2= ,

0
0
0
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0

0 , B1= , 0

0
0

0
1

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

6
3
0

0
1
2
0
0
0

-2
0
0

0
-2
0

0
0
-2

0
0
0
-3
2
0

0
0

, B2= , 0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
-1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
-1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
-1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
-1
0

0
0

. 1

Maple-

591

DS , TS , sg :=

1
0

0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
-1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
-1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
-1
0
0

0

0

0
0 ,

0

0

0

0
0
0
0
0
-1
0

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

6
3
0

> T:=TL.TS;
# ""
# .

T :=

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
2

> DS-Transpose(T).A.T;
# .
0

0
0
0

0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0

6
3

6
6
0

6
6
6
6
6
3
0

-1

0
, [ 2 , 4 ]
0

592

Maple-

. 1

> A1:=A: A1[1,1]:=1: evaln(A1)=A1;


#
# Jacob.
1

1
0
A1 = 1

0
1

1
0
1
1
1
1
1

0
1
0
0
1
0
1

1
1
0
0
1
1
1

0
1
1
1
0
1
0

1
1
0
1
1
0
1

1
1

> Jacob(A1);
1 = 1 2 = -1 3 = -1 4 = 1 5 = -2 6 = 1 7 = 0

1 = 1 2 = -1 3 = 1 4 = -1 5 = -2 6 =

T= , 0

0
0

t 1, 2

t 1, 3

t1, 4

t1, 5

t 1, 6

t 2, 3

t2, 4

t2, 5

t 2, 6

t3, 4

t3, 5

t 3, 6

t4, 5

t 4, 6

t 5, 6

-1
=0
2 7

t 1, 7

t2, 7

t3, 7

t4, 7

t5, 7

t6, 7

[ 1 , t 1, 2 + 1 , t 1, 3 + t 2, 3 , t 1, 4 + t 2 , 4 + 1 , t 1, 5 + t 2 , 5 + t 4, 5 , t 1 , 6 + t 2, 6 + 1 + t 4 , 6 ,
t 1 , 7 + t 2, 7 + t 4 , 7 + t 6, 7 ]
[ 1 , t 1, 2 , t 1, 3 + 1 , t 1 , 4 + 1 + t 3 , 4 , t 1 , 5 + 1 + t 3 , 5 + t 4, 5 , t 1, 6 + 1 + t 3, 6 + t 4, 6 + t 5, 6 ,
t 1 , 7 + 1 + t 3 , 7 + t 4, 7 + t 5, 7 + t 6, 7 ]
[ 0 , 1 , t 2, 3 , t 2, 4 , 1 + t 2 , 5 , t 2, 6 + t 5 , 6 , 1 + t 2, 7 + t 5 , 7 ]
[ 1 , t 1 , 2 + 1 , t 1, 3 + t 2 , 3 , t 1, 4 + t 2 , 4 , t 1, 5 + t 2, 5 + 1 , t 1, 6 + t 2, 6 + 1 + t 5, 6 ,
t 1 , 7 + t 2, 7 + 1 + t 5 , 7 + t 6, 7 ]
[ 0 , 1 , 1 + t 2, 3 , 1 + t 2 , 4 + t 3, 4 , t 2, 5 + t 3 , 5 + t 4, 5 , 1 + t 2 , 6 + t 3, 6 + t 4 , 6 ,
t 2 , 7 + t 3, 7 + t 4 , 7 + t 6, 7 ]
[ 1 , t 1 , 2 + 1 , t 1, 3 + t 2 , 3 , t 1, 4 + t 2 , 4 + 1 , t 1, 5 + t 2 , 5 + 1 + t 4, 5 , t 1, 6 + t 2 , 6 + t 4, 6 + t 5 , 6
, t 1 , 7 + t 2, 7 + 1 + t 4 , 7 + t 5, 7 ]
[ 0 , 1 , 1 + t 2, 3 , 1 + t 2 , 4 + t 3, 4 , t 2, 5 + t 3 , 5 + t 4, 5 , 1 + t 2 , 6 + t 3, 6 + t 4 , 6 ,
t 2 , 7 + t 3, 7 + t 4 , 7 + t 6 , 7 ]

