Car #46

Team YUYUTSU Baja SAE India 2009 Design Report

Shreesh Shauraya
Kshitij Mauraya
Ashwin Mishra
Murtaza MK

B.Tech(Mechanical),SVNIT,Surat.
yuyutsu09@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Team Yuyutsu aims at developing a technically sound
vehicle which is backed by a very simple yet profound
design and healthy manufacturing practices. This report
describes in detail, the parameters included in the entire
design and the considerations made for zeroing in on
those parameters. First the issues and design approach is
discussed and then the resulting design procedure has
been explained. Due efforts have been put to validate our
design by theoretical calculations, simulations and
known facts.

INTRODUCTION
Baja SAE India Competition 09 is an inter-collegiate
design competition for Undergraduate engineering
students. The goal of the competition is to simulate real
world engineering design projects and their related
challenges.
The objective of the participating teams is to build a
single seated, rugged, off road, recreational vehicle
intended for sale to the non-professional, weekend, off
road enthusiast. The idea is to design an efficient vehicle
within a budget of Rs. 1.5 lakhs (including overheads) to
sustain a production run of 4000 vehicles annually.
Although the event sponsors do provide some basic
essentials like 340cc, 10 HP Lombardini engine,
transmission (Mahindra Alfa), steering box (ZF steering)
and seat belts; the teams have to find their individual
sponsors for the rest of the expenses.
The vehicle should meet the necessary requirements of
performance which is manifested in terms of
maneuverability, driver comfort, acceleration, hill climb,
braking and endurance tests.
The track record of SAE-SVNIT in both national and
international BAJA events is a legacy in itself. The
institute has one of the largest SAE collegiate chapters
and it has previously produced three BAJA vehicles.
GARUNA intended to participate in SASOL
MINIBAJA 2005 in South Africa and used as a test
vehicle for testing the track in BAJA SAE India07.
PUSHPAK participated in BAJA SAE-WEST
2006 in Portland, USA and won the Chairmans
award.
ASHWAMEDH participated in BAJA SAE
India07 and was ranked 7
th
overall with a cash prize
of Rs. 1lakh in acceleration and hill climbing.
This year we intend to continue the legacy, as our fourth
vehicle YUYUTSU prepares to exhibit a rich blend of
performance and efficiency at the BAJA SAE INDIA09
to be held at NATRAX facility of National Automotive
Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRIP) at
Pithampore, near Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
With about 59 other teams in the fray, team YUYUTSU
has decided to put utmost efforts into producing a design
that promises to bring out maximum performance and at
the same time abide by the indispensable rules and
regulations as laid in the BAJA SAE India rulebook for
the 2009 event.


DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The designing was started only after thorough study of
the aforementioned ATVs, which was followed by
system advantages and production costs. All the design
issues were studied and an attempt has been made to
solve them in the present design. In order to increase the
ease and speed of manufacturing, great care was taken to
ensure that every component of the vehicle was modeled
using Pro/Engineer CAD software. Using an accurate
master assembly of the digital car, we were able to
quickly and easily verify design ideas and ensure inter-
component compatibility. Also, most of the designed
parts subject to loading conditions were modeled with
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software modules. An
attempt to consider the aerodynamic aspects has been
made after simulating the vehicle in FLUENT. It was
made sure that manufacturing aspects are not neglected
while designing any of the parts so that no major
modifications are made while manufacturing and a
technically sound all terrain vehicle is resulted in.


SALIENT FEATURES

- Parallel and unequal double wishbone suspension
arms
- Hydraulic disc brakes(front and rear)
- Worm and roller steering with more than
100percent Ackerman geometry.
- ASME SA106/B grade seamless carbon steel frame
- Larger track width at the front

