Under Graduate Course on

Computer Aided Design & Manufacturing

( ME 502 )

Geometric Modeling
Shibendu Shekhar Roy
Robotics & A.I Lab. (RAIL) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Geometric Modeling Concept

CAD

Computer Graphics Algorithm

Design & Analysis Theories/ Tools

To Automate the Design Process

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Geometric Modeling
Geometric modeling plays a crucial role in the overall application of CAD-CAM-CAE system

Requirements of Geometric Modeling

Information entered through geometric modeling is utilized in number of downstream applications like: Design Analysis
Evaluation of centroid, area (cross-sectional & surface) & volume Estimate the mass & inertia properties Interference checking in assemblies Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies Kinematic/ Dynamic analysis & simulation Finite element analysis for stress, vibration, thermal & optimization

Drafting

Automatic 2D view generation Automatic planar cross-sectioning Automatic dimensioning

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Geometric Modeling
Manufacturing
Part classification & Process planning NC tool path generation & verification Manufacturing process simulation Robot program generation

Production & Industrial Engineering

Preparation of Bill of Material (BOM) Material requirement planning Manufacturing resource requirement Scheduling Marketing

Computer-Aided Inspection & Quality control

etc..
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Geometric Modeling
Hence, It is important that the geometric model generated should be as clear & comprehensive as possible so that the other modules of CAD-CAM-CAE system are able to use this information in the most optimal way.

Two Dimensional (2-D)

Geometric model

Wireframe Modeling

Three Dimensional (3-D)

Surface Modeling

Solid Modeling
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Geometric Model
Two Dimensional (2-D)
Utility of 2-D model lies in many of the low end drafting packages which is required for preparing manufacturing drawings Their utility is limited because of their inherent difficulty in representing complex objects. Three Dimensional (3-D) The 3-D geometric modeling has the ability to provide all the information required for CAD-CAM-CAE applications
Basic Requirement

A 3-D geometric model should be an unambiguous representation of an object. A 3-D model should be complete to all engineering function from documentation (drafting & shading) to engineering analysis to manufacturing.

Wireframe Modeling
In this method the complete object is represented by number of lines, points, arcs & curves and their connectivity relationships

Advantages
The construction of a wireframe model is simple It does not require much computer time & memory. It can be used for simple NC tool path generation

Disadvantages
It can not be used for calculation of mass, inertia properties The interpretation of wireframe models having many edges is very difficult

Surface Modeling
The surface model is constructed essentially from surfaces such a s planes, rotated curved surfaces & even very complex synthetic surfaces. Surface creation on existing CAD system usually requires wireframe entities as a start Surface & wireframe form the core of all existing CAD system

Advantages
Surface model of an object is a relatively more complete & less ambiguous representation than its wireframe model This method is very much useful for specific non-analytical surfaces ( free-form surface/ sculptured surfaces) such as those used for modeling automobile & airplane bodies & turbine blades etc. From an application point of view, surface models can be utilized in Finite Element Modeling, NC tool path generation, sectioning & interference detections.

Disadvantages
The calculation of mass & inertia properties would be difficult
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Solid Modeling
Solid model of an object is a more complete representation than surface model, as all the information required for engineering analysis & manufacturing can be obtained with this technique. Advantages Solid modeling produces accurate design, provides complete 3D definition Improves the quality of design Improves visualization has potential for functional simulation of the system

Wireframe Modeling
Point Lines

Analytic Entities / Curves

Arcs Circles Ellipse

Wireframe entities
<Geometric Primitives>

Conics Cubic spline

Parabolas Hyperbolas

Synthetic Curves

Bezier curves B-spline NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-spline)

Analytic Curve
- are described by analytic equations

Synthetic Curve
- are described by a set of data points (i.e. control points)
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Analytic Curve
are defined as those that can be described by analytic equations such as lines, circle, conics etc. provide very compact forms to represent shapes & simplify the computation of related properties such as areas & volume. Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet todays geometric design requirements of complex mechanical parts like automobile bodies, aeroplane wings, propeller blades, bottles etc. That require synthetic curves & surfaces (free-form surfaces)

Synthetic Curve
are defined as those that can be described by a set of data points (i.e. control points) such as Splines, Bezier curve etc. Synthetic curves provide designers with greater flexibility & control of a curve shape by changing the positions of the one or more data points or control points.
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Synthetic Curve
The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: i) when a curve is represented by a collection of measured data points (in case of Reverse Engineering) [graphical visualization of experimental data] ii) when an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements. Synthetic Curve Construction Techniques :
Interpolation technique Curve passes through the data points