. 1

Maple-

593

{ t1, 2 + 1 = 0 , t 1, 3 + t 2, 3 = 0 , t 1, 4 + t 2, 4 + 1 = 0 , t 1, 5 + t 2, 5 + t 4, 5 = 0 ,
t 1, 6 + t 2 , 6 + 1 + t 4 , 6 = 0 , t 1 , 7 + t 2 , 7 + t 4 , 7 + t 6 , 7 = 0 , t 1, 3 + 1 = 0 , t 1 , 4 + 1 + t 3 , 4 = 0 ,
t 1, 5 + 1 + t 3 , 5 + t 4 , 5 = 0 , t 1 , 6 + 1 + t 3 , 6 + t 4 , 6 + t 5 , 6 = 0 ,
t 1, 7 + 1 + t 3 , 7 + t 4 , 7 + t 5 , 7 + t 6, 7 = 0 , t 2 , 4 = 0 , 1 + t 2 , 5 = 0 , t 2, 6 + t 5 , 6 = 0 ,
1 + t2, 7 + t 5, 7 = 0 , t 1, 5 + t2, 5 + 1 = 0 , t1, 6 + t 2, 6 + 1 + t5, 6 = 0 ,
t1, 7 + t 2, 7 + 1 + t5, 7 + t 6, 7 = 0 , 1 + t 2, 6 + t3, 6 + t 4, 6 = 0 , t 2, 7 + t 3, 7 + t4, 7 + t 6, 7 = 0 ,
t1, 7 + t 2, 7 + 1 + t4, 7 + t 5, 7 = 0 }

1
1
{ t2, 4 = 0 , t6, 7 = 0 , t5, 7 = -1 , t5, 6 = , t4, 7 = 0 , t4, 6 = , t4, 5 = 1 , t3, 7 = 0 , t3, 4 = 0 , t2, 7 = 0 ,
2
2
-1
t2, 6 = , t2, 5 = -1 , t2, 3 = 1 , t1, 7 = 0 , t1, 6 = -1 , t1, 4 = -1 , t1, 3 = -1 , t1, 2 = -1 , t1, 5 = 0 ,
2
t3, 5 = -2 , t3, 6 = -1 }

1
0

0
0

0
-1
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
-1
0

0
0
0
0
-2

0
0
0
0
0
-1
2
0

0
0
0

0 0

0
, 0
0

0 0

0 0
0

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

> # 1
#
# .

-1
-1
2
-1
1
2
1
2
1
0

-1

AB

AB

AB

AB

I
. 1.1 ( . 1.7). :

A B = A B + A B .

A B C

A B C

A B C

A B C
A BC

A B C

A BC

A B C

I
. 1.2 ( . 1.7). :
A B C = A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C .

. 2

595

X
f -1(f (A))

f (X)
f

f (A)

. 14.1 ( 14.1). :
f 1( f ( A)) A; A X .

Y
X
f (X)
f -1(B)

f
f (f -1(B))

. 14.2 ( 14.1). :
f ( f 1( B)) B; B Y .

596

. 2

x+N
M

(x)

u
0

. 15.1 ( 15.1). :

:V W ; N = Ker( ); M = Im( ).

v+N
M

(v)

u
0

. 15.2 ( 15.2).
:

:V W ; N = Ker( ); N V ; V = N N ;

M.
M = Im( ); = |N : N

3

. 25.1. ( D 0 )

"

"

"

"

"

"

0
q (l )

p (l ) .
p (l 1) .

"

"

"

"

"

q (l 1)

"

"

"

"

p (l 2) .
%
"

"

"

0
q (l 2)

#
"

"

"

0
"

q (3)

p (3) .
"

"

q (2)

p (2) .
"

p (1) .

0
q (1)

d (l ) .