CHASSIS

DESIGN APPROACH
In the previous year`s vehicle, chassis being designed by
the students was thought of as a component vulnerable
to failures, and hence due importance was given to
ensure its strength. However, in an attempt to ensure
reliability, the chassis was oversized and over designed
with a number of stiffeners. This year more impetus has
been put on optimizing the chassis without
compromising on safety. Also the vision of driver was
an issue, as the driver`s seat was laid quiet low.
This year a totally different approach has been adopted.
We have first finalized the position of major sub-systems
and then built up our chassis around these equipments.
This approach gave us a lot of flexibility while selecting
the type of suspension shock absorbers and positioning
of steering assembly. Now since the mounting points can
be adjusted, we can easily manipulate our chassis design
according to our requirement. Consequently issues
related to compatibility among various subsystems are
minimal.
While designing the chassis, component spacing,
driver`s comfort and high torsion rigidity were given
special considerations apart from closely monitoring the
damper mounting points for better positioning /Road
Response and additional strength. Minimal vehicle
dimensions in accordance with rulebook were chosen in
order to make vehicle light as well as cost effective.
Chassis profile would have an effect on aerodynamics of
the vehicle, though the effect is not that significant at
low speeds still attempts to simulate the aerodynamic
behavior of the vehicle have been made

DESIGN PROCEDURE
The rules and regulations were carefully reviewed in
order to understand the scope of designing the roll cage,
and then an initial draft was drawn in order to capture all
the requirements prescribed by the competition while at
the same time the problems that were reported from
previous years team were addressed.
The first stage was the tire positioning. A larger
wheelbase allows more space for engine and driver but
inhibits the maneuverability, so a proper decision was
taken only after fixing the track width. On the other hand
larger track width adds to the stability of the vehicle, but
we had to restrict it within 64inches according to the
rulebook. Length of pitman arm and tie-rods of the
steering system was also a limiting factor. Another point
taken into consideration was the difference in track of
front and the rear tires. It was decided to have slightly
larger track at the front which will minimize diagonal
weight transfer while taking a turn and will improve the
turning ability of the car. After considering all the sub-
systems and other factors it was decided to have a track
of 60inches at the front and 57inches at the rear, this
number was then multiplied by wheel-base to track ratio
of conventional cars to get wheelbase as 66inches.
Having set the foundation, approximate spacing for
driver was allotted. After adding all the clearances
provided with the basic chassis dimensions, all other
sub-systems were mounted around this chassis.


DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The roll cage is made up of following elements whose
function and designing procedure is provided below:-

Rear Roll Hoop (RRH) The base width of the RRH was
selected by measuring the space for driver and then
clearances were provided for safety according to the rule
book. The RRH opens up for about 14inch so as to
increase cockpit space. Further the profile is tapered
inside to reduce cost and weight. Width of front cross
member is selected by measuring the distance required
to accommodate the three pedals and the spacing was
comparable to that of the conventional cars. LFS is
tapered inside.

Roll Hoop Overhead (RHO) This provides the
appropriate head room for a 6feet 3inch driver with
additional 6 inch clearance. The Front Bracing member
(FBM) starts from its end and connects to the SIM.
Use of bends has been given preference as they not only
add the to the strength of the structure but also add to the
aesthetic appeal of the car
Side Impact Members (SIM) The SIM increases chassis
stiffness and is a major member that provides protection
to the driver in a side-on collision. In the discussed
design, the SIM member extends at a width of
36straight up to the drivers knee and then converges to
20 at the front. The LFS members are tapered by 3 on
both sides which reduces the structural weight of the
chassis without any considerable reduction in the cock-
pit space. The option of the Front-Fore Aft bracing was
decided in an attempt to keep the weight of the vehicle
to a minimum. The final design decision dealt with the
geometry of the Rear Bracing. The Rear Bracing
encloses the engine, transmission, and rear drive
assembly. The rear bracing also incorporates a new
independent rear suspension,
Once we finished the design of our roll cage and verified
that it adhered to the Rules and Regulations, we
designed the back half of our frame to fit the engine and
the rest of the drive train using the same material and
welding procedures used with the roll cage.


STEERING SYSTEM

STEERING BOX
One of the many problems faced with previous year`s
steering was of the offset positioning of pinion. To
mitigate this problem WORM and ROLLER
STEERING BOX is used this time, which is sponsored
by ZF Steering India and hence helped us financially
as well. Its high turning ratio would be advantageous in
manoeuvring the vehicle in tight turns.