Approximation technique

Curve do not passes through the data points

Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a Curve-fitting problem to construct a smooth curve

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Interpolation Technique
- Curve resulting from this technique pass through the given data points; curve itself is called Interpolant - Ex. : Cubic Spline
P7 P1 P2 P0 P3 P5 P4 P0 P6 P8 P9 P11 P10 P12

Approximation Technique
- Produce curves that do not pass through the given data points. Instead, these points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves
-Ex. : Bezier Curve
P1 P2 P0 P2

P3

P1

P3

Most often, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation techniques in freeform curve design due to the added flexibility & the additional intuitive feel provided by approximate technique.
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Mathematical Representation of Curves

Explicit form
Non-parametric equation

Curve can be described mathematically by Parametric equation

Implicit form

Non-parametric equation : Explicit form

If the co-ordinates y & z of a point on the curve are expressed as two separate functions of the third coordinate x <independent variable>. This curve representation is known as Non-parametric Explicit form. Non-parametric Explicit form of a general 3-D curve
Y

Position vector of a point P on the curve = P = [x y z]T= [x f(x) g(x) ]T

P (x,y,z) P Z X
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Non-parametric equation : Implicit form

If the co-ordinates x, y & z are related together by two functions, a non-parametric implicit form results Non-parametric Implicit form of a general 3-D curve f1 (x,y,z) = 0 f2 (x,y,z) = 0 Parametric representation of curves
Y P (x,y,z) umin P(u) Z X umax P(u)

In parametric form, each point on a curve is expressed as a function of a parameter u. This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for points on the curve. Parametric form of a general 3-D curve Position vector of a point P on the curve = P(u) = [x(u) y(u) z(u) ]T
Where, umin u umax

The parametric curve is bounded by two parametric variable values umin and umax.

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Parametric Representation of Curves

Advantages :

In case of commonly used curves (such as circle, conics), these equations are polynomials rather than equations involving roots. Hence, the parametric form is not only more general but it is also well suited to computation in geometric modeling. Parametric geometry can be easily expressed in terms of vectors & matrices which enables the use of simple computation techniques to solve complex analytic geometry problem. To check whether a given point lies on the curve or not, reduces to finding the corresponding u values & checking whether that value lies in the stated u range.

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Blending is used to construct composite curve. Blending of two curves implies the joining of two curves subjected to the satisfaction of continuity condition. Various Continuity requirements can be specified at data points to impose various degrees of smoothness of the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced together end-to-end.
Order of Continuity

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Order of Continuity

Zero-order Continuity (C0 - continuity)

Position Continuous curve

First-order Continuity (C1 - continuity)

Slope Continuous curve Ex.: Cubic Spline

Second-order Continuity (C2 - continuity)

Curvature Continuous curve Ex.: B-Spline

C1 Continuous is Smoother than C0 Continuous at the joining point C2 Continuous is Smoother than C1 Continuous at the joining point
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Synthetic Curves
Cubic Splines Splines are used to interpolate to given data i.e. based on Interpolation technique. A spline is a piecewise parametric representation of the geometry of a curve with a specified order of continuity. Cubic splines use a parametric equations of 3rd degree with the first order continuity maintained at the intersection point of the curve. Name from the traditional drafting tool called Splines or French Curves
P0.8 P.0.4 P0
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P1

Cubic Splines

Cubic splines use cubic polynomial.

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The parametric equation of a cubic spline segment is given by Vector form

P(u) = Ci u i
i=0

u= parameter 0 u 1
2 3

P(u) = C0 + C1u + C2 u + C3u

Ci= Polynomial Coefficients

Matrix form

P(u) = U T C
Where,

1 u U = 2 u u3

C0 C C = 1 C 2 C 3

C= Coefficients Vector

Cubic polynomial has four coefficients & thus requires four conditions to evaluate .

Cubic Spline
- Uses four data points
P0.8 P.0.4 P0 P1

Hermite Cubic Spline

- Uses two data points at its ends & two tangent vectors at these points
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Bezier Curves Based on approximation techniques.

Developed by P. Bezier, Designer of French car firm Regie Renault (1962). Used in his Software system (UNISURF) to define the outer panels of several Renault cars .