. 25.2. J 0

J l (0)
%

J l (0)
J l 1 (0)
%

J l 1 (0)

J l 2 (0)
%

J l 2 (0)
%

J 3 (0)
%

J 3 (0)
J 2 (0)
%

J 2 (0)
0
%

. 25.1 25.2

. 25.1 N (l )
( l ). . d (l ) . 25.1 l . ( k = 1,..., l ; )
C (k ) N (k 1) N (k ) ;
p(k ) .

d (1) = p (1) . . 25.1 ;


k - ( ) q(k )
( , q(l ) , ). ;
j k j . ( k j -)
Z j . .. Z j J k j (0)
k j k j .
. 25.2 - J 0 ,

N (l ) ( , . 25.1). d (l ) d (l ) .
"" , . 25.1.
"" () d (1) = p(1) . l l ;
q(l ) > 0 ; k = 1,..., l 1 k k q(k ) 0 .
"" "" , . 25.1.
"" (k q (k ) ) (k q(k ) ) ( k = l ,...,1 , ); k l 1

. "" q(k ) "" k k . q(1) > 0 ,


"" q(1) q(1) .

. 26.1. U i = Q ( ) ( Di )
i

"

"

"

"

"

"

qi(li )

pi(li ) .
"

"

"

"

"

qi(li 1)

pi(li 1) .
"

"

"

"

pi(li 2) .
%
"

"

"

qi(li 2)

#
"

"

"

0
"

qi(3)

"

"

qi( 2)

"

pi(3)

pi(2)

pi(1)

mi

qi(1)

. 26.2. "" J i , .. U i = Qi ( )

J li (i )
%

J li (i )
J li 1 (i )
%

J li 1 (i )
%

J 3 (i )
%

J 3 (i )
J 2 (i )
%

J 2 (i )

i
%

. 26.1 26.2

. 26.1 U i = Qi ( ) .. , ..
N ili .. i = i ( li i ; i ).
mi i . 26.1
li . ( k = 1,..., li ; ) Ci (k )

Ni ( k 1) Ni (k ) ;
pi (k ) .

di (1) = pi (1) , , , ni i . . 26.1 ; k - (


(l )

) qi (k ) ( , qi i ,
). ( k )
( .. i ). .. J k (i ) k k .
. 26.2 - J i , U i
( , . 26.1). mi mi .
"" , . 26.1. ""
() ni . li li ;
(l )

qi i > 0 ; k = 1,..., li 1 k k qi (k ) 0 . "" "" , . 26.1. ""


(k qi (k ) ) (k qi (k ) ) ( k = li ,...,1 , ); k li 1 . "" qi (k ) "" k k . qi (1) > 0 , "" qi (1) qi (1) .

. 27.1. J , .. U = Q( )

J1

J2

%
Js
. 27.1

J m m , m ;
.. U = Q( ) , . . () U i = Qi ( ) .

(mi mi ) - J i , U i , . 26.2.

. 28.1 ( . 28.3).
U 2 = Q2 ( ) ( D2 )

p2(4) = 1 .

g5

p2(3) = 1 .

g4

p2( 2) = 2 .

g3

g7

g2

g6

g8

q2(4) = 1 .

q2(2) = 1 .

q2(1) = 1 .

p2(1) = 3 .

m2 = 7 .

. 28.1

m2 = 7 , U 2 = Q2 ( ) ;

W2 = S2 ( ) .
.. 2 = 2 = + 2 . l2 = 4 .
: ( ) , .

[A1 ]

1.
1. .
2.
3.
4. . .

5.
6.
7. : ,
2. .
8. Rn
9.
10. Rn
11. . .
12.
13.
14.
15.
3.
16.
17. .
18. .
19.
20.
21. .
22. Maple
4.
23. .
.
24.
()
25. ()
26.
()

606

. 4

27. - .

28. .
29.
30. .
30a.
5.
31.
32.
33. .
34. .
35.
6.
36. ( )
37. ( )
38.
39. . .
40. . . . .

41.
42.
43.
44. . .
45. . (
) ( )
46. . Q Z
47. .
48.
49.
50. , , ,
1. 5
2. 6




. .
. .

28.02.2008 .
60 841/16. . .
. . . 35,34. .-. . 32,0. 150 .

153025 , . , 39
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