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1 Gabriel Johnson History 354 9/15/10 Jerry Cooper The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the

American Militia 1865-1920 Lincoln, NE University of Nebraska Press 1997 In his book, The Rise of the National Guard, Jerry Cooper explains the great change the American militia system underwent to transform into the National Guard we have today. In the years between the Civil War and World War I the militia system evolved from a hodgepodge of localized groups into a federally funded and regulated first reserve force for the United States Army. Though Cooper focuses solely on the development of the National Guard, throughout his book one can see themes common to this era such as disputes between labor and capital, the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South, and the drive to use science to solve problems of the day. The National Guard played an important role in settling labor disputes during this time period. Cooper argues, however, that historians generally over emphasis the role the National Guard played in resolving labor disputes. For example he points out that of the 44 states in the Union 19 states never called out the National Guard to break strikes (even though every state experienced strikes during this time), and most states rarely called out the National Guard to settle disputes.1 The states which did most frequently call out the Guard as strikebreakers were those in the North East and Midwest.2 This is likely a result of the South and West lacking the factories, and thus workers, of the industrial parts of the nation. Also the Guard was rarely called out to break strikes following the 1877 strikes because they proved to be too ineffective.3
1 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 45 2 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 49 3 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of

2 From Cooper's explanation of the role the Guard played in strikebreaking, it would appear the Guard was split on how to approach this role. Early in this period the Guard received few funds from the state, and even fewer from the federal government. This forced the individual units to raise funds themselves. Often times these funds came from capitalists and industrialists.4 This would undoubtedly give the leaders of the Guard incentive to support employers over workers. Most of the members of the Guard, however, were skilled workers and upper middle class.5 Most of these men would more easily identify with the strikers over employers. Ironically, however, employers would often fire Guardsmen for missing work to report to break strikes.6 This could be a result of the employers having their own private army, like the Pinkertons, or because the Guard drew men from professions which were unaffected by strikes. Never the less, labor often identified the National Guard as allies to employers.7 In the South, the National Guard played little role in breaking strikes. Instead most of the disputes the National Guard was called out to settle were racial in nature and in most cases involved lynchings.8 One might be surprised to learn, however, that the Guard was called out, not to lynch people, but to prevent the lynchings of innocent blacks and prisoners (black or white). One could conclude that this was only a result of Reconstruction, however, many of Coopers examples come from the 1880s and 90s. This shows that even local and state governments ran by Democrats made an effort to protect newly freed African-Americans. Immediately following the Civil War, Reconstruction militias were set up across the south. These militias had several black units (though the units were segregated). As Southern states rejoined
Nebraska Press, 1997), 29 4 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 51 5 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 72 6 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 54 7 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 58 8 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 46

3 the Union, however, the number of black units was drastically cut or severely neglected.9 Furthermore, blacks were not only disallowed to serve in the same units as whites, but there was also attended separate training camps.10 This demonstrates the end of relative prosperity with the black communities during Reconstruction and the rise of the doctrine of separate but equal. Furthermore as state and federal standards reduced allocated funds based on effectiveness, black units were all most always dissolved over their white counterparts.11 This led to there being far fewer black units by the 1890s then there were just two decades earlier. A major theme of Cooper's book is the development of the National Guard from localized militias to a federal fighting force. This coincides directly with the Progressives drive to improve the nation and with the desire to use science to cure societal problems. For example, following the Civil War militia units were little more than boys clubs.12 The National Guard was more like a fraternity than a fighting force, and many members simply joined to give themselves something to do. As time passed, however, states began to increase funding to there Guards and in returned demanded more effective and larger units. This led to states regulating there Guards.13 States began to allocate more funds to there Guards if they met state requirements, and diminish funds if they did not. By the 80s most states had created military advisory boards to help run the Guard and almost all required members to pass an exam to become officers.14 This parallels the death of the spoils system in American politics and the rise of the merit system. Finally in 1879 the National Guard Association was
9 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 25 10 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 34 11 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 137 12 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 68 13 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 23 14 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 81-82

4 created to lobby Washington for more funds.15 This led to more federal aid, but also to federal requires the units had to meet as well as state ones. Federal funding sharply increased following the SpanishAmerican War after the president was disappointed in the speed of mobilization and the effectiveness of the National Guard.16 This gave the federal government even more oversight and led to massive reforms in the early 1900s in an effort to perfect the militia tradition. Though he writes directly about the development of the National Guard, Cooper inadvertently identifies several key themes from the time period. For example, the National Guards role as strikebreakers show how the nation was on the brink of a class war. The diminishing number of black units, as well as segregated facilities demonstrate the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South. Finally the creation of state and federal regulations illustrate the growth of the Progressives and their ideals.

15 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 84 16 Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia 1865-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 108

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