Bezier curve uses the vertices of Bezier Characteristic polygon (or control polygon) as control points for approximating the generated curve. The curve will pass through the first & last point with all other points acting as control points. The curve is also always tangent to the first & last polygon segment.
Control Points

Control Polygon

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Bezier Curves The degree of Bezier curve is related to the number of data points; (n+1) points define an nth degree Bezier curve.
If no. of data points is 4 [n+1=4], Then n=3 i.e degree of curve =3 (cubic)

Control Points

Control Polygon

Cubic Bezier Curve

This is widely used for the design of aesthetic surfaces. The flexibility of the curve becomes more with more control points.
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Bezier Curves

Control Points

Control Polygon

Mathematically, for (n+1) control points, the Bezier curve is defined by polynomial of degree n:

P(u) is a point on the curve, Pi is a control point Bi,n(u) are the Berntein polynomials

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Bezier Curves

C(n,i) is the binomial coefficient

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Bezier Curves

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Major difference between the Bezier Curve & Cubic Spline Curve i. The degree of Bezier curve is variable & is related to the number of data points; (n+1) points define an nth degree curve which permits higher-order continuity. This is not the case for cubic splines where the degree is always 3 <cubic> for a spline segment. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its data points only. First derivatives are not used in the curve development as in the case of Hermite cubic spline. The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order derivative.

ii. iii.

Bezier curve is considered as a single curve controlled by all the control points. As a result, with an increase in the number of control points, the degree of the polynomial representing the curve increases & this provides for global modification effect rather than local. To reduce this complexity, the curve is broken down into more segments with better control excised with individual segments, while maintaining a simple continuity between the segments.
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B-Spline Curves
Single piecewise parametric polynomial curve through any number of control points with the degree of polynomial selected by Designer. It provides the ability to add control points without increasing the degree of the curve. B-spline exhibit a local control of the curve shape i.e. whenever a single vertex is moved, only those vertices around that will be affected while rest remains the same.
Interpolate a given set of data points B-Spline Curves Approximate a given set of data points Useful in displaying design & engineering analysis results such as Stress/displacement distribution Useful for modeling free-form surfaces

In contrast to Bezier curve, the theory of B-spline curve separates the degree of the resulting curve from the no. of the given control points. Four control points can always produce a cubic Bezier curve but four control points can produce linear, quadratic or cubic B-spline curve.
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B-Spline Curves

Mathematically, B-spline curve defined by (n+1) control points Piis given by

Where k controls the degree (k-1) of the resulting polynomial & also continuity of the curve.
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B-Spline Curves

Local control of B-spline curve

It provides the ability to add control points without increasing the degree of the curve. B-spline exhibit a local control of the curve shape i.e. whenever a single vertex is moved, only those vertices around that will be affected while rest remains the same.
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NURBS

Non-Uniform Rational B- Spline

are generalization of the curve & surface theories. are almost exclusively used by modern CAD-CAM-CAE systems to provide a unified approach to formulate & represent curves & surfaces. provide a convenient design tool to create smooth curves & surfaces interactively. Rational Curve: is defined by algebraic ratio of two polynomials while a non-rational curve is defined by one polynomial.
Rational form of Bezier Curves

P(u) =

Pw B
i =0 n i i i=0

i,n

(u) ;
0u1

w i Bi,n (u)

where wi is the weighting factor for each of the vertex.

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NURBS Advantages NURBS are considered a unified representation that can be define both synthetic (like Bezier, B-spline etc.) & analytic (i.e. circle, conics etc.) curves & surfaces. Any curve or surface can be formulated using NURBS. It can represent all curves, surfaces, & solid entities, allowing unification & conversion from one CAD system to another via exchange standards (like IGES,, STEP etc.). Their related algorithm are stable & accurate. This unified representation also have the advantage of reducing the database complexity & the number of procedures required in CAD system for display & manipulation of geometric entities. Disadvantages Simple curves (like arcs, circles, conics) require more data to define as NURBS than traditional way.
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The effective use of analytic & synthetic curves in a design environment depends mainly on their manipulation. Displaying Blending Segmentation Curve Manipulations Trimming Intersection Transformation
Translation Rotation Scaling Mirror/ Reflection

Evaluating points on curves

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Curve Manipulations Displaying Blending Segmentation provides the Designer with a means of visualizing geometric models. is used to construct composite curves from various types of curve segments. Two curve segment should be continuous at the joint. replacing one existing curve by one or more curve segments of the same curve type such that the shape of the composite curve is identical to that of the original curve. is a very useful function which can truncate or extend a curve the intersection point of two curve in space requires the solution of the parametric equations of curves.
Translation Rotation Scaling Mirror/ Reflection

Trimming Intersection

Transformation

Evaluating points on curves

Curve parametric eqn. is used to evaluate points on it.

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Surface Modeling
Plane surface

Analytic Surface Entities

Ruled surface/ Lofted surface Surface of revolution Tabulated cylindrical surface

Surface entities
Bi-cubic Hermite spline surface

Synthetic Surface Entities

B-Spline surface Bezier surface or patch Coons patch

Curve segment : is the fundamental building block for curve entities Surface patch : is the fundamental building block for surfaces
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Plane Surface
is the simplest surface which requires three non-coincident points to define a plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross-sectional view by intersecting a surface model with it.

Ruled Surface
is a surface constructed by transitioning between two or more curves by using linear blending between each section of the surface It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that define the surface.

Lofted Surface
is a surface constructed by transitioning between two or more curves by a smooth i.e. higher order blending between each section of the surface. Used for modeling engine manifolds, turbine blades etc.
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Surface of Revolution
is an axi-symmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. is generated by a rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle.

Tabulated Cylindrical Surface

is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a certain distance along a specified direction (axis of cylinder). Plane of the curve is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved cross-sections.
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Bi-cubic Hermite Spline Surface

It connects four corner data points & utilizes a bi-cubic equation.

Bezier Surface
is a synthetic surface that approximates given input data i.e. it doesnot pass through all given data points. Allows only global control of the surface.

B-spline Surface
is a synthetic surface that can either approximate or interpolate given input data. Permits local control of the surface.

Coons patches / surface

Coons patch or surface is obtained by blending four boundary curves. is used to create surfaces using curves that form closed boundaries. the single patch can be extended in both the directions by adding further patches. 37

Displaying Blending Segmentation Trimming Surface Manipulations Intersection Transformation Projection Evaluating points & curves on surfaces

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Solid Modeling
Solid model are known to be informationally more complete, valid & unambiguous representation of objects than its wireframe or surface model. The completeness & unambiguity of a solid model are attributed to the fact that CAD database stores both its geometry & topology. Solid models are complete & unambiguous but they are not unique because same object may be constructed in various ways. Solid modeling has been acknowledged as the technological solution to automating & integrating design & manufacturing functions like
Design / Engineering Analysis Drafting CAPP, CNC tool path generation MRP Computer-Aided Inspection & Quality control
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A solid model of an object consists of both the geometrical & topological data of the object.

Geometry
- Geometry of an object defines the actual dimensions of its entities.

Topology
- Topology of an object defines the connectivity & associativity of the entities. - it determines the relational information between entities.

From user point of view, Geometry is visible. Topology is considered to be non-graphical relational information that is stored in solid model databases & are not visible to users.
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Geometry

The geometry that defines the object is the - the length of lines L1, L2, L3 - the angle between the lines - radius R & the centre P of semi-circle The topology of the object can be stated as - L1 shares a vertex (point) with L2 & C1 - L2 shares a vertex with L1 & L3 - L3 shares a vertex with L2 & C1 - L1 & L3 donot overlap - P lies outside the object
P L2 L3 R L2 C1

Topology

L1 L2 C1 L3 L1 L2 L3 P R

L1 R P C1 L1 R P C1 L3

Same Geometry but Different Topology

Same Topology but Different Geometry 41

Solid Modeling
Modern CAD systems offer two approaches to creating solid models : - allows designers to use pre-defined shapes (primitives) as building blocks to model solid object. - Boolean operation are used to combine the primitives to create complex objects. - is limited by the restricted shapes of primitives Feature Approach - Features are more flexible as they allow the construction of more complex solid than what the primitive offer.

Primitive Approach

Feature is defined as a geometric shape (i.e. feature profile or 2-D sketch) and feature operation to build parts. Feature Feature Profile (Sketch)
+

Feature Operation

The entities required for Feature profile (Sketch) are wireframe & surface entities Feature Operation is an activity that converts the Sketch (2-D) into 3-D shape
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Constraints
Geometric Constraints
Fix Coincidence Concentricity Tangency Parallelism Perpendicular Horizontal Vertical Mid point Equidistant point

Dimension Constraints

Geometric constraints is defined as a geometric condition that relates two or more sketch entities.
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Constraint-based Feature Modeling

Select a Sketch Plane Sketching the feature profile (2D profile) Apply Geometric & Dimensional Constraints

Apply feature operations Create Base Feature

Combine feature to build part - is considered the best tool to create solids because of its ability to edit & change the shape of the solid in the future by using its relations & constraints. It has flexibility to create complex shape.
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Common Feature Operations & Features

Extrude Revolve Sweep Loft
Protruded Feature

Feature Operations

Rib Pocket Hole Slot Shell

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Common Feature Operations & Features

Fillet Chamfer
Rectangular Pattern

Pattern

Feature Operations

Circular Pattern Translation

Transformation
Thread

Rotation Scaling Mirror

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Common Features
Extruded or Protruded feature
Extrude command is used to create a solid object by extruding a given closed profile. It requires a closed profile (sketch of cross-section of solid object) & an extrusion vector (length & direction). The extrusion direction is always perpendicular to the sketch plane of the profile.

Revolved feature
Revolve command is used to create an axi-symmetric objects by revolving the selected geometry about an axis. It requires a profile (sketch of cross-section of solid object) & a revolution vector (axis & angle of revolution). The axis of revolution is always in the sketch plane of the profile.
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Common Features
Sweep feature
is a generalization of extrusion. Creates a feature by moving a sketch (closed or open) along a linear or non-linear path, which is not necessarily perpendicular to the sketch plane.

Loft feature
Use to blend multiple cross-section (two or more) along the linear or non-linear guide curve to create a solid.

Hole feature
is equivalent to subtracting a cylinder from a solid.
Simple and Taper hole Counter-bored hole

Type of Hole feature

Counter-sunk hole Threaded hole

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Common Features
Slot feature
Removes material from solid.
Rectangular slot

Type of Slot feature

T- slot Dovetail slot

Shell feature
Shell operation is used to create hollow or thin-walled solids by removing material out. The input to a shell operation is the faces to be removed & a wall thickness.

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Common Features
Rib feature
is a special type of extruded feature. Creates an extension of geometric element by creating a feature connecting the two faces of the part. The input to create a rib is a contour & a thickness

Pattern feature
Rectangular Pattern

Used to create multiple copy of given feature in rectangular (linear) array. Used to create multiple copy of given feature in circular array.

Circular Pattern

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Common Features
Fillet
are used to smoothen (round) the sharp edges of solid. input to create a constant radius fillet feature is to select the edges to be filleted & fillet radius.

Chamfer
use to remove sharp edges (or corners) from parts input to create a chamfer is angle-distance, distancedistance.

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Boundary representation (B-rep) Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) Sweeping Half spaces Solid Representation Schemes Analytic Solid Modeling (ASM) Cell decomposition Spatial enumeration Octree encoding Primitive Instancing

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Boundary representation (B-rep)

B-rep is based on the topological notion that an object is bounded by a set of faces.
A face is a closed, orientable & bounded (by edges) surface. Each face is bounded by edges & each edge (bounded curve) is bounded by vertices.

B-rep model of an object consists of faces, edges, vertices.

Vertices (v) Edge (E) Face (F)

- The database of a boundary model contains both its topology & its geometry. Topology & Geometry are interrelated & cannot be separated entirely from each other
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B - rep
Advantages B-rep is very appropriate to construct solid models of unusual or complex shapes ( like turbine blades, auto body etc.) that are difficult to build using primitives. It is relatively simple to convert a B-rep model into a wireframe model because the models boundary definition is similar to the wireframe definition. Disadvantages It requires large amounts of storage because it stores the explicit definition of model boundaries i.e. faces, edges & vertices which tend to grow fairly fast for complex model.
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Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

CSG model is based on the topological notion that a physical object can be divided into set of primitives (basic elements & shapes) that can be combined in a certain order following a set of rules (Boolean operation) to form the object.
Primitives are considered as building block Primitives are simple, basic shapes which can be combined by a mathematical set of Boolean operations to create the complex solid object.

Primitives
Block Cylinder Cone Sphere Wedge

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Boolean Operations
Union (U)
Used to combine or add two primitives/ objects

Intersection ()
Intersecting two primitives give a shape equal to their common value

Difference (-)
Used to subtract one primitive from other & results in shape equal to the difference in their volume

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CSG
Advantages It is easy to construct out of primitives & Boolean operation. It is concise & requires minimum storage. Disadvantages Major disadvantage of CSG is in its inability to represent sculptured surfaces i.e. non-analytical (synthetic surface) cannot be modeled using CSG scheme.

- Modern CAD systems provide both approaches to increase their modeling domain
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Solid Model-based Down-stream Application

Solid Model-based Assembly Design Solid Model-based Drafting Solid Model-based Mechanism Design Finite Element Modeling from Solid Models CNC machining based on Solid Modeling

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