STEERING GEOMETRY
Though we started with pure Ackerman geometry, later
on it was realized that with the given steering box lots of
effort will be required from the driver. Keeping driver
comfort in mind, we decided to go for more than 100%
Ackerman which decreased the driver input to the wheel
and the steering response became much smoother. An
initial toe-in was also decided to be incorporated in the
front as with the toe angle set in and more Ackerman, it
will result with the outside tire being towed-in relative to
the circular path and the inside tire running parallel to
the circular path they are following.
The steering system included a worm and roller steering
box out of which only one driving link actuated the
whole system, hence after extending this link to the
bottom of the chassis a T joint was introduced to
regulate the two respective tie-rods.The T-joint used has
been taken from FIAT Padmini.


BRAKES

While designing the brake system, simplicity was given
prime importance and it was decided to use two pairs of
disc brakes that are used best suited for our vehicle. We
will be using double wall steel tubing with 3/16 O.D.
as per the rules

Figure 1 Brake lines
The master cylinders mount directly to the custom made
brake pedal and are located above the drivers feet,
allowing the driver to easily enter and exit the car.
Though last years design worked satisfactorily, we
could not incorporate differential braking in the design.
Also the designed discs did not have good machinability
and had poor heat dissipation properties, this prompted
the use of Maruti800 discs which suited our braking
requirements, the design calculation have been given in
the appendix.
Absence of hand brakes created problems for many of
the teams during hill climbing and highlighted the utility
of the same, but the problem of actuating a mechanical
hand brake on disc brakes compelled us to connect hand
lever to the additional master cylinder we are using. The
line diagram has been given in the figure. In general
brakes are used to control the speed of the vehicle, they
are seldom used for sudden braking which may cause the
vehicle to nose-dive. We have decided to increase the
CG height by around 5-6 inches to increase ground
clearance and improve driver comfort, hence greater
pitching tendency is expected in our design, we have
taken pro-active measures by using anti-dive geometry
in suspensions and are going to use proportioning valves
so that greater braking force is applied at the rear which
bears the majority of the load, this will also be
favourable for driver comfort. However, more braking
will be actuated in the front when sudden stops are
required.







TYRES

Tires were strictly subjected to availability. To have
larger tire at rear we procured pair of 25 and 22 ATV
tires from Trident International, Pune. The treads
ensured grip on slippery and sandy BAJA tracks and
their optimum depth made it sure that the tires did not
dig up loose sand. Light weight rims to decrease un-
sprung mass were selected only after ensuring proper
packaging of knuckles and brakes.


WHEEL END

The wheel end is made up of the following parts- Rim,
Hub, Disc, Milled bearing, and knuckle in sequence
.Their compatibility with each other is a major design
issue as these parts have been taken from different
sources.

KNUCKLE:-
The dampers, A-arms and steering tie rod are connected
to this part. Every car needs a separate design to have the
required Caster and Kingpin angles set for the particular
car. It is also to be noted that all the load will be
transferred to the tires through the knuckle only. So, this
parts design is very critical for any cars performance.
Knuckle is mounted to the hub with a bearing with the
help of a hydraulic press and bolts are screwed to keep
the stud and brake disc together. The inner part of
bearing is milled which acts as a spline to transmit
power from the axle.

APPROACH I:-Fabricate the knuckle out of plates of
M.S by welding and mount it to a stud with a fabricated
matching plate to fix with the rim. This would give us
independence in selecting the geometry control the
dimensions. But this would take more time, cost and
would be compact.

APPROACH II:-Use the knuckle of an on-road vehicle
and modify it accordingly. This would involve
converting the Mc-Pherson type mountings to Double
wishbone type and no change in geometry possible. But
this approach would be cheap and reliable and also aid in
better packaging with our rim.
Knuckle manufacture can be done by casting, but since
our design may not be full proof any changes may later
create problems. Cost of the process is also a limiting
factor.
We have selected approach 2, because of the time
constraint and increased reliability of the system. The
compatibility issue have been minimized, as we will
construct our vehicle around this part with suspensions
and all other things can change at this stage.

REAR :- At the rear the 12inch rim can accommodate the
whole assembly of Maruti 800. However, coupling of
stud with rim was a problem as we have got rim of PCD
4inches. So we needed a matching plate for this. The
exploded view has been given in Figure 8.
FRONT:- Smaller rim needs a smaller disc. We selected
HONDA AVIATOR having 190mm of disc diameter
plus around 20-30mm for caliper. After comparison with
Maruti disc assembly, it was discovered that aviator
caliper took more space and could not be accommodated
in the rim unless the disc is machined. Hence Maruti
800`s caliper was used in the front as well


SUSPENSION SYSTEM

DESIGN APPROACH
The suspension not only dictates the path of the relative
motion but also controls forces transmitted by sprung
and un-sprung mass. However, suspensions have strong
non-linear parameters and many design variables that
ostensibly, make it difficult to design. Selection of
suspensions was based on the criteria of their degree of
freedom, roll-centre adjustability, ease in wheel
alignment parameters etc. The suspension system is
tuned according to the actual needs, keeping in mind the
manufacturing aspects and the nature of loading it will
have to suffer. We will also study the nature of forces
acting on the suspension links and the ways to minimize
their effect on ride characteristics and component life.
Both the front and rear suspension systems are
independent double wishbone suspension having
unequal control arm/a-arm. The double wishbone system
was selected, owing to the uneven terrain. The a-arms at
the front are pinned to the chassis while at the knuckle
end the arms are attached using ball and socket joints.
While at the rear as there is no cornering requirement,
the a-arms are pinned both to the chassis as well as the
knuckle. An initial camber of -2 degrees has been
elected as for the front wheels so as to maintain adequate
ground contact at all the times during operation and
attain good off-road stability. Curved A-arms have been
used as they can sustain more bending stresses than their
straight counter-parts, no thermal stresses are produced
as the tubes will be cold bent. A perspective view has
been showed in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Suspension A-arm

MATERIAL
The material for A-arms is same as that used for roll
cage i.e. ASME 106/B grade carbon steel with O.D
=26.mm and wall thickness= 2.87mm.


SHOCK ABSORBER SELECTION
In the previous year`s vehicle, three different type of
shock absorbers were used which was neither design
friendly nor suited for mass production. Wrong shocker
selection had proved fatal to last year`s teams
performance in the endurance event. This time due
consideration were given to proper selection of shockers.
GABREIL dealer from Lamington road, Mumbai
helped us procure the shockers suitable for our
magnitude and nature of loading. The rear shocker is
commercially used in ATV`s of desert lands and had
load carrying capacity of 300kgs. Since our major load is
concentrated on the rear, this shocker proved fruitful.
For front section spring in spring type shockers were
procured. This would be mounted side by side in parallel
(two on each side). These shockers, in spite of being
stiffer than those used in motorcycles provide greater
travel.
Dampers of numerous specifications were available in
market, but coupling of springs seemed to be
cumbersome and though we had found spring
manufactures willing to do the job, the damper did not
sport any scope for mounting.
One of the major drawback of last year`s design was the
mounting point of dampers and the knuckle. This year
both of them had been specially manufactured to get
flexibility in design and eliminate any compromise on
the suspension geometry design. Manufacturing cost lots
considerable amount of time and money, still it doesnt
ensure full reliability, not to mention the added un-
sprung mass.
This year customised Maruti 800 knuckles were used,
though they reduced the flexibility of the design.
However they ensured reliability with decreased un-
sprung mass. The Maruti 800 knuckle has been modified
to accommodate our Double A-arm suspensions.
Another decision critical to our design was the mounting
of suspension shockers. Mounting the shockers on the
knuckle ensured reliability and allowed us to have
lighter A-arms, but wheel travel was decreased which
could result in transfer of shocks to the main frame.
Length of the shocker was also a limiting factor. In the
light of these observations, lower mounting was kept on
the lower A-arm a front and on the upper A-arm at the
rear. Mounting the dampers on the front lower arm
allowed us to decrease the font vehicle height which
added to the driver visibility and strengthened the
upright on the chassis. This concept however couldnt be
followed on the rear because of the driver axle running
between the upper and lower arms.

VEHICLE DIMENSIONS
A wider track width at the front than at the rear will
provide more stability in turning the car into corners
decreasing the tendency of the car to trip over itself on
corner entry and more resistance to diagonal load
transfer. Base to track ratio is kept 1.11 to ensure
straight-line stability. This also created ample space for
the driver and other systems.

AERODYANAMICS AND BODYPANELS

Though the ATV is meant for low speeds, their
aerodynamic study can reveal interesting facts which can
help in saving fuel consumption and it can also help in
easy handling. There also remains a scope to have a
more powerful engine. The vehicle has been simulated
for 70 Kmph speed and the effects of air flow have been
studied. As expected, the firewall/RRH is a major
contributor of drag and very strong vortices have
originated behind the RRH. A strong wake region is
developed in the space between engine and RRH and
this space is minimized to reduce their effect. To make
the simulation simpler wheel rotation has not been
considered. The rear portion of the chassis will be
tapered inside which not only decreases the drag force
but also leads to some weight reduction in the engine
supporting structure. Apart from eliminating sharp edges
in the front, the cockpit area over the pedals will be
covered to give the driver feel of a real car. The inherent
three dimensionality of the wake region makes it
difficult to suppress and giving priority to safety we
have not attempted any further modifications in the
chassis.
The material for paneling will be Aluminium sheets for
the firewall and the base of roll cage, but for the side
panels we are looking for lighter and cheaper
alternatives, one of the options is the use of steel mesh
coated by plastic sheets. Carbon fibres though suitable
are too costly for our use.

SAFETY
As per the rules, we have securely layered all tubing
members in the cockpit with a shock absorbing foam to
protect the driver during an event. 4-POINT SAFETY
BELTS sponsored by Autoliv India and SAE rated brake
lights have been installed to maintain highest safety
standards. The remaining standard safety equipment,
including fire extinguisher, and two kill switches were
all placed for easy access and use, as well as maximum
optimization of their functions during an emergency.
Apart from this arm restrains, neck collar, moto-cross
type helmet and fire extinguishers have also been
procured.
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Overall length 2.11 m
Track width
1.52 m (Front)
1.44 m (Rear)
Overall weight
350 Kgs (inclusive of
Driver)
Engine
10 HP Lombardini
LGA 340
Transmission
Mahindra Alfa
(modified)
Tires
&
Rims
22 x 8 inches (Front)
10 x 6 inches
25 x 8 inches (Rear)
12 x 6 inches
Wheel base 1.67 m
Roll Cage
ASME 106/B grade
carbon steel
Suspension(front and
rear)
Double Wishbone
suspension (Parallel
and unequal arms)
Steering System Worm and Screw type
Braking (front and
rear)
Hydraulic Disc brakes
Maximum Torque 19 Nm @ 3000 rpm
Maximum Speed 72 KMPH
Camber 2 degrees (negative)
Castor 3 degrees (positive)


CONCLUSION
The prototype that the team intends to submit for
entrance in the Baja SAE India competition was a
collaborative design effort among students from several
engineering disciplines. The teams goal was to produce
a design that met or exceeded the SAE criteria for safety,
durability and maintainability as well as provide features
that would have mass market appeal to the general off-
road enthusiast such as performance, comfort and
aesthetics. Design decisions were made with each of
these parameters in mind.
The team relied on individual members knowledge and
experience with off-road vehicles as a tool for
developing many of the initial subassembly designs for
the prototype. Several team members attended the 2007
SAE competition to gather ideas and information about
what design choices were successful and how they could
be incorporated into the prototype design.
Where applicable, selection of components for each
subassembly of the prototype was based on engineering
knowledge gained through undergraduate level course
work. Reliance upon engineering intuition governed
the selection of the remaining components.
Computational design and analysis software were used
to verify that each part of a subassembly design met or
exceeded its stated objective. Use of these design tools
also allowed the team to address and rectify conflicts
between interfacing subassemblies before fabrication,
saving both time and cost.

REFERENCES

1. An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design,Edited by
Julian Happian-Smith Reed Educational and
Professional Publishing Ltd 2002
2. Consolidated Rules for 2009 Baja SAE, India,
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
3. Design report SVNIT, Surat Baja SAE India07,
Indore, India
4. Thomas D. Gillespe, Fundamentals of vehicle
dynamics
5. Milliken, W. F., Milliken, D. L., and Metz, L. D., Race
Car Vehicle Dynamics, SAE




APPENDIX A

CALCULATIONS
Approximate total weight (Including driver) = 350kgs
W = 3433.5 N

Location of center of gravity is 26 inches from rear
wheel and 40 inches from wheel axle line.

weight applied in rear
60
40 5 . 3433
= r W
= 2080.9 N
Assuming this weight to be equally shared by both tyres,
N
W
W
t
t 45 . 1040
2
= =
Let the force exerted be F = 100 N
x d

= 7.61 m/s
2

stopping distance,

( )
m
d
V
S
x
09 . 26
2
2
max
= =

CASE II: When tyre slides on surface, work done by
frictional force, between road and tyre, is responsible for
change in kinetic energy of vehicle.
( ) 0 5 . 0
2
= V M W
Frictional force acting on wheels f = Mg
( )
m
g
V
dst 14 . 31
2
2
max
= =
u


SUSPENSION STIFFNESS
REAR
Modulus of rigidity of spring G = 80000 N/mm
2

Diameter of spring = 12mm
Radius of coil = 50 mm
No. of coils = 7
Hence stiffness
n R
d
K
3
4
64
o
= = 26.62 N/mm
Static load on each rear wheel = 1038.80 N

for a load of 1038.8 N
Travel cm 67 . 4
256 . 22
8 . 1038
= = o

Hence travel while mounting = 35.1 mm

Weight transfer calculations
Due to braking, weight transfer occurs and this depends
on the deceleration of the vehicle. During maximum
deceleration, weight on the front wheels is more
compared to rear wheels.


Total weight of the wheel, Kgs w
total
350 =
Static weight on the front axle,
front
w = Kgs 105
Height of C.G of the vehicle, h = 467.5 mm
Wheel base, l = 1676 mm
Maximum deceleration of the vehicle during braking,
d
x
= 7.61 m/s
2

Similarly,
total
x
rear
rear w
l
h
g
a
w w
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
'

Static weight on the rear axle,
rear
w = Kg 245
18 . 169 350
1676
5 . 467
8 . 9
61 . 7
245
'
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= rear w
Percentage of Weight transfer,
66 . 21 100
1676
5 . 467
8 . 9
61 . 7
% =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= weight
Therefore 21.66% of weight transfer occurs at maximum
acceleration of the vehicle
FOR MAXIMUM INCLINATION THE VEHICLE
CAN CLIMB IN STATIC CONDITION
Assume no speed condition at rear wheel; vehicle will
topple when reaction at front axle will become zero.
When R 0
= =
h
b
u tan distance of C.G from rear axle/ height
of C.G

467 . 0
508 . 0
=
= 47.38
0

MAXIMUM POSSIBLE ACCELERATION

uH - L
gua
=
x
a =5.428 m/s
2


CALCULATION FOR DISC BRAKE DIMENSION
R
o
= Outer disc radii
R
I
= Inner disc radii
=0.3
T= torque acting on single wheel
P = pressure applied by brake fluid.
= included angle of caliper disc contact
T= | |
3 3
3
2
i R R P o u u ...(1)
total
x
front
front w
l
h
g
a
w w
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
'
kg w front 81 . 180 350
1676
5 . 467
8 . 9
61 . 7
105
'
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
45 . 1
R
R
i
o
= ..(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
12.69cm R and
8.78cm R
3 . 0 4375 . 2253 R
o
i
i
3
=
=
=

The torque produced is calculated from the maximum
deceleration the vehicle can achieve while braking. The
resultant dimensions of the disc were a close
approximation to the disc size of Maruti800 and hence it
was selected for our vehicle.




LIMITING VALUE OF INCLINATION FOR
ABOVE ACCELERATION
u sin max g a =
5.428+9.8sin =
0.4675
) sin - (1 0.508 9.81
2
u

207.8756 u
2
sin + 106.497 u sin = 84.1726
u sin = 0.43, - 0.94
u sin = 0.43
u = 25.47
0

Hence the vehicle can safely climb a hill of more than 25
degrees with maximum acceleration. However the actual
inclination that could be climbed(with less than
maximum acceleration) will be much more than the
given value.

































































APPENDIX B
VIEWS OF FINAL VEHICLE


Figure 3(A) Top view Figure 3(B) Front view

Figure 3(C) Side view

Figure 4 Isometric view


APPENDIX C
RESULTS OF CFD SIMULATIONS




Figure 5 contours of static pressure on car body and road






Figure 6 Pathlines emitted from the car body showing turbulent flow field aorund the vehicle





APPENDIX D



Figure 7 Exploded view of wheel end
(A) Rear (B) Front







To pedal brake On/Off valve

Front









Master cylinder





Oil reservoir To hand brake




Figure 8 Circuit diagram of hydraulic